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Article Title: Experimental Estimation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a

Lightweight Hydraulic Cylinder Intended for Robotics Applications
Author(s): Mohamad El Asswad, Samer Alfayad, Khaled Khalil
DOI: 10.1142/S1758825118500801
Received: 19 January 2018

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To be cited as: Mohamad El Asswad, Samer Alfayad, Khaled Khalil, Experimental Es-
timation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a Lightweight Hydraulic
Cylinder Intended for Robotics Applications, International Journal of
Applied Mechanics, doi: 10.1142/S1758825118500801
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September 10, 2018 14:17 Friction˙estimation
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International Journal of Applied Mechanics
c Imperial College Press
Experimental Estimation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a

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Lightweight Hydraulic Cylinder Intended for Robotics Applications
Mohamad El Asswad∗
LISV, Paris Saclay university/UVSQ, 10-12 avenue de l’Europe, Velizy, France
Samer AlFayad
LISV, Paris Saclay university/UVSQ, 10-12 avenue de l’Europe, Velizy, France
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Khaled Khalil
MGC CRSI, Lebanese University faculty of engineering, Tripoli Lebanon.
EMM LEM, UMR CNRS 6183, 58 rue M.Ange, 44606- Saint Nazaire France.
Received date
Accepted date
Recently, hydraulic actuator has been used in several engineering applications such as:
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aeronautics, construction and robotics. This is due to the need of high torque and power
density in such engineering applications. Despite of these advantages, hydraulic actu-
ator are fabricated from metallic materials, which provokes their heavy weight, which
necessitates the development of a lightweight hydraulic actuator, fabricated of composite
materials. Using composite materials in hydraulic cylinders, it is important to study the
friction force characteristics and to estimate the friction coefficient between composites
and O-rings, which is presented in this paper. This paper deals with the estimation of
Coulomb friction and friction coefficient in the lightweight hydraulic cylinder fabricated
mainly of composite materials. The actuator is presented by its dynamic equation of mo-
tion, where each term is discussed including the stiffness coefficient, the viscous damping
coefficient, the kinematics and the pressure parameters. Meanwhile, these coefficients and
parameters are obtained according to data recorded from conducted experiments. As a
result, the new methodology which uses the experimental measurements combined the
dynamic model has succeeded to evaluate the friction inside the hydraulic cylinder which
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has been estimated and found to be around 166 N , while the corresponding coefficient
of friction is computed (about 0.61 as average value). These results will be important for
further optimization of the material choice and actuator design, which will help in the
amelioration of the hydraulic cylinder.
Keywords: Friction forces, Friction Coefficient, Dynamic equation, Hydraulic cylinder,

Robotics.
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1. Introduction
Since decades, hydraulic actuators show an efficient performance in several appli-
cations starting from aerospace van den Bossche (2006), industrial manipulation
∗ Typeset names in 8 pt roman, uppercase. Use the footnote to indicate the present or permanent
address of the author.
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2 Mohamad El Asswad, Samer AlFayad, Khaled Khalil
Shimamune and Tanifuji (1995), construction Abdalla et al. (2013) and end-
ing with robotics applications Zinn et al. (2004). This is mainly due to their high
torque and power density Habibi and Goldenberg (2000) Zinn et al. (2004).
Recently, several robotics researchers have moved to develop hydraulic actuated
robots such as Atlas Banerjee et al. (2015), CB, CB-i Cheng et al. (2006) and
HYDROı̈D S.AlFayad (2011) Alfayad et al. (2014) humanoid robot, the first hy-
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draulic integrated robot. In addition, several rehabilitation devices are hydraulically
actuated such as: prosthesis Kargov et al. (2008) Koganezawa et al. (1987) G.
et al. (2009) and exoskeletons CaoJun et al. (2010) Zhang et al. (2012).
However, dealing with hydraulic actuators made up of composite materials
presents several challenging points due to its nonlinear characteristics Sulc and
Jan (2002) Sirouspour and Salcudean (2000). In other words, the system motion
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depends on several nonlinear parameters such as the system friction, the viscosity
of the oil, the system damping and the system equivalent stiffness. Add to this, the
presence of composites, in contact with rubber O-ring in oil environment, introduces
more non-linearity and complexity to estimation of friction force characteristics. It,
consequently, becomes more important to estimate the friction force, when talking
about the new lightweight hydraulic actuator, made up of composites.
In a hydraulic cylinder, one can recognize two forms of friction forces: static
friction and dynamic friction Yanada et al. (2014). The interacting zones in these
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two types of frictions are the zone of contact of the piston O-rings with the cylinder
surface and the zone of contact of the caps O-rings with the moving rod. Thus,
the total friction force is the summation of the two friction forces in both zones.
In addition, investigating the different models used for finding the friction such
as Coulomb’s model, viscous model and LuGre model of friction force Alfayad
et al. (2014), the friction forces evaluation depends on the oil viscosity, oil velocity,
stiffness and stiffness coefficient and the deflection of bodies in contact.
However, Several experimental researches can be conducted in order to measure
the friction forces at the hydraulic cylinder. One can measure the friction forces
by evaluating the necessary force to move the piston at different speeds and at no
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pressure difference Sadashivappa et al. (2001). Another can find the needed pres-
sure difference to move the hydraulic cylinder at no load and at different velocities
Sadashivappa et al. (2001). Other can place a load cell between the piston rods of
main and loading cylinders at constant speed. These methods should be combined
to theoretical model in order to calculate the friction forces inside the cylinders.
This is carried out in this paper.
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This paper contains 4 sections excluding the introduction. First, the studied hy-
draulic cylinder properties are indicated at section 2. Second, the dynamic equation
parameters and coefficients are stated, explained and determined using experimen-
tal data. This is in section 3, where they have been used to estimate the friction
and the friction Coulomb coefficient in section 4. Finally, conclusions are given in
section 5.
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Experimental Estimation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a Lightweight Hydraulic Cylinder Intended for Robotics Application
2. Presentation of the system

The hydraulic cylinder under study is a new developed lightweight hydraulic cylin-
der, of tie-rod type, mainly made out of composite materials Elasswad et al.
(2017). It is intended to replace the HYDROı̈D robot ElAsswad et al. (June 2016)
ElAsswad et al. (Oct 2017) metallic cylinders with this new series of optimized hy-
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draulic cylinder. HYDROı̈D robot is an underdeveloped hydraulic integrated robot
S.AlFayad (2011), which represents a new solution toward using hydraulic actua-
tion, without the necessity of piping systems.
Talking about the hydraulic cylinder, the barrel and rod are made of woven
carbon fiber/epoxy composite material, the caps are made of aluminum and the
piston is a 3D-printed nylon filled glass fiber (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Components of the composite hydraulic cylinder

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The studied example of this new series of the hydraulic cylinder is the one which
will replace the knee actuator of HYDROı̈D robot. The dimensions of this hydraulic
cylinder are given in table 1.
3. Dynamic Equation of Hydraulic Cylinder

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According to Newton’s second law, the hydraulic cylinder motion is governed by

a second order differential dynamic equation which contains all the parameters in-
cluding stiffness, damping, inertia, applied pressure and friction forces Ruderman
(2017). This equation is represented as follows:
mẍ + cẋ + keq x = P1 A1 − P2 A2 − Fr (1)

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Table 1: Hydraulic cylinder geometrical parameters
Parameter Unit Value
CylinderDiameter mm 25
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P istonDiameter mm 20
RodDiameter mm 12
P istonStroke mm 110
Where m is the mass of the moving rod-piston, c is the viscous damping co-
efficient of oil, keq is the equivalent stiffness of the hydraulic cylinder, x is the
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displacement position of the piston, ẋ is the piston velocity, ẍ is the piston acceler-
ation, P1 is the high pressure, P2 is the low pressure, A1 is the cross section area
facing the high pressure and A2 is the cross section area facing the low pressure and
Fr is the static friction force.
3.1. Determination of the viscous damping coefficient c

In the case of hydraulic cylinder, the oil flows in contact with the internal surface
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of the cylinder through a distance equivalent to the stroke of the piston (Fig. 2).
While the flow takes place, a shear stress τ is developed counter the internal surface
of the cylinder and can be expressed according to Newton’s viscosity law Munson
et al. (2009) as follows:
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Figure 2: Illustration of viscosity forces of oil in hydraulic cylinder
du
τ = −µ (2)
dr
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Where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, u is the velocity of the fluid and r is
the internal radius of the cylinder. On the other hand, the velocity profile inside a
cylinder u(r) can be expressed as follows Munson et al. (2009)
r2
u(r) = 2Uavg (1 −) (3)
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R2
Where Uavg is the average velocity of flow and R is the radius of the cylinder.
Now deriving and replacing at r=R, the maximum shear stress τmax is expressed
as follows:
Uavg
τmax = 4µ (4)
R
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The damping force Fd is the product of maximum shear stress τmax with the internal
surface contact area between the cylinder and the fluid Ai =2πRLp and can be
expressed as follows:
Fd = τmax Ai = 8πµUavg Lp (5)

Thus, the viscous damping coefficient c is expressed as follows:
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c = 8πµLp (6)
Where Lp is the stroke of the piston.
3.2. Determination of the equivalent stiffness keq

The hydraulic cylinder stiffness depends on the stiffness of the oil koil , the piston rod
stiffness krod and the cylinder barrel expansion stiffness kcyl . Thus, the equivalent
stiffness keq can be expressed as follows Feng et al. (2017)
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1
keq = 1 1 1 (7)
koil + krod + kcyl
The piston-rod stiffness is function of the Young’s modulus of the piston rod
Erod , the cross section area of the piston-rod Arod and the piston-rod length Lrod
and can be expressed as follows Feng et al. (2017):
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Erod Arod
krod = (8)
Lrod
The oil stiffness koil is function of the oil bulk modulus Eoil , the high pressure
chamber section area A1 , the low pressure chamber section area A2 , the volume of
the high pressure chamber V1 and the volume of the low pressure chamber V2 and
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the fluid line volumes at the high and low pressure chambers VL1 and VL2 . It can
be expressed as follows Feng et al. (2017):
A21 A22
koil = Eoil ( + ) (9)
V1 + VL1 V2 + VL2
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The cylinder expansion stiffness is due to the radial deformation of the cylinder
internal diameter due to the increase in the pressure. It is expressed as function of
the pressure difference ∆P , the cylinder cross section area A and the piston stroke
Lp as follows Feng et al. (2017):
A
kcyl = ∆P (10)
Lp
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The cylinder cross section area A varies due to the radial deformation δr in the
cylinder diameter and it can be expressed as follows Feng et al. (2017):
(Dcyl + 2δr )2
A=π (11)
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Where Dcyl is the initial diameter of the cylinder at zero pressure. The radial
deformation of a cylinder under internal pressure can be expressed as follow Feng
et al. (2017):
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Rcyl ∆P Db1 + 1
δr = ( 2 + νcyl ) (12)
Ecyl Db − 1
Where Rcyl is the outer radius of the cylinder, Ecyl is the Young’s modulus of
the cylinder, Db is the diametric ratio of the cylinder and νb is Poisson ratio of the
cylinder.
3.3. Position, velocity, acceleration and pressure readings of the

System
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In order to evaluate the kinematics parameters of the system, an experimental pro-

cedure is conducted. The hydraulic cylinder is fixed at a test bench which includes a
pressure sensor, position sensor and servo-valve (Fig 3). The experiment is realized
at no load to assure that the friction is the only existing external resistance force.
The system is maintained at low pressure and at no load. The piston has moved
and the position, x is monitored instantaneously when the velocity ẋ and the ac-
celeration ẍ are obtained using differentiation of the position data with respect to
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the time. Results are obtained as follows (Figure 4).

The pressure readings are also recorded at the inlet and the outlet of the hy-
draulic cylinder (Figure 5), using 2 pressure transducers, placed at the hydraulic
integrated manifold. The blue curve represents the readings during forward motion
while the red curve represents the readings during backward motion of the piston.
The highest recorded value is about 1.35 M P a.
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Figure 3: The hydraulic cylinder connected to the test bench
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3.4. Experimental evaluation of the cylinder and rod bending

modulus
The cylinder barrels is a composite tube of 0/90/37◦ woven angle disposition. These
angles are chosen to acquire the optimum oblique strength of the composite tube
Hull et al. (1978). The radial deformation of the cylinder δr is evaluated using
equation 12. However, the bending modulus of the cylinder Ecyl is needed to calcu-
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late its stiffness. This is found using bending test of the composite cylinder. Thus,
the cylinder is fixed at the bending machine Textometer in a 3-points bending dis-
position Azzam and Li (2014) (Fig. 6).
During the experiment, the machine downward displacements represent the de-
formation in the composite cylinder. Thus the applied force and the deformation
are measured and the force-deformation curve is obtained.
As it is shown, the elastic zone of the force-deformation curve is nonlinear. Thus,
to calculate the bending modulus of this material, the tangent at zero deformation
to the curve is drawn and its slope is calculated. The slope of the tangent represents
the initial stiffness k0 . According to the 3-points bending Azzam and Li (2014),
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k0 and bending modulus Ecyl are related according to the following equation Chan
et al. (2000)
48Ecyl I
k0 = (13)
L3
Where L is the bending length of the cylinder and I is the second moment of area.
The bending modulus Ecyl is found to be 3.48 GP a according to the results in Fig.
7. Although, this value hasn’t taken into consideration the cross section variation,
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this is considered as an approximation and not an exact value.

For the rod, the same disposition is applied. The only difference is that the
used rod is made of a unidirectional composite fiber. The force-deformation curve
is obtained using the same test (Fig. 8). The elastic zone of the curve is linear and
thus k0 is directly the slope of the line. Using the same method, Erod is calculated
and found to be 18.5 GP a.
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Figure 4: Kinematics of the composite cylinders at no load

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3.5. Evaluation of the equation of motion coefficients

As it has been defined in equation 1, the viscous damping c and the equivalent keq
has to be evaluated. The damping c is evaluated according to the oil viscosity and
to the piston stroke. The oil is a mineral oil Mobil DTE 10 Excel 32 which has a
dynamic viscosity of 0.0272 N.s/m2 ExxonMobil (2016). In the other hand, the
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Figure 5: Pressure readings in the hydraulic cylinder

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Figure 6: 3 points bending test of the composite cylinder
piston stroke is 150 mm, which gives a damping coefficient of approximately 0.1
N.s/m.
The stiffness of the hydraulic cylinder is evaluated according to equation 7. The
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stiffness of the oil has a bulk modulus Eoil of 800 M P a ExxonMobil (2016) and
the stiffness of the oil is found to be 2480 N/mm. The stiffness of the rod krod is
calculated using the given dimensions of the rod in table 1 and the obtained results
of the rod Young’s modulus Erod . The evaluated value is found to be approxi-
mately 13430 N/mm. Moreover, the stiffness of the cylinder kcyl depends on two
experimental variables, the pressure difference ∆P and the radial deformation δr .
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Figure 7: Force-deformation curve of the composite cylinder

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Figure 8: Force-deformation curve of the composite rod

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The radial deformation δr is calculated according to equation 12 depending on the

pressure readings in figure 5, the obtained Young’s modulus Ecyl and the cylinder
dimensions in table 1. The radial deformation during the experiment is represented
in the figure 9.
Consequently, the equivalent stiffness keq is calculated according to equation 7
and is presented in the following curve (Fig 10)
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4. Resultant Friction and Coulomb Coefficient

As the equation of motion is completed and all the parameters has been determined
using the combination of experiments and theories, the friction force and friction
coulomb coefficient are deduced, using experimental data and Coulomb friction
theories Liu et al. (2015). Thus, in this section, it is intended to estimate the
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Figure 9: Radial deformation δr of the composite cylinder function of time

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Figure 10: Equivalent stiffness keq of the composite cylinder function of time
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friction force Fr and the friction coefficient µc .
4.1. Friction Estimation

After all parameters has been identified using experimental data, the equation of
motion of the system is complete and the friction force Fr is calculated using the
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obtained parameters Ruderman (2017).
Fr = P1 A1 − P2 A2 − (mẍ + cẋ + keq x) (14)

Depending on the experiment done at the test bench and in the displacement,
velocity and acceleration readings and depending on the pressure readings, the
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variation of friction function of time is found (Fig. 11). The maximum friction value
is found to be 400 N while the average value is 166 N which is equivalent to 0.31
M P a as a maximum pressure losses in the cylinder and to 0.12 M P a as an average
pressure losses.
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Figure 11: Total friction forces evaluation function of time

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4.2. Composite-Rubber friction coefficient approximation

The conducted experiment used to evaluate the friction in the cylinder is done at
low pressures which are slightly higher than the pressure losses inside the cylinder
due to the friction. It is thus assumed that the calculated friction is the Coulomb
friction. According to Coulomb friction law, the friction force is directly related to
the normal force as follows Al-Ghathian et al. (2005)
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Fr = µc Fni (15)
i=1
Where µc is the Coulomb friction coefficient and Fni is the normal contact force
which is the resultant of the squeezing of the O-ring BRIAN (2005). The normal
contact force at a specific zone of friction can be calculated as follows:
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Fni = ∆P Ai (16)
Where Ai is the contact area of the O-ring and the cylinder component at the
ith zone of friction. Here, two zones are defined: the cylinder contact zone with the
piston O-ring and the rod contact zone with the O-ring of the cap. The cylinder
contact area Acl is function of the cylinder internal diameter Dcyli and the line of
contact between the cylinder internal surface and the squeezed piston O-ring bcyl .
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Acl = πbcyl Dcyli (17)

The cylinder internal diameter Dcyli varies function of the cylinder deformation
δr and can be expressed as follows:
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∆Dcyli = 2δr (18)
Then, according to the geometric illustration in Fig 12, bcyl is calculated as follows:
p
bcyl = 4Ror 2 − h2 (19)
or
Where Ror is the O-ring cross section radius and hor is the height of the O-
ring after squeezing. hor is the difference between the cylinder internal radius Rin
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and the gasket radius Rg (Figure 12). Thus, it depends in the deformation of the
cylinder δr .
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Figure 12: Presentation of the cylinder/O-ring contact zone
The same concept is applied at the rod/O-ring contact zone and the contact
area Ar is calculated as follows:
Ar = πbrod Drod (20)
Where Drod is the rod diameter and brod is the line of contact between the rod
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and the squeezed O-ring cap.

Thus the total normal force is calculated according to the following equation:
Fnt = ∆Pi (Acyl + Ar ) (21)
Figure 13 represents the results of the normal forces in the hydraulic cylinder.
The results gives a maximum force of 295 N and an average force of 231 N .
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Figure 13: Normal forces in the hydraulic cylinder
The ratio FFnt

r
is calculated instantaneously (Fig. 14). Thus according to Eq. 15,
this ratio should be equal to the coulomb friction ratio µc . But the values gives a
range from 0.22 to 0.95. Thus, in order to find an average value, a system of one
unknown and n equations is built. This is considered an over-determined system and
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is solved using the approximate method of ordinary least squares Miller (2006) (Eq.
22).
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µc = (Fnt Fnt )−1 Fnt
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Ft (22)
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Where Fnt is the transpose of the one column vector of n values of the normal
forces, Fnt is the column vector of the n values of the normal forces and Ft is the
column vector of n values of friction force. According to the values of the normal
and friction forces, the Coulomb coefficient is found to be µc =0.61.
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Figure 14: Variation of forces ratio by the time.

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REFERENCES 15
4.3. Discussion
The different experimental methods mentioned in Sadashivappa et al. (2001)
haven’t recognized some theoretical parameters, such as the cylinder deformation
and the viscosity of the oil, which play an important effect in evaluating the friction
forces. Moreover, the models mentioned in Liu et al. (2015) have there assump-
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tions concerning the evaluation of the different parameters and have been tested in
the classical metallic cylinder, which is different in fabrication method and accu-
racy from the composite cylinder. This leads us to return to the original Newton
second equation and combine it with the experimental work. In other word, the
new method combines the experimental part with the theoretical part by calculat-
ing experimentally each coefficient of the Newton equation without taking many
assumptions, in a manner suitable to the new lightweight hydraulic cylinder, which
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is fabricated of the composite materials.

Moreover, analyzing the obtained results, the high friction coefficient (0.61) can
be related to the interaction of the carbon composite used in the barrel fabrication
with the rubber material of the sealing. In addition, the hardness shore A of the
seal increases the friction forces inside the hydraulic cylinder, when it is combined
with squeezing percentage of the O-ring Parker (2007). Thus, it is important to
carry out experimental study on the effect of O-ring type on the friction forces at
the hydraulic cylinder.
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5. Conclusion
In summary, the friction of this new type of hydraulic cylinder was estimated suc-
cessfully. This would help further study that can be done in this actuator. In addi-
tion, the Coulomb friction coefficient between the O-ring and the composite barrel
was inherently computed. This represents a significant findings which can help in
the improvement of the actuator mechanical design. All these findings were done
depending on both theoretical and experimental studies related to both the dynam-
ics and mechanical properties of the hydraulic actuator. In details, the dynamics
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equation of the actuator was computed along with its main parameters including
the stiffness and the viscosity, at which the kinematics and pressure parameters
were obtained depending on experimental procedure. The resultant friction forces
and Coulomb coefficients were, then, computed according to the data obtained from
experiments and depending on Coulomb law theory.
In the future work, it is important to integrate this hydraulic cylinder in the
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robot joints, in order to improve its functionality and take more feedback data
related to the cylinder performance.
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Accepted manuscript to appear in IJAM

Article Title: Experimental Estimation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a

Author(s): Mohamad El Asswad, Samer Alfayad, Khaled Khalil

Received: 19 January 2018

Accepted: 01 September 2018

Link to final version: https://doi.org/10.1142/S1758825118500801

Experimental Estimation of Friction and Friction Coefficient of a

Keywords: Friction forces, Friction Coefficient, Dynamic equation, Hydraulic cylinder,

2. Presentation of the system

Figure 1: Components of the composite hydraulic cylinder

3. Dynamic Equation of Hydraulic Cylinder

According to Newton’s second law, the hydraulic cylinder motion is governed by

mẍ + cẋ + keq x = P1 A1 − P2 A2 − Fr (1)

Table 1: Hydraulic cylinder geometrical parameters

Parameter Unit Value

3.1. Determination of the viscous damping coefficient c

Figure 2: Illustration of viscosity forces of oil in hydraulic cylinder

u(r) = 2Uavg (1 −) (3)

Fd = τmax Ai = 8πµUavg Lp (5)

3.2. Determination of the equivalent stiffness keq

3.3. Position, velocity, acceleration and pressure readings of the

In order to evaluate the kinematics parameters of the system, an experimental pro-

the time. Results are obtained as follows (Figure 4).

3.4. Experimental evaluation of the cylinder and rod bending

this is considered as an approximation and not an exact value.

Figure 4: Kinematics of the composite cylinders at no load

3.5. Evaluation of the equation of motion coefficients

Figure 5: Pressure readings in the hydraulic cylinder

Figure 6: 3 points bending test of the composite cylinder

Figure 7: Force-deformation curve of the composite cylinder

Figure 8: Force-deformation curve of the composite rod

The radial deformation δr is calculated according to equation 12 depending on the

4. Resultant Friction and Coulomb Coefficient

Figure 9: Radial deformation δr of the composite cylinder function of time

friction force Fr and the friction coefficient µc .

4.1. Friction Estimation

obtained parameters Ruderman (2017).

Fr = P1 A1 − P2 A2 − (mẍ + cẋ + keq x) (14)

Figure 11: Total friction forces evaluation function of time

4.2. Composite-Rubber friction coefficient approximation

Acl = πbcyl Dcyli (17)

Figure 12: Presentation of the cylinder/O-ring contact zone

and the squeezed O-ring cap.

Figure 13: Normal forces in the hydraulic cylinder

The ratio FFnt

Figure 14: Variation of forces ratio by the time.

is fabricated of the composite materials.

Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 3, 1, 1–007, iSSN: 2248-9622

ing a spherical hinge with coupled actuators, US Patents, 12994874, 8875594

and Composites, 19, 278–291

of composite, Europian Conference of Composite Material, 17

Habibi, S. and Goldenberg, A. (2000), Design of a new high-performance electro-

motion system, Mech. Sci, 6, 15–28

national Session Papers, Hokkaido

ators, Acta Polytechnica, 42

Engineering and Science (ICDES 2014 Pilsen, Czech Republic)

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