DESIGN OF SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN

AIRCRAFT

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-2 REPORT

Submitted by

Nazeer Basha (16101148)

Tenzin Choedak (16101157)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In
AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

PADUR, CHENNAI - 603 103

NOVEMBER 2019

i
 (DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “DESIGN OF SINGLE ENGINE

PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of “Tenzin
Choedak(16101157),Nazeer Basha(16101148) ” who carried out the project work
under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work
reported here does not form part of any other project / research work on the basis of
which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other
candidate.

Dr. R.Asokan Mr. ELUMALAI

Senior Professor & Head of the Department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
HITS,Chennai 603 103 HITS,Chennai 603 103

The Project Viva-Voce Examination is held on _______________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr. Mrs. Elizabeth Verghese and
Management of Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, for providing me with
good, pleasing and safe environment in our college which helped me a lot to carry on
with our project. We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and the institution. We
like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them. We would extend our heart full and
deepest thanks to Prof Dr. R. ASOKAN, HOD Aeronautical Department for giving us
his kind and able support. At this occasion we must emphasize that this “AIRCRAFT
DESIGN PROJECT - 2” would have not been possible without the informative and
valuable guidance by our faculty MR ELUMALAI. We thank him for his guidance
and correction of various documents and calculation with attention and care. He has
taken pain to go through the project and make necessary corrections when needed. We
have the great pleasure in expressing our sincere whole hearted thanks to him. Last but
not least wish we avail ourselves of this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude,
appreciations and love to our friends, our classmates, our well-wisher and beloved
parents for their manual support, strength, help and for everything in developing the
project an people who have willingly helped us out with their abilities for their kind co
operations to the completion of our project work.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER
TITLE PAGE NO
NO

ABSTRACT I

II-IV
LIST OF FIGURES
V
INTRODUCTION
VI-X
ADP-1 SUMMARY

01. SCHRENK’S CURVE 1

02 SELF-WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF THE WING 9

03. FUEL WEIGT DISTRIBUTION 13

04. PAYLOAD WEIGHT OF THE WING 16

05. WING SHEAR ANALYSIS 21

06. WING BENDING MOMENT ANALYSIS 25

07. FUSELAGE SHEAR ANALYSIS 32

08. FUSELAGE BENSING MOMENT ANALYSIS 37

09. TYRE ANALYSIS 44

10. LANDING GEAR ANALYSIS 49

CONCLUSION 54

REFERENCES 55

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 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a single engine propeller driven aircraft.
By using a new technical solutions and application of modern technologies to single engine
propeller driven with a significant improvement in reliability, flight performance and
operational performance. In this project we have a literature survey on twenty single engine
propeller driven aircraft. In this context the need for the use of single engine propeller driven
aircraft has more and more useful like that for agriculture purposes, the aim of this project is to
analyze the technological performance of the newest and most advance single engines in the
world and the development perspective in the field, to determine the direction of development
and designing of a new single engine propeller driven aircraft to be used for agriculture and
private purposes.

Keywords: single-engine propeller driven aircraft, Agriculture purpose, performance

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO.

NO.
1.1 Linear lift distribution 3
1.2 Elliptical lift distribution 4
1.3 Schrenk’s curve 5
1.4 Combination of lift curve 7

2.1 Self weight distribution 11

3.1 Wing trapezoid 14

3.2 Fuel weight distribution 14

4.1 Power plant weight 18

5.1 Shear load of various planform 23

5.2 Shear force diagram 24

6.1 Shear and bending moment diagram 26

6.2 Bending moment of various palnform 29

7.1 Schematic of fuselage 33

7.2 Fuselage shear force diagram 35

8.1 Balance diagram 40

9.1 Contact area diagram 45

10.1 Tri-cycle landing gear geometry 50

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS

• A.R - Aspect Ratio

• B - Wing span(m)
• C - Chord of theAerofoil (m)
• Croot - Chord at Root (m)
• Ctip - Chord at Tip (m)
• Cd - Drag Co-efficient
• Cdo - Zero lift Drag co-efficient
• CP - Specific fuel consumption (lbs / hp /
hr)
• CL - Lift Co-efficient
• D - Drag(N)
• E - Endurance (hr)
• e - Oswald efficiency factor
• L - Lift (N)
• (L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
• (L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
• M - Mach number of aircraft
• MFF - Mission fuel fraction
• R - Range (km)
• Re - Reynolds number
• S - Wing area (m2)
• Sref - Reference surface area
• Swet - Wetted surface area

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• Sa - Approach distance (m)
• Sf - Flare distance (m)
• Sfr - Free roll distance (m)
• S.C - Service ceiling
• A.C - Absolute ceiling
• T - Thrust (N)
• Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
• Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
• (T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at Loiter
• (T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
• (T/W)Take-off - The thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
• VCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)
• VStall - velocity at stall (m/s)
• Vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
• WCrew - Crew weight (kg)
• Wempty - Empty weight of the aircraft (kg)
• WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
• WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)
• W0 - Overall weight (kg)
• W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)
• ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)
• μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
• λ - Tapered ratio
• R/C - Rate of Climb

iv
 INTRODUCTION
Aircraft Design Project-II is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-I. As mentioned
in previous design project agriculture airplanes which are used for aerial spraying s.In Aircraft
Design Project-I, a preliminary and conceptual analysis was performed. Weight Estimation,
Engine Selection, Payload loading and Aerodynamic parameter selection and analysis was
carried out. Apart from these, performance parameters such as lift, drag, range, thrust and power
requirements were also determined and were plotted for the same.

The purpose of ADP-II is to enhance the knowledge in continuation of the design

project given in ADP–I. In addition, Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-depth study
and analysis of aircraft performance and structural characteristics. In the following pages,
Structural analysis of Fuselage and Wings is carried out and thE appropriate materials have
been chosen to give the aircraft adequate structural integrity. The determination of the landing
gear position, retraction and other accompanying systems and mechanisms have also been
done. Thus, by imposing all the performance parameters in ADP-I, structural analysis of our
m\Military bombers is done in this project. Albert

Einstein once said “Do not worry about your problems with mathematics; I assure you mine
are far greater”. He said this to imply on the significance of mathematics to reduce complicated
things into simpler ones. Hence, a lot of attention is given to calculations in this report.

v
 ADP-I SUMMARY

Every aircraft that is able to become airborne; which is a gravity define phenomena, is a miracle
made possible by many mass hours of hard work involving the principals of aerodynamics,
propulsion, avionics and structure. Every component used in an aircraft undergoes through the
process of design evaluation, analysis and testing. In this project we have prepared a conceptual
design of a agricultural aircraft with structural analysis. The parameters governing the design
are:

1. Aircraft purpose
2. Payload
3. Cruise and maximum speed
4. Normal cruise altitude
5. Range
6. Endurance
7. Take-off distance

The Elementary design parameters were selected by evaluating and comparing the defined
parameters of other similar typed aircraft.

These are the following parameters:

1. Length
2. Height
3. Wing area
4. Wing span
5. Aspect ratio
6. Empty weight
7. Take-off weight
8. Thrust-Weight ratio
9. Maximum Speed
10. Maximum Altitude
11. Range
12. Rate of climb
13. Wing Loading

Weight Estimation

The weight estimation depends upon the mission profile of the aircraft

vi
 Mission profile

0 Engine warm
0-1 Taxing
2 takeoff
2-3 Climb
4-5cruising
5-6Cruise
6-7loiter
7-8decent
8 landing
8-9 taxing
9 shut down

Wing and Airfoil Selection

In wing and airfoil selection, tapered wing with airfoil as NASA 0404 was selected as per
the required Cl values. Rectangular was selected. Wing and airfoil were analyse and modeled
using ANSYS, JAVA FOIL and AUTOCAD.

Empennage
The empennage included fuselage mounted with tail unit. The best choice for single engine
propeller driven aircraft is the fuselage tailing tail. Tailing tails are considered better for
smaller aircrafts but not for this type.

vii
There is no real advantage of one versus the other. If there was, all aircraft would be built
like that. Some are conventional and some are Tailing-Tail and it is simply a design
preference that determines where each is placed.

Landing Gear Selection

The landing gear selected was a conventional tri-cycle landing gear. The landing gear
consists of: - two main gear that retract inboard, — a nose gear that retracts forward. Doors
enclose the landing gear bays. Gear and doors are electrically controlled and hydraulically
operated. The doors, which are fitted to the landing gear struts, are operated mechanically by
the gear and close at the end of gear retraction. A hand crank on the centre pedestal allows
the flight crew to extend the landing gear if the aircraft loses hydraulic systems or electrical
power. MAIN GEAR Each main gear has twin wheels and an oleo pneumatic shock absorb
er. Each main wheel has an antiskid brake. NOSE GEAR The two -wheeled nose gear has
an oleo pneumatic shock strut and a nose wheel steering system.
Power plant Selection

The power plant solution is governed by the thrust calculation. The engine selected was
LycomingTIO-540 with takeoff thrust . The reason for selecting (LycomingTIO-540)
engine is that, it is been mostly fuel efficient and this engine has maximum thrust. That can
be suited for the pesticides spraying. And it is also provide the required thrust when compared
to the other engines of the previous series and also many other engine.

Drag Estimation

The drag estimation was done for airfoils at takeoff, landing and cruise segment.
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Plan form area (S), air density (p), flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD) CD is a measure
of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects (Mach number),
viscous effects (Reynolds’ number

viii
THREE VIEW DIAGRAMS

FRONT VIEW:

TOP VIEW:

SIDE VIEW:

ix
Final Specifications

Sl PARAMETERS VALUES(unit)
No
01 Maximum speed 394km/hr

02 Wing loading 175kg/m2

03 Height 3.76m
04 Length 9m
05 Payload 546.59kg
06 Service ceiling 7620m

07 Aspect ratio 9.8

08 Max. Takeoff weight 4300 lbs

09 Fuel weight 929lbs

10 Empty weight 2666.7lbs
11 Thrust 350HP

12 Thickness of root of the aerofoil 0011

13 Thickness of tip of the aerofoil 0005

14 Wingspan 10.6m
15 Wing area 11.48m2
16 Take off distance 1200 m

17 Landing distance 610 m

18 Engine Single engine

x
 CHAPTER- 1
SCHRENK’S CURVE

1
SCHRENK’S CURVE

1.1 WING DESCRIPTION

Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and
sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over the wing
span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve.

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Y1+Y2
𝑌=

Where,

𝑌1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span

𝑌2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span

1.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION

It is given by joining the two coordinates linearly. The coordinates are (0, L root) and
(7.78,Ltip).

𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 = × 𝜌 × 𝑣2 × 𝐶𝑙 × 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡

L root = x 1.225 x 11.472 x 1.5 x 1.08

Lroot = 128.95 N/m

Ltip =0.5x1,225x11.4x11.4x1,5x0.54

Ltip=64.47N

Y1 = -12.162x+3128.95

2
 linear
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1.1- Linear Lift Distribution

X - AXIS Y-AXIS

0 128.95

1.06 116.05

2.12 103.57

3.18 90.26

4.24 77.36

5.3 64.46

Initially we have to calculate the lift produced by the wings. Once the lift on the
wings is known, the span wise and chord wise load distributions can be determined.

3
According to classical wing theory, the span wise lift or load distribution is proportional to
the circulation at each station. A vortex lifting –line calculation will yield the span wise linear
lift distribution.

1.3 ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight.

Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get,

Where b1- is Actual lift at root

And a- is wing semi span

Equation of Lift

ellipse
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1.2- Elliptical Lift Distribution

4
 X - AXIS Y-AXIS

0
64.48

1.06 63.17
2.12
59.09

3.18 51.58
4.24
38.68
5.3
0

1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE

Schrenk’s Curve is the average value of the Linear variation and the elliptical Variation
along the wing span.

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Y𝑌 = 𝑌1 +Y2
2

Where;

Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wingspan.

Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wingspan.

5
 Schrenk’s Curve
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1.3- Schrenk’s Curve

X - AXIS Y-AXIS

0 96.715

1.06 89.61

2.12 81.12

3.18 70.92

4.24 58.02

5.3 32.23

6
1.5 COMBINATION OF LIFT DISTRIBUTION CURVES

The combination of Linear lift distribution, Elliptical lift distribution and Schrenk’s Curve is
shown below-

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

linear ellipse Schrenk’s Curve

Figure 1.4- Combination of Lift Curves

X- Y- Y-
Y-AXIS
AXIS AXIS AXIS
0 128.95 64.48 96.715
1.06 116.05 63.17 89.61
2.12 103.57 59.09 81.12
3.18 90.26 51.58 70.92
4.24 77.36 38.68 58.02
5.3 64.46 0 32.23

7
1.6 CONCLUSION

Therefore the Schrenk’s curve is plotted.

8
 CHAPTER 2

Self Weight Distribution

9
Weight Distribution
2.1 DESCRIPTION
Weight distribution is the apportioning of weight within a vehicle, especially cars, airplanes,
and trains. Typically, it is written in the form x/y, where x is the percentage of weight in the
front, and y is the percentage in the back.

In a vehicle which relies on gravity in some way, weight distribution directly affect of vehicle
characteristics, including handling, acceleration, traction, and component life. For this
reason, weight distribution varies with the vehicle's intended usage. For example, a drag car
maximizes traction at the rear axle while countering the reactionary pitch-up torque. It
generates this counter-torque by placing a small amount of counterweight at a great distance
forward of the rear axle.

In the airline industry, load balancing is used to evenly distribute the weight of passengers,
cargo, and fuel throughout an aircraft, so as to keep the aircraft's center of gravity close to its
center of pressure to avoid losing pitch control. In military transport aircraft, it is common to
have a loadmaster as a part of the crew; their responsibilities include calculating accurate
load information for center of gravity calculations, and ensuring cargo is properly secured to
prevent its shifting.
In large aircraft and ships, multiple fuel tanks and pumps are often used, so that as fuel is
consumed, the remaining fuel can be positioned to keep the vehicle balanced, and to reduce
stability problems associated with the free surface effect.

In the trucking industry, individual axle weight limits require balancing the cargo when the
gross vehicle weight nears the legal limit.

2.2 Calculations

𝑊𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
= 0.075
𝑊𝑇𝑂

Wwing = 146.415N

10
Wsemiwing=73.20N

Value of k

−146.415=28.09k

k=−5,212

Equation

Y3 =−5,212(x−5.3)2

2.3 Curve

self weight
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140

-160

Figure 2.1- Self-Weight Distribution of the Wing

X - AXIS Y-AXIS
0 -146.415
1.06 -93.69
2.12 -52.70
3.18 -23.6
4.24 -5.85
5.3 -0

11
2.4 CONCLUSION
The self weight of the wing was found and graph is plotted.

12
 CHAPTER- 3

FUEL WEIGHT DISTRUBUTION

13
3.1 DESCRIPTION

The solution methods that follow Euler’s Beam bending theory (σ/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the
beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction.
Most engineering solutions methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and
approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the
deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be
obtained as analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment
produced here is about the longitudinal (x) axis.

This design has fuel in the wing.

Equation

Wfuel=421.75kg

y4 =1.795x-19.44

Figure 3.1- Wing Trapezoid

fuel weight

0
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20

Figure 3.2- Fuel Weight Distribution

14
 X - AXIS Y-AXIS
0
1.06 -17.43
2.12 -15.63
3.18 -13.7
4.24 -11.82
5.3 -10.4

3.2 CONCLUSION
Fuel weight on the wing was calculated and the graph was plotte

15
 CHAPTER - 4

PAYLOAD WEIGHT ON THE WING

16
POWER PLANT WEIGHT ON THE WING

4.1 DESCRIPTION
Point loads on the wing structure from externally- or internally-mounted stores, engines,
equipment are simply the payload weight of the item and any pylons, mounting brackets, etc.
multiplied by the maximum load factor that the aircraft will sustain when these items are
carried. The load due to drag of any external stores and the thrust of engines must also be
considered, especially if they are hung on long pylons which cause the forces to produce
strong twisting moments on the structure.

The presence of engine in the wing has an advantage in that provides a good amount of relief
in the bending moment at the root. Therefore, the weight of the engine at its location must
also be added to the span wise load distribution. The engine weight is simply considered a
counteracted or point load on the wing structure. Other payloads that can act on an aircraft is
missiles for military aircraft.

4.2 SELECTED POWER PLANT

LYCOMING TIO540

Turbocharged and fuel-injected

Lycoming Engines is a major American manufacturer of aircraft engines. With a factory in

Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Lycoming produces a line of horizontally opposed, air-cooled,
four-, six- and eight-cylinder engines including the only FAA-certified aerobatic and
helicopter piston engines on the market.

4.3 CALCULATION AND CURVE

Dry mass of Engine =113kg

Weight of the Engine = 113 ×9.81=1111.473N.

17
 payload
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

-600

-700

-800

Figure 4.1- Power plant Weight

X - AXIS Y-AXIS
0
-704
1.06 -704
2.12
-704
3.18 -704
4.24
-704
5.3
-704

4.4 TOTAL FORCE ON THE WING

The total force that acts on the wing is the summation of all the forces at every discrete points
along the span of the wing. The forces that act on the wing that need to be summed up are-

1. Lift Distribution
2. Self-weight of the Wing
3. Fuel Distribution in the Wing
4. Payload Weight

18
 Figure 4.2 Total Force on Wing Span

X - AXIS y1 y3 y4 y5
0 315.71 -480.71 8898.203 -5493.6
1.06 315.98 -313.21 7550.598 -5493.6
2.12 316.25 -181.46 6203.594 -5493.6
3.18 316.52 -85.44 4856.289 -5493.6
4.24 316.79 -25.163 3508.985 -5493.6
5.3 317.06 -0.622 2161.68 -5493.6

19
4.5 CONCLUSION

The plot for the power plant (engine) was done and the total force acting on the wing was
calculated and plotted accordingly.

20
 CHAPTER -5

WING SHEAR ANALYSIS

21
5.1 DESCRIPTION
A shear stress tends to move different parts of a structure in opposite directions. Shear Forces
occurs when two parallel forces act out of alignment with each other. For example, in a large
boiler made from sections of sheet metal plate riveted together, there is an equal and opposite
force exerted on the rivets, owing to the expansion and contraction of the plates. The shearing
force (SF) at any section of a beam represents the tendency for the portion of the beam on
one side of the section to slide or shear laterally relative to the other portion.

The diagram shows a beam carrying loads

W1 W2 and W3. It is simply supported at

two points where the reactions are R1 and Figure 5.1 R2. Assume that the beam is divided
into two parts by a section XX. The resultant of the loads and reaction acting on the left of
AA is F vertically upwards, and since the whole beam is in equilibrium, the resultant force
to the right of AA must be F downwards. F is called the Shearing Force at the section AA.
It may be defined as follows:-

The shearing force at any section of a beam is the algebraic sum of the lateral components of
the forces acting on either side of the section.

Where forces are neither in the lateral or axial direction they must be resolved in the usual
way and only the lateral components are used to calculate the shear force.

5.2 SHEAR FORCE ON WING

The Aeroplane wing is a Cantilever beam. There are actually various types of loads which
act on it. The two main classifications come from when the Aeroplane is flying and when it
is stationery in the ground. When it is on the ground (inside a Hangar with no moving air),
the only loads are the ones coming from the self-weight of the wing (assuming there is no
fuel in the fuel tanks within the wing) and the weight of the Engine. When the Aeroplane is

22
flying, that is a different story altogether. Some of the loads on the Wings when it is flying
are:- an uniformly (sometimes non-uniformly) varying (it is not even an UVL. Near the

Root and Tip it is an UVL. At the mid sections of the Wing, it is more or less like an UDL.
We call it as a Lift Distribution curve (mostly a square curve distribution). Sometimes we
need to approximate it in to separate UVL and UDL loads for simplified load calculations)
upward load caused due to the lift generated by the wing (this is called lift distribution load).
A similar load distribution along the downstream direction caused by Drag. A point load
along the upstream direction caused by the Thrust from the Engine. When the Lifting line is
offset from the Torsional axis of the wing, it will induce a Torque on the Wing.

5.3 SHEAR AFFECTS ON THE WING

Shear affects wings in the vertical direction, and is simply the strength needed to support the
load on the wings. The bending-moment causes horizontal forces putting the lower spar in
tension and the upper spar in compression. Shear force affects the entire spar from top to
bottom, unlike the bending-moment, which has maximum effect on the top, and bottom of
the spar and zero affect in the middle. Webbing can significantly increase the shear strength
of the spar. Like the bending-moment, shear strength is maximum at the root, where the entire
lift generated by the wing supports the plane, and is zero at the tip

For the example in a rectangular wing

having a constant lift distribution, the shear
strength at is simply the total lift from the
tip to that point on the span. With accurate
lift distribution, the shear strength across
the span can be accurately determined using
the same methods used to calculate bending
moment the below figure shows the shear
strengths for the wing planforms.
Figure 5.1 Shear Loads for Various
According to the Total force on the Wing Planforms
the Shear Force plot can be shown as-

23
 Figure 5.2 Shear Force Diagram

5.4 CONCLUSION

The shear force acting on the wing was calculated and was plotted for the same.

24
 CHAPTER - 6

Wing Bending Moment Analysis

25
6.1 DESCRIPTION

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend The most common or simplest
structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. The example shows a beam
which is simply supported at both ends. Simply supported means that each end of the beam
can rotate; therefore each end support has no bending moment. The ends can only react to
the shear loads. Other beams can have both ends fixed; therefore each end support has both
bending moment and shear reaction loads. Beams can also have one end fixed and one end
simply supported. The simplest type of beam is the cantilever, which is fixed at one end and
is free at the other end (neither simple or fixed). In reality, beam supports are usually neither
absolutely fixed nor absolutely rotating freely.

Figure 6.1- Shear and Bending Moment Diagram

The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be defined as "the sum of
the moments about that section of all external forces acting to one side of that section". The
forces and moments on either side of the section must be equal in order to counteract each
other and maintain a state of equilibrium so the same bending moment will result from
summing the moments, regardless of which side of the section is selected. If clockwise
bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative bending moment within an element
will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will cause "hogging". It is therefore clear that a
point of zero bending moment within a beam is a point of contraflexure—that is the point of
transition from hogging to sagging or vice versa.

26
6.2 A BENDING MOMENT MODEL ON WING

The expressions that are derived can be used for load on the wing to calculate bending
moment. The first step is to start by integrating total load to determine shear force:
V(x) = - ∫ qr(x) dx. The bending moment can then be calculated by integrating shear force:
M(x) = ∫ V(x) dx.
A custom function is written in the MuPAD language, CalcMoment.mu, that accepts load
profile and returns the bending moment along the length of the wing. Symbolic Math
Toolbox includes an editor, debugger, and other programming utilities for authoring custom
symbolic functions in the MuPAD language. Using this function with the aircraft parameters
that were previously defined to obtain an expression for bending moment as a function of
length along wing (x) and load factor (n). As with wing loads, the user plots bending
moment assuming a load factor of 1.5.
6.3 BENDING MOMENT OF WING
The bending moment at any point is calculated by multiplying a force by the distance between
that point and the force. The same force produces a bending-moment all along the wing.
Figure-2 shows the bending-moment due to the same 3 oz. force at a point closer to the tip.
In this case, it produces a bending-moment of only 90 oz-in, 30" from the tip. Any force on
the wing contributes to the bending-moment at all locations from the point of the force toward
the root. Similarly, the bending moment at any point on the wing is due to all the forces
outward of that location on the wing.

Figure 6.2- Bending Moment Illustration-I

While a wing is generating lift, there is not a single force near the tip, but an upward force
distributed all along the wing. The bending-moment at the root is due to the entire force on
the half span. If the lift is (unrealistically) assumed to be evenly distributed (constant) across
a rectangular wing, then the entire force of each half span can be approximated by a single
force midway between the root and tip. For a plane with a 200" wingspan and weighing 4

27
pounds, each half span is 100" and supports 2 pounds. This results in a bending moment of
100 poundinches (lb-in) at the root. See figure-3.

Figure 6.3- Bending Moment Illustration-II

Another way to come to the same result is to split each half-span, with each quarter-span
supporting one quarter the weight of the plane, 1 lb. The inner quarter supports 1 lb. at its
midpoint which is 25" from the root, producing a moment of 25 lb-in. Likewise, the outer
quarter supports 1 lb. at its midpoint which is 75" from the root, producing a moment of 75
lb-in. The combined moment for the half span is still 100 lb-in.

Figure 6.4- Bending Moment Illustration-III

This example emphasizes how much more the outer portions of the wing contribute to the
total bending moment at the root. It also seems to suggest how the moment may be calculated
for multiple tapered wings by multiplying the force generated by each section by the distance
from the root to where that force is effectively centred. However, these examples assumed a
uniform lift distribution. To precisely determine the bending moment, requires an accurate
lift distribution for the planform being considered. Even a rectangular planform has a more
elliptical than uniform lift distribution. This means that the wing loading across the span
varies with span location for all but truly elliptical planforms. Accurate bending moment
calculations not only require an accurate lift distribution, but more methodical accounting by
dividing the wing into many small sections. This is more easily accomplished today than
when Martin Simmons discussed bending moments in a

28
short series of articles entitled Elementary Stress, in the Nov-Dec 1996 issues of RC Soaring
Digest. However, you might be surprised how little variation there actually is between the
two extremes, a rectangular wing with uniform lift distribution, and a triangular planform.
Figure-5 shows the bending moments from root to tip for several representative wing
planforms. While we have only discussed the total bending moment at the root, it is important
to know the total bending moment at each location on the wing to properly design the spar
at that location.There are two plots for a rectangular wing. The first and uppermost plot is a
plot assuming a constant lift distribution across the entire span, from root to tip. This is the
same as the example illustrated by figure-3. The second is a rectangular wing using a more
realistic lift distribution. The third is an elliptical wing with an ideal elliptical lift distribution.
The fourth and bottom-most plot is for a triangular wing with a somewhat realistic lift
distribution. The rectangular and triangular wings represent the two extremes. Any other
wing planform should be somewhere between the two. All of the plots are for wings of the
same area generating the same amount of lift, but because of their shape, the center of lift
may be closer to the root. The rectangular wing has the center of its lift force furthest from
the root at midspan, and therefore has the highest bending-moment. The triangular planform
has the center of its lift closest to the root, and therefore the smallest bending moment.

Figure 6.5- Bending Moment for Various Plan forms

29
The most important thing to see in these plots is that the bending moment decreases very
quickly. For the rectangular planform, it is has decreased 25%, roughly 1/8 of the distance
from the root to the tip. It is nearly half at approximately 1/3 the distance to the tip. In
addition, is approximately a 1/4 at 1/2 the distance to the root. From a different perspective,
a wing needs to be twice as strong at the root as it is at 1/3 the distance from root to tip. The
outer half need only be half as strong as it is at 1/3 the half span. In addition, these ratios are
the same for all planforms.

The bending moment at the root is four times greater than at midspan. Making the wing twice
as strong at the root than at midspan is not enough. It will still break at the root, before it
breaks at midspan. While adding weight in the wings does not make the problem any worse,
it does make the plane heavier, and adding weight to the outer parts of the wings makes it
more difficult to roll the plane, and less sensitive to thermals.

6.4 CURVE

Figure 6.6- Bending Moment for Half Span

30
6.5 COMBINED SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
The shear force and bending moment are plotted on the same graph. The graph obtained is a
parabolic curve.

Figure 6.7- Combined Shear force and Bending Moment Diagram

6.6 CONCLUSION

Thus, the bending moment of the wing is calculated and plotted for the same.

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 CHAPTER-7

FUSELAGE SHEAR ANALYSIS

32
7.1 DESCRIPTION OF FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the body of the Airplane that carries the Crew and the Payload, the payload
being passengers, cargo, fuel and weapons. It is subjected to very high Bending Loads from
its own and the Payload's Weight.

Older planes with stretched impregnated fabric or plywood skin were made with Truss type,
a rigid framework of members made of beams, struts, and bars to resist deformation by
applied loads.

Fuselage structures can be of monocoque construction, or of semimonocoque construction

Figure 7.1- Schematic of Fuselage

Fuselage is the main body of an aircraft to which wings, empennage, landing gear, power
plant are attached. Fuselage includes cockpit, controls for the airplane.
Fuselage also provide room for passengers, crew and cargo.

33
7.2 DESCRIPTION OF SHEAR FORCE
Shear force is an internal force in any material which is usually caused by any external force
acting perpendicular to the material, or a force which has a component acting tangent to the
material. Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction,
and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are aligned into each
other, they are called compression forces.

For example, a force of 10 newtons (N) is exerted at the edge of a beam. This is an external
force. Since the beam is a rigid structure, the force is internally transferred all along the beam.
This internal force is known as shear force. The shear force between one end and the other is
usually plotted on a shear force diagram. Compared to tensile and compressive stress and
strain, shear forces act over an area which is in line with the forces.

Shear force and moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural
analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and
bending moment at a given point of an element. Using these diagrams, the type and size of a
member of a given material can be easily determined.

7.3 VARIOUS LOADS

To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main
components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

• Weight of the fuselage

• Weight of crew
• Payload
• Landing Gears
• Systems, equipment, accessories
7.4 LOAD SPECIFICATIONS
Crew:
Location: 3 m
Loads: 360*9.81 N

34
Nose landing Gear:

Location: 5.197m
Loads: 1209.66*9.81 N

Main Landing Gear:

Location: 18.926
Loads: 9.81*2419.32 N

Fixed Weight :

Location: 17.5m
Loads: 2000*9.81 N

7.5 CURVE

Figure 7.2- Fuselage Shear Force Diagram

35
7.6 CONCLUSION

The shear force acting on the fuselage was calculated and was plotted for the same.

36
 Chapter- 8

FUSELAGE BENDING MOMENT

37
8.1 DESCRIPTION
Bending is a combination of tension and compression. For example, when bending a piece
of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension) and the lower portion crushes together
(compression). The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are subject to bending stresses. Fuselage
contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important structural
member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components such as
wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also
serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and
systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the
fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and
inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a common member to which
other components are attached, thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as
a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be
considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The balancing reactions
are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the
various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the
length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to
mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its
symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the
shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form
of shear only. The structural design is dependent upon both the wing and fuselage’s shear
force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending
stress produced in each of them should be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for
the respective member.

8.2 COMPUTING THE MOMENT OF FORCE

An important part of determining bending moments in fuselage along the length is the
computation of moments of force. Let F be a force vector acting at a point A in the fuselage.
The moment of this force about a reference point (O) is defined as

38
Where M is the moment vector and r is the position vector from the reference point (O) to
the point of application of the force (A). The x symbol indicates the vector cross product. For
many problems, it is more convenient to compute the moment of force about an axis that
passes through the reference point O. If the unit vector along the axis is e, the moment of
force about the axis is defined as:

where . indicates the vector dot product.

8.3 LOAD SPECIFICATIONS

Crew:

Location: 3 m
Loads: 360*9.81 N

Nose landing Gear:

Location: 5.197m
Loads: 1209.66*9.81 N

Main Landing Gear:

Location: 18.926
Loads: 9.81*2419.32 N

Fixed Weight :
Location: 17.5m
Loads: 2000*9.81 N

Payload Bay 1:

Location: 10.197 m
Loads: 9000*9.81 N

39
Payload Bay 2:

Location: 24 m

Loads: 9.81*9000 N

Figure 8.1- Balanced Diagram Showing Loads on Fuselage

40
Figure 8.2- Various loads acting on Fuselage

41
 Figure 8.3- Fuselage Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 8.4- Combined Shear and Bending Moment Diagram

42
8.4 CONCLUSION

The Bending Moment acting on the Fuselage was found and plotted for the same.

43
 CHAPTER -9

TYRE SELECTION

44
TYRE SELECTION

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The wheel is a circular metal object upon which the rubber tire is mounted. The brake inside
the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the rolling friction. However, the term wheel is
frequently mean entire brake/wheel/tire assembly. The tires are sized to carry the weight of
the aircraft typically; the main tires carry about 90% of MTOW. Nose tires carry only about
10% of the static load but experience higher dynamic loads during landing.

For early conceptual designs, the engineer can copy the tire size of similar design or follow
a statistical approach. The table provides the equations for estimating main tire size. This
calculated values are for diameter and width and should be increased by 30% is to operate
from rough unpaved runways. Nose tires can be assumed to be about 60-100% the size of the
main tires.

Figure 9.1- Contact Area Diagram

45
 Figure 9.2- Statistical Tyre Sizing

9.2 SELECTION PROCEDURE

The number of tires required for a given aircraft design gross weight is largely determined
by the flotation characteristics. The primary consideration is the load-carrying capacity of
the tire during the speed regime normally applicable for landing or takeoff cycles. In
addition, the number of plys and type of construction, which determines the weight of the
tire and its operational life, is important from an economic standpoint. Other considerations
include the inflation pressure of the tire and the size of the wheel. The former must be
chosen in accordance with the bearing capacity of the airfield from which the aircraft is
designed to operate from, whereas the latter must have sufficient space to house the brake
assembly. The choice of the main wheel tires is made on the basis of the static loading case.
The total main gear load is calculated assuming that the aircraft is taxiing at low speed
without braking. The choice of the nose wheel tires is based on the nose wheel load during
braking at maximum effort, i.e., the steady braked load.

46
9.3 CALCULATION

Total weight of the aircraft = 5436kg

Weight on the main wheels (Ww)= 90% of the total weight of the aircraft

Ww= 0.90×5436

= 4892.4 kg

Main wheel configuration:

Main wheel diameter/width= A(Ww)B

Diameter: A=1.63

B=0.315

Diameter= 1.63×(4892.4)0.315

= 23.68 inch

Width: A= 0.1043

B= 0.480

Width = 0.1043×(4892.4)0.480

= 6.15inch

Nose wheel configuration:

Nose wheel diameter = 80% MWD

= 0.8×23.68

= 18.94 inch

Nose wheel width = 50% MWW

= 0.5×6.155

= 3.15 inch

47
9.4 CONCLUSION

The Diameter and Width of the Main Wheel and Nose Wheel was calculated.

48
 CHAPTER -10

LANDING GEAR ANALYSIS

49
LANDING GEAR ANALYSIS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either
takeoff or landing. Of the many internal components that must be defined in an aircraft
layout, the landing gear will usually causes the most trouble, Landing gear must be placed in
the correct down position for landing and must somehow retract into the aircraft without
chopping up the structure.

Figure 10.1- Tricycle Landing Gear Geometry

10.2 SHOCK ABSORBER

The landing gear is used to absorb the shock of the landing and smooth out the ride. The tire
themselves will be absorbing some shock by deflecting when bump is encountered
.Sailplanes and a few homebuilt airplanes have been built with rigid axles, relying solely
upon the tires for shock absorbing .

50
The solid spring gear is used in many general aviation aircraft. The solid spring is as simple
as possible ,but is slightly heavier than other types of gear. Note that the solid spring gear
deflects with some lateral motion instead of straight up and down .This lateral motion tends
to scrub the tires side ways against the runways ,wearing them out .The solid spring has no
damping other than this scrubbing action. The aircraft thus lends to bounce a lot, much like
a car with bad shockabsorbers.

Maximum Load

No Load
Stroke

Figure 10.2 Landing Gear Stroke

10.3 STROKE DETERMINATION

The required deflection of the shock absorbing system depends upon the vertical velocity at
touchdown, the shock absorbing material, and the amount of the wing ill available after
touchdown. As a rough rule of thumb, the stroke in inches approximately equals the vertical
velocity at touchdown.The vertical velocity at touchdown is established in various
specifications for different types of aircraft

Figure 10.3- Stroke Determination

51
10.4 SELECTION OF SHOCK ABSORBER

OLEO SUSPENSION
An oleo strut is a pneumatic air–oil hydraulic shock absorber used on the landing gear of
most large aircraft and many smaller ones. This design cushions the impacts of landing and
damps out vertical oscillations.

It is undesirable for an airplane to bounce on landing—it could lead to a loss of control. The
landing gear should not add to this tendency. A steel coil spring stores impact energy from
landing and then releases it. An oleo strut absorbs this energy, reducing bounce.

As the strut compresses, the spring rate increases dramatically, because the air is being
compressed, while the viscosity of the oil dampens the rebound movement.

Figure 10.4- Oleo Shock Absorber

52
10.5 CONCLUSION

The selection of Shock Absorber and its Stroke was calculated.

CONCLUSION

53
After all analysis and design the second part of the aircraft design project has came for the
structure. The result of the output specifications tells about features, advantages,
disadvantages, future requirements and all amenities in and about the aircraft

The preliminary design of a agriculture aircraft is done and the various design considerations
and performance parameters required are calculated and found out. The obtained design
values are not necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane's true and conceptualized
design, but the basic outlay of development has been obtained. The final design stays true to
the desired considerations of a longrange aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as
well. There is no ideal design as such and continuous changes, improvements and innovations
serve to make the design as ideal as possible, while always looking to achieve optimum
performance. The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear the fact
that experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft or aircraft component.
A lot of effort has been put into this project and as much as we have worked, we have learnt
in turn.

The main advantage of this aircraft is used for aerial sprying, less-operating cost and fuel
consumption, less purchase cost and least time of total travel time enveloped. Since it takes
fraction of kilometre for landing it can operate at any hill areas .

A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system.
But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its implications
when applied to an aircraft design.

54
 REFERENCES

1. Anderson, J. D. (1999). “Aircraft performance and design”. Boston:

WCB/McGraw-Hill. 18th edition

2. Jackson, P. “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft 1999-2000”, Jane’s information group
ltd., Surrey, UK, 1999. Jackson, P. (Editor)

3. Dr. Jan Roskan. (1985) “Airplane Design” Volume 7

4. Daniel P. Raymer. (1989) “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach” by Daniel P.

Raymer, 4th edition

5. Anderson, J. D (1985) “Introduction to Flight” by John D. Anderson, 2 nd edition

6. IRA H. Abbott (1949) “Theory of. wing sections”. including a summary of airfoil
data. by IRA H. Abbott

7. Aircraft Nerds (2016) “Types of drag” www.aircraftnerds.com

8. Wikipedia (2001) en.wikipedia.org
9. Airfoil generator tool. Airfoil Tools www.airfoiltools.com

10. Mario Asselin. (1997)”An Introduction to Aircraft Performance” AIAA education

series
11. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp.,
Ottawa, Kansas

12. Taylor, J. (2004) Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, Jane’s, London, UK
13 . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_aircraft#External_links
14 https://airtractor.com/
15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_design_process#Design

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