Organisational Behaviour

Unit-2
Foundation of Individual Behaviour
(Factors influencing)
Organisation is composed of individuals. Each of them differs in perceptions, motives

and abilities. The behaviour of each individual is influenced by several factors. A study of these
factors is useful to understand the subject OB better.
Environmental factors
Economics
Social norms and cultures
Political
Personal factors
Age
Sex
Performance
Education
Abilities
Marital status
No of dependants
Organizational systems Individual development

Physical facilities
Leadership
Reward system
Organisation structure
Psychological factors
Perception
Attitude
Value
Learning
Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 1

Environmental factors:
Environmental factors include the variables as economic, social, and political and the like. These
factors influence individual behavior considerably.
a. Economic factors:
The economic environment is an important determinant of individual behavior. Economic
environment is a synthesis of several factors as employment level, wage rates, technological
change etc.
b. Cultural environment:
The cultural environment is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society‘s basic
values, perceptions, work ethic, preferences and behaviours. People grow up in a particular
society that shapes their basic beliefs, values and behaviours. Culture varies from country to
country and these variations produce different behaviours across the countries.
c. Political factors:
The political climate in which an individual lives can affect individual behavior through several
factors. The stability of the government can affect employment opportunities, both in quantity
and quality. Politically unstable environment has difficulty in attracting the industries.
Personal factors:
a. Age:
Age is an important variable, because of its impact on performance, turnover, absenteeism,
productivity and satisfaction. Performance depends upon age. As age advances performance is
likely to decline. Similarly absenteeism also occurs.
b. Sex:
The issue of male and female employees has received considerable attention from academicians,
sociologists, and researches. Sex has its impact on turnover and absenteeism. In our society the
responsibility has historically placed home and family on the female. When a child is ill someone
needs to stay in home and it goes to female to stay in home.
c. Education:
Education has its effect upon individual behaviour, largely through the level and type of
education received. Increased levels of education serve to increase individual‘s expectations.

d. Abilities:
Abilities refer to an individual‘s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Ability of an
individual is made up of two sets of skills-intellectual and physical.
Intellectual abilities are needed to perform mental activities. Physical abilities manifest in one‘s
stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like.
e. Marital status:
Marital status has influence on absenteeism, turnover and satisfaction. Married employees have
fewer absences and are more satisfied with their jobs than the unmarried ones.
f. Number of dependents:
There is correlation between number of dependents an employee has and his or her absences
and satisfaction. Number of children an employee has is positively related to absence, especially
among females.
Organisation system and resources:
a. Physical facilities:
The physical facilities such as lighting, ventilation, air-conditioning, painting on walls, space
provided for each employee, equipment and the like will have their influence on employee
behaviour and performance.
b. Organisation structure:
The behaviour and performance of an individual is influenced by where that person fits into the
overall structure and design of the organization
c. Leadership:
The organization establishes a system of leadership and supervision to provide direction,
assistance, advice and coaching to individual members. The leader behaviour is therefore a
potential source of influence on an individual.
d. Reward systems:
Organisations establish reward systems to compensate their employees. The behaviour and
performance of an individual is influenced by the reward system.
Psychological factors:
a. Perception:
The psychological processes that allow an individual to adjust his behaviour is called perception‖

b. Attitude:
The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
c. Personality:
Personality is composed of several characteristics. Personality is influenced by several factors
such as family, characteristics, learning, social influences, psychological features, etc.
d. Learning:
Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
prior experience
Personality
Personality is an important factor influencing an employee's behaviour. Individual traits and
attributes reflect an employee's personality. The relationship between supervisor and employees
is reflected in their personalities.
―The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.‖
―Personality is the study of unique traits of an individual‖
Factors Influencing/Determinants of Personality
a. Biological Factors
 Heredity
 Brain
 Physical Features
b. Environmental factors
 Cultural Factors
 Religion
 Family
 Parental Influences
 Social groups
c. Situational factors
Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process. The role of
personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Personality is recognized in a situation. It is
the result of personal quality interaction in a particular condition. The major determinants of
personality of an individual are given below:

a. Biological Factors
The general characteristics of human biological system influence the way in which human being
tends to sense external event data, interpret & respond to them.
Heredity:
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Heredity is the
transmission of the qualities from ancestors through a mechanism lying primarily in the
chromosomes of the germ cells. Heredity predisposes to certain physical, mental & emotional
states. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and
reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to
be either completely or substantially influenced by the parents.
Brain:
Brain has a great impact on personality. Father and children generally adopt the same type of
brain stimulation. Physiologists & psychologists have studied the structure of human brains
have divided it into two parts – left hemisphere which lies in the right side of the body and right
hemisphere which lies in the left side of the body. Depending on the structure of the brain, an
individual‘s personality develops.
Physical Features:
Perhaps the most outstanding factor that contributes to personality is the physical stature of an
individual. An individual's external appearance is proved to be having a tremendous effect on
personality. For example, the fact that a person is short or tall, fat or thin, handsome or ugly,
black or whitish will undoubtedly influence the person's effect on others and in turn will affect
the self-concept.
b. Environmental factors
Cultural Factors:
The accepted norms of social behaviour are known as culture. Culture was traditionally
considered as the major determinant of an individual's personality. The way in which people
behave with others and the driving force of such functions are considered significant
components of culture. The ideology of the culture is imitated by the following generations. The
personality attributes of independence, aggression, competition and cooperation are the
outcomes of cultural interaction.

Religion:
Religion plays a significant role in shaping one's personality. Hindus have different personalities
from those of Sikhs and Muslims. Children in Hindu societies learn from the very beginning
about hard work and god-fearing attitudes. Christians are open, independent, and cooperative.
Family:
Children learn from their parents, sisters and brothers. Family is the first factor affecting
personality development, after hereditary characteristics are endowed. Rich people have
different personalities from those of poor. Children nurtured under a warm, loving environment
are positive and active as compared to children neglected by their parents.
Parental Influences:
The positive and negative personalities of children are dependent on their parent‘s
characteristics and mutual behaviour. Children develop negative personalities if their parents
don't have good relationship. Proper parental guidance to children makes them active and
efficient.
Social groups
Besides a person‘s home environment and family members, there are other influences arising
from the social placement of the family as the person is exposed to agencies outside the home,
particularly the school, friendship, and other work groups. Similarly socio-economic factors also
affect personality development.
c. Situational factors
Situation further influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. A
individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different
situations. Different demands in different situations call forth different aspects of one's
personality.It has been observed that many arrogant and in disciplined employees become
humble and disciplined in a particular situation. Those having a criminal background may
become powerful and strong administrators, dominant politicians, etc.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 Type theory
 Psychoanalytic Theory (sigmund Freud)
 Humanist Theories
 Self Theory
 Social learning theory
 Trait theory
1. Type theory
• Physical structure- between body build personality
• Psychological factors- Introverts & Extroverts
a. Physical structure
This theory is based on body shape relating to personality ---- Sheldon
• Ectomorph (tall, slim figure): Self-conscious; tense; private; introverted
• Endomorph (short, rounded figure): tolerant; sociable; relaxed
• Mesomorph (muscular, athletic figure): extroverted, risk taker, assertive
b. Psychological factors- Introverts & Extroverts
 Persons more introverted than extroverted tend to make decisions somewhat
independently of constraints and prodding from the situation, culture, people, or things
around them.
 Extroverted persons are outgoing, socially free, interested in variety and in working with
people. The extrovert may become impatient with long, slow tasks and does not mind
being interrupted by people.

2.Psychoanalytic Theory (sigmund Freud)
• Structure of the personality comprising of the id, ego, superego.
• Personality dynamics in which conscious and unconscious motivation play an important
role.
1. Id
– Functions on ‗pleasure principle‘
– Immediate gratification of needs to reduce tension & discomfort regardless of
consequences
2. Ego
– Functions on ‗reality principle‘
– Serves to balance the demands the Id and the Superego
– Assesses what is realistically possible in satisfying the Id and/or Superego
(i.e., what society will deem acceptable)
3. Superego
– Functions on ‗idealistic principle‘
– Our moral guide/conscience
– Influenced by internalizing our parents‘ values & the voice of society
3. Humanist Theories
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will ( ability to make choices) and
individual experience in the development of personality.
Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
4. Self Theory- Carl Rogers (Experience and feelings)
• Self Image-One sees oneself
• Ideal Self- one would like to be
• Looking Glass Self- how others perceive
• Real Self- One really is
5. Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory is the process of learning by experience and by observing others
Steps
1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One‘s
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set, past
reinforcement) affect attention.

2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental
images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
3. Motor Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-
observation of reproduction.
4. Motivation (reinforcement) — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such
asÂ past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious
(seeing and recalling the reinforced model
6. Trait Theory
According to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits.
A trait is an enduring characteristic of a person in which he/she differs from another. Some of
the best known trait theories are as follows,
1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
2. The Big Five Model
PERSONALITY TRAITS
―Characteristics that describe an individual‘s behavior which are exhibited in a large number of
situations‖.
APPROACHES/Theories FOR DETERMINING PERSONALITY TRAITS
Two of the dominant approaches for describing relevant personality traits are the MBTI and the
Big Five Model. Both of these use questionnaires to determine personality type.
2. The Big Five Model

The four Preferences

The four preferences or the four pairs of dimensions, viz. Extroversion and introversion, Sensing
and Intuition, Thinking and Feeling, and Judging and Perceiving are present to some degree in
all people.
i) Extroversion and Introversion:
There is a world inside us, and a world outside ourselves. When we are dealing with the world
outside of our self, we are ―extroverting‖. When we are inside our own minds, we are
―introverting‖. Persons more introverted than extroverted tend to make decisions somewhat
independently of constraints and prodding from the situation, culture, people, or things around
them.
Extroverted persons are attuned to the culture, people, and things around them, endeavoring
to make decisions congruent with demands and expectations. The extrovert is outgoing, socially
free, interested in variety and in working with people. The extrovert may become impatient with
long, slow tasks and does not mind being interrupted by people.
ii) Sensing and Intuition:
This preference refers to how we gather information. There are two distinct ways of perceiving
the data that we gather. The “Sensing” preference absorbs data in a literal, concrete fashion.
The “Intuitive” preference generates abstract possibilities from information that is gathered.

We all use both Sensing and Intuition in our lives, but to different degrees of effectiveness and
with different levels of comfort.
The sensing type person thinks in careful, detail-by-detail accuracy, remembering real facts,
making few errors of fact, but possibly missing a conception of the overall.
iii) Thinking and Feeling:
People have the capability to make decisions based on two very different sets of criteria –
Thinking and Feeling. When someone makes a decision that is based on logic and reason, they
are operating in thinking mode. When someone makes a decision that is based on their value
system, or what he or she believes to be right, they are operating in Feeling mode.
 The feeler makes judgments about life, people, occurrences, and things based on
empathy, warmth, and personal values.
 The thinker makes judgements about life, people, occurrences, and things based on
logic, analysis, and evidence, avoiding the irrationality of making decisions based on
feelings and values.
iv) Judging and Perceiving:
Judging and perceiving preferences, within the context of personality types, refer to our attitude
towards the external world, and how we live our lives on a day-to-day basis.
The perceiver is a gatherer, always wanting to know more before deciding, holding off
decisions and judgements. As a consequence, the perceiver is open, flexible, adaptive, non-
judgmental, able to see and appreciate all sides of issues, always welcoming new perspectives
and new information about issues.
The judger is decisive, firm, and sure, setting goals and sticking to them. The judger wants to
close books, make decisions, and get on to the next project. When a project does not yet have
closure, judgers will leave it behind and go on to new tasks and not look back.
b. Sixteen Personality Types:
The first letters of the name of the dominant side of each scale (except that N is used for
Intuitive) are combined to create a personality type. For instance, ENTJ is a person who is
extraverted, intuitive, thinking and judging. This type of person is called ―Entrepreneur.‖
There are sixteen possible combinations of these four scales. These personality types are used to
determine the best match-ups in terms of friends, spouses, co-workers and the like.

ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
“Take Your Time and “On My Honor, to “Catalyst for Positive “Competence + Independence
Do It Right” Do My Duty…” Change” = Perfection”
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

“Doing the Best I Can “It’s the Thought “Still Waters Run “Ingenious Problem Solvers”
With What I’ve Got” That Counts” Deep”
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

“Let’s Get Busy!” “Don’t Worry, Be “Anything’s “Life’s Entrepreneurs”
Happy” Possible”
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

“Taking Care of “What Can I Do For “The Public “Everything’s Fine – I’m in
Business” You?” Relations Specialist” Charge”
2. THE BIG FIVE MODEL
This instrument (particularly one factor, conscientiousness) has been shown to be positively
related to job performance and might be used as an employment selection or screening tool.
a. Five Factors:
1. Extraversion: Deals with the comfort level with relationships. Like the MBTI, this is
contrasted with introversion. Scoring high in this factor means the respondent is more outgoing

and assertive. Extraverts tend to be happy in their jobs but may be impulsive and absent
themselves from work to take on some other, more sensational tasks.
2. Agreeableness: Measures deference. High scorers are cooperative and trusting while low
scores are ―colder‖ and antagonistic. Agreeable workers are less likely to be involved in drugs
and excessive drinking.
3.Conscientiousness: Measures reliability. High scorers are responsible, organized,

dependable and persistent. Low scorers are unreliable. Not surprisingly, this is the key
determinant of job performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) on the Big Five.
However, conscientious people also tend not to take risks and may find organizational change
difficult to handle.
4) Emotional Stability :Measures ability to handle stress: the more stable a person, the better
he or she can handle stress. People with high emotional stability tend to have higher life and job
satisfaction. Low emotional stability people surprisingly make better and faster decisions when
in a bad mood than do stable people
5) Openness to Experience.: Measures the range of interests and fascination with novelty, a
proxy for creativity. People who score low on this factor tend to be conventional and enjoy
familiar circumstances. People high in this factor deal better with organizational change and are
more adaptable.
MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB

Certain personality attributes above and beyond personality type do have influences on job
performance and behavior.
1. Locus of Control.
There are two types of people in this category: those with an internal and those with an external
locus of control. Internal individuals believe that they are in charge of their own life and its
outcomes; they are in control of events. External individuals think that they have no control over
their lives. They believe that luck, chance, or fate controls the outcome and no amount of extra
effort on their part will have any effect.
Locus of Control: The degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate.
2. Machiavellianism (Mach).
Individuals high in Machiavellianism are pragmatic, emotionally distant and believe that the
ends justify the means. They tend to win more often, be more manipulative and are harder to
persuade than are people with low Mach.
Situational factors greatly influence the performance of high Mach individuals. Situations that
are most positively related to successful outcomes with high Mach people are those in which:
a. The high Mach person must interact face-to-face rather than indirectly,
b. There are a minimum of rules and regulations, and
c. When emotional involvement with details is not relevant to the situation.
3. Self-Esteem.
Self-Esteem: An individual‘s degree of liking or disliking him or herself and the perceived level
of self-worth.
 Individuals with high self-esteem see themselves as capable and able to influence the
environment around them.
 Low self-esteem individuals tend to seek external approval and often benefit from
training programs.
4. Self-Monitoring.
 High self-monitors show a strong ability to adapt their behaviors to fit external,
situational factors. People with low self-monitoring tend to have high behavioral
consistency while high self-monitors can appear chameleon-like to their co-workers.

 High self-monitors tend to get better performance ratings, take leadership positions, are
more mobile and take up central positions in their organizations, even though they have
less commitment to their organization.
5. Risk Taking.
 High-risk takers tend to make decisions faster and with less supporting information than
do low-risk takers. The need for high-risk acceptance behavior must be linked to the
requirements for the job.
6. Personality Types.
There are two basic types of personalities in this model.
a. Type A.
 These people are very competitive and have a strong sense of urgency.
 They work well in moderate-to-high levels of stress.
 Type As is fast workers who may not be too interested in the quality of their output.
 They are infrequently creative and often make poor decisions because of their focus on
time.
b. Type B.
The opposite of Type A people, Type Bs have far less time urgency and less competitive natures.
Type As does better in getting hired, but the work situation itself may indicate that a Type B
person would be an overall better fit.
7. Proactive Personality.
Individuals with this type of personality tend to identify opportunities, show initiative, take
action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. People with this personality attribute are
highly prized by organizations for obvious reasons. They are often leaders or change agents and
will challenge the status quo. Proactive people tend to have successful careers but may not be a
good match for organizations who do not value change.
Narcissism.
A person with high narcissism has a grandiose sense of his or her own importance, requires
excessive admiration, has a sense of entitlement and tends to be arrogant. Narcissists are selfish,
often difficult to work with, and may have a false sense of their effectiveness.

VALUES
Meaning of Values
Values mean standards or ideas which most people have about the worth of good
qualities such as kindness, freedom, mercy, respect, and love.
―Beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or
against something);‖ "he has very conservatives values"
Mode of conduct or end state is personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right and good)
Value System: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual‘s values in terms of their
intensity
Importance of Values
 Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and
cultures
 Influence our perception of the world around us
 Represent interpretations of ―right‖ and ―wrong‖
 Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others
Attributes of Values
There are two attributes of values that can be used to rank order an individual‘s values
into a hierarchical value system.
1. Content. This is how important the mode of conduct or end-state of existence is to
the individual.
2. Intensity. This is how important this value is in relation to other values.
Types of Values
In a Lincoln-Douglas Debate you will need to be able to explain not only which values you are
defending but what type of value you are using. There are several methods to use to categorize
the values
1. Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime
2. Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one‘s terminal values

Another way of categorizing values is given below:
1. Theoretical: Interest in the discovery of truth through reasoning and systematic thinking.
2. Economic: Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of wealth.
3. Aesthetic: Interest in beauty, form, and artistic harmony.
4. Social: Interest in people and love as a human relationship.
5. Political: Interest in gaining power and influencing people.
6. Religion: Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as whole
Formation of Values
Values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions.
Values are also taught and reinforced in schools, religious organizations and social groups.
Cultural mores have influence on the formation of values. Basic convictions of what is good or
bad are derived from one‘s own culture.
Values and OB
Understanding of values is useful to a manager in at least four ways:
1. Values are important to the study of OB because they lay the foundation for the understanding
of attitudes and motivation as well as influencing our perceptions.
2. Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour.
3. Values differ across cultures.
4. For current management revolution all over the world understanding of values becomes a
necessity.
Culture
Culture is part of the external influences that impact the consumer. That is, culture represents
influences that are imposed on the consumer by other individuals.
Culture refers to the customs, arts, attitudes, institutions, and other traits that characterize a
particular society or nation.
LEARNING
A relatively permanent change in the behavior occurring as a result of experience is known as
learning .Learning consists of a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behaviors that
result from practice or experience.
This definition has three key elements:

(1) Permanent,
(2) Change, and
(3) Through practice.
TYPES OF LEARNERS
 Active/Reflective
 Sensing
 Intuitive
 Visual/Verbal
 Sequential/Global
 Kinesthetic Learners
 Auditory Learners
1. Active learners
 Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something
active with it—discussing it, applying it, or explaining it to others.
 "Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase.
 Reflective learners prefer to think about information quietly first.
 "Let's think it through first" is the reflective learner's response
2. Sensing learners
 Sensing learners tend to like learning facts.
 Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike
complications and surprises.
 Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on
work.
 Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors
3. Intuitive learners
 Intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships.
 Intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition.
 Intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than
sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations.
 Intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors.

4. Visual /Verbal learners
 Visual learners remember best what they see.
 Verbal learners get more out of words.
 Everybody learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.
Visual learners need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to fully understand
the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom to avoid visual
obstructions (e.g. people's heads). They may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays
including: diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and
hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take
detailed notes to absorb the information.
5. Auditory Learners:
learn through listening...
They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to
what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through
listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little
meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape
recorder.
6. Sequential/Global learners
 Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, following logical paths to
find solutions.
 Global learners tend to learn in large chunks, absorbing material almost randomly
without seeing connections and then suddenly ―getting it.‖
 Global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in
novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty
explaining how they did it.
7. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
learn through , moving, doing and touching...

Tactile/Kinesthetic persons learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become
distracted by their need for activity and exploration.
COMPONENTS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
The components of learning process are: drive, cue stimuli, response, reinforcement and
retention.
1. Drive
Learning frequently occurs in the presence of drive - any strong stimulus that impels action.
Drives are basically of two types -primary (or physiological); and secondary (or psychological).
These two categories of drives often interact with each other. Individuals operate under many
drives at the same time. To predict a behavior, it is necessary to establish which drives are
stimulating the most.
2. Cue Stimuli
Cue stimuli are those factors that exist in the environment as perceived by the individual. The
idea is to discover the conditions under which stimulus will increase the probability of eliciting a
specific response. There may be two types of stimuli with respect to their results in terms of
response concerned: generalization and discrimination.
a. Generalization:
Generalization occurs when a response is elicited by a similar but new stimulus. If two stimuli
are exactly alike, they will have the same probability of evoking a specified response. The
principle of generalization has important implications for human learning.
b. Discrimination:
Discrimination is a procedure in which an organization learns to emit a response to a stimulus
but avoids making the same response to a similar but somewhat different stimulus.
Discrimination has wide applications in 'organizational behavior. For example, a supervisor can
discriminate between two equally high producing workers, one with low quality and other with
high quality.
3. Responses
The stimulus results in responses. Responses may be in the physical form or may be in terms of
attitudes, familiarity, perception or other complex phenomena. In the above example, the

supervisor discriminates between the worker producing low quality products and the worker
producing high quality products, and positively responds only to the quality conscious worker.
4. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning. Without reinforcement, no measurable
modification of behavior takes place. Reinforcement may be defined as the environmental
event's affecting the probability of occurrence of responses with which they are associated.
5. Retention
The stability of learned behavior over time is defined as retention and its contrary is known as
forgetting. Some of the learning is retained over a period of time while others may be forgotten.
Steps in Learning Process
Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation
Reinforcemen
t
Behaviour
Efforts Motives Habit Reward
1) Stimuli: Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people.
Employees get stimuli from the actions of their superiors.
2) Attention: The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not
paid attention to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career oriented stimuli
are generally accepted by employee.
3) Recognition: Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement

and new life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognizing the stimuli for
learning purposes.
4) Translation: Recognized stimuli are evaluated at the mental level to eliminate the
irrelevant points for accepting a part of the stimulus for changing behavior.

5) Reinforcement: Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes
stimuli, attention, recognition, translation and behavior. Perception leads to learning, but
perception itself is not learning unless it is reinforced.
6) Behavior: Learning changes behavior through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It

makes permanent changes in behavior. A temporary change in behavior is not learning. Positive
behavior gives rewards to employees.
7) Reward: Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behavior provides a
reward, it is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted.
8) Habits: A permanent change in behavior becomes a habit which helps continuous

improvement in behavior and performance. Employees develop the habit of self-appraisal and
development.
9) Motives: Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction
through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is
complete only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts.
10) Efforts: Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process.
Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning
process.
Theories of learning
(i) Classical conditioning theory

(ii) Operant conditioning
(iii) Cognitive theory of learning
(iv) Social Learning Theory
(i) Classical conditioning theory
Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training. This theory involves learning a
new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to
produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

This is learning by association. The work of the famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
demonstrated the classical conditioning process. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the
dog in the experiment, Pavlov noticed a great deal of salivation. He termed the food an
unconditioned stimulus and the salivation an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the
meat, it salivated. On the other hand, when Pavlov merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.
Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of a bell each time the meat was given to the dog. The
dog eventually learned to salivate in response to the ringing of the-bell-even when there was no
meat. Pavlov had conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus. Thorndike called this
the "law of exercise" which states that behavior can be learned by repetitive association between
a stimulus and a response.
The Classical Conditioning Procedure:
1 Food is the unconditioned stimulus or UCS. By this, Pavlov meant that the stimulus that
elicited the response occurred naturally.
2 The salivation to the food is an unconditioned response (UCR), that is a response which occurs
naturally.
3 The bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because it will only produce salivation on condition
that it is presented with the food.
4 Salivation to the bell alone is the conditioned response (CR), a response to the conditioned
stimulus.

The Unconditioned Stimulus (food)
An unconditioned stimulus is
anything which can evoke a
response without prior learning
or conditioning.
Unconditioned Reflex (salivation)
An unconditioned reflex is
anything that happens
automatically without you
having to think about it, such as
your mouth salivating when you
eat.
Conditioned Stimulus (bell)
The conditioned stimulus is

created by learning, and
therefore does not create a
response without prior
conditioning.
Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell)
A conditioned reflex is a
reflex which you have
learnt to associate with
something.

Important Features of Classical Conditioning
 The word conditioning is used to mean a type of learning that occurs without you having
to think about it, almost like an automatic type of learning. Although later on this
learning may be reinforced by reflecting upon that experience.
 For example, sometimes you will see a dog flinch when you raise your hand. This
flinching is a conditioned reflex, and can be seen in dogs that have been mistreated by
their owners. The same can be found in women who are beaten by their husbands.
 This later example shows that classical conditioning is not solely confined to animals, as
it can just as easily occur in humans.
 Finally, conditioned reflexes are involuntary, which means they occur automatically and
without you having to think about it.
Behavioural Patterns Associated With Classical Conditioning
There are three main behavioural patterns which are associated with classical conditioning:
 Extinction.
 Stimulus generalization.
 Discrimination.
***Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented a number of times without
the unconditioned stimulus.
***Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus which is similar to a conditioned
stimulus creates a conditioned reflex.
***Discrimination occurs when our new stimulus is too different from our original
conditioned stimulus to cause the effect we want (the conditioned reflex).
(II)OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior. This theory argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences.
Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the consequences are favorable. Behaviour is not likely to be
repeated if the consequences are unfavourable. Thus the relationship between behaviour and
consequences is the essence of operant conditioning. The father of operant conditioning is
B.F.Skinner.

Operant conditioning is a powerful tool for managing people in organizations. Most behaviors in
organizations are learned, controlled and altered by the consequences; i.e. operant behaviors.
Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully to control and influence the
behavior of employees by manipulating its reward system. Reinforcement is anything that both
increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior.
Four types of reinforcement strategies can be employed by managers to influence the
behavior of the employees, viz., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
extinction and punishment.
1. Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of a desirable
consequence (reward). In other words, a positive reinforce is a reward that follows behavior and
is capable of increasing the frequency of that behavior.
There are two types of positive: reinforces: primary and secondary.
a. Primary reinforcers such as food, water and sex are of biological importance and
have effects, which arc independent of past experiences. For instance, a primary
reinforcer like food satisfies hunger need and reinforced food-producing behavior.
b. Secondary reinforcers like job advancement, recognition, praise and esteem result
from previous association with a primary reinforcer.
2. Negative Reinforcement
The threat of punishment is known as negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcers also serve to
strengthen desired behavior responses leading to their removal or termination.
3. Extinction
Extinction is an effective method of controlling undesirable behavior. It refers to non-
reinforcement. It is based on the principle that if a response is not reinforced, it will eventually
disappear. Extinction is a behavioral strategy that does not promote desirable behaviors but can
help to reduce undesirable behaviors.
4. Punishment
Punishment is a control device employed in organizations to discourage and reduce annoying
behaviors of employees.

(III) COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING
Cognition refers to an individual‘s thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understandings
or ideas about himself and his environment. Cognitive theory of learning assumes that the
organism learns the meaning of various objects and events and learned responses depending
upon the meaning assigned to the stimuli
Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain human
behavior by understanding the thought processes. The assumption is that humans are logical
beings that make the choices that make the most sense to them. ―Information processing‖ is a
commonly used description of the mental process, comparing the human mind to a computer.
(IV) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
People learn through observing others‘ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those
behaviors. ―Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this
coded information serves as a guide for action.‖.Social learning theory explains human behavior
in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
influences.
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
5. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One‘s
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set, past
reinforcement) affect attention.
6. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental
images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
7. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-
observation of reproduction.
8. Motivation (reinforcement) — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such
asÂ past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious
(seeing and recalling the reinforced model.

OB Modification
The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

Behavioral management refers to the application of behavioral theories, especially
the reinforcement theory, to improve the performance of employees. Fred Luthans and Robert
Kreitner coined the term 'Organization Behavior Modification' (O.B Mod) for behavioral
management.
Steps in OB Mod: Five Step Problem-Solving Model
 Identify critical behaviors
 Develop baseline data
 Identify behavioral consequences
 Develop and apply intervention
 Evaluate performance improvement

The O. B. Mod process has five steps.
 In the first step, the critical behaviors are identified. Critical behaviors are those
behaviors that may represent only a fraction of many possible behaviors, but have the
greatest impact on total organizational performance.
 In the second step, a base-line measure is obtained for each critical behavior to
determine their frequency prior to any intervention.

 The third step involves carrying out a functional analysis of the behavior.
The antecedents and consequences of a particular behavior are identified, and these are
used to formulate an effective intervention strategy to modify the behavior.
 In the fourth and most important step in the O. B. Mod process, an appropriate
intervention strategy is developed. The objective of the intervention strategy is to
strengthen and promote functional behaviors and weaken and discourage dysfunctional
behaviors.
 The last step in the process involves the evaluation of the efficacy of the intervention
strategy in bringing about an improvement in performance. This evaluation is carried
out at four levels - reaction, learning, behavioral change, and performance improvement
OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee
productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve
friendliness toward customers.
EMOTIONS
Introduction
In general, the term emotion‘s used to designate ―a state of consciousness having to
do with the arousal of feelings (Webster‗s New World Dictionary). It is distinguished from
other mental states, from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation. Feeling
refers to any of the subjective reactions, pleasant or unpleasant that one may experience in a
situation.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
I. James-Lange Theory
II. Cannon-Bard theory
III. Schachter-Singer theory
IV. Lazarus’ appraisal theory
I. James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]:

Subjective emotional responses are the result of physiological changes within human
bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends messages down its neural circuitry to

other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine
responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is perceived by the
brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological behaviors precede
the emotion.
II. Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]:
According to this theory emotions precede responses. In other words action is the effect for
which emotion is the cause. People feel emotions as first as stimulus and then respond to action
upon stimulus. For example when we a snake, we become afraid (emotion) and start
perspiration (action or responses). In nutshell this theory postulates that an action is the effect
for which emotion is the cause.
III. Schachter-Singer theory (1962):
Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those
responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response will determine the
emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on what we think is
causing the response. For example, when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to
physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion. It
can be fear, surprise, excitement, and astonishment depending on how the arousal is labeled.
IV. Lazarus’ appraisal theory (1980):
An individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious cognitive appraisal of the
situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the individual
takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling.

Parrot’s classification of emotions
Emotional labor:
Emotional labor is a form of emotional regulation wherein workers are expected to display
certain emotions as part of their job, and to promote organizational goals. The intended effects
of these emotional displays are on other, targeted people, who can be clients, customers,
subordinates or co-workers.
Example professions that require emotional labor are that of nurses and doctors , waiting
staff, actors who have to display several emotions related to.
Emotional Intelligence
Meaning and definition:
Goleman describes emotional intelligence as "managing feelings so that they are expressed
appropriately and effectively, enabling people to work together smoothly toward their common
goals."

Emotional intelligence refers to an ability to recognize the meanings of emotion and their
relationships and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them. Emotional intelligence is
involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings, understand
the information of those emotions, and manage them.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, acknowledge, manage and handle

your emotions in such a way that promotes personal growth.
Model of emotional Intelligence
(Skills to make up emotional intelligence)
The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by
Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences.
****Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves
****Social competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.
1. Personal competence:
It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-awareness, self-

regulation and motivation.
Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to observe him/herself and to recognize

‗a feeling as it happens. The hallmarks of this ability are self-confidence, self- assessment and
openness to positive criticism.
Self-regulation is the ability to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that
can have negative impact. Trustworthiness, integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to
accept change are some characteristics of this ability.
Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control

and by moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this
ability are optimistic and committed towards organizational as well as individual goals.
2. Social competence:
It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills.
Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to
treat people according to their emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in
generating and motivating others.

Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people.
People having this skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. Social skill‗
is the culmination of all other components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can
effectively manage social and work relationships only when they can understand and control
their own emotion and can emphasize with the feelings of others.
MISBEHAVIOUR IN ORGANIZATION
An intentional action by members in organizations that violates organizational or societal

norms.
Managers are often faced with problem behaviors in the work setting that must be solved to
prevent additional negative consequences.
Why Management of employee misbehavior (MEM) in an organization?(concept)
 Misbehavior is costly
 Misbehavior reduces performance
 Misbehavior can impact the entire organization negatively
Above are the consequences of misbehavior. For this the management has to come
forward to solve the problems of misbehavior.
Management Interventions in misbehavior
Steps Management Can Take to Intervene
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3
Carefully screen applicants Reduce the possibility of a job, group,
Reduce the possibility of the
and refuse to hire “risky” or organizational antecedent that can
intention to misbehave
individuals trigger misbehavior
Types of Misbehaviour
a. Sexual harassment

Sexual harassment is displayed by unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors,
and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.
b. Aggression at work
The effort of an individual to bring harm to others at an organization.
The attempt to bring harm is intentional
It includes psychological as well as physical injury
c. Bullying
It means repeated actions, that are directed to another worker,
 which are unwanted,
 which may be done deliberately or unconsciously,
 but clearly cause humiliation and distress that creates an unpleasant work setting.
d. Workplace incivility
 It involves acting rudely, discourteously, or in a demeaning manor toward others
 It is a lack of respect for others

 It appears to be on the increase outside and inside the workplace
 Incivility can cause workplace conflicts and detract from productivity
e. Fraud
It is the intentional act of deceiving or misrepresenting in order to induce another
individual or group to give up something of value
f. Sabotage
 This involves damaging or destroying an organization‘s or colleagues equipment,
workspace, or data.
 It is an expression of aggression or violence by something tangible
 Sabotage targets include:
****People ****equipment ****operations
g. Cyberslacking
The use of the Internet for personal reasons. It is a form of virtual goldbricking
h. Theft
• the unauthorized taking, consuming, or transfer of money or goods owned by the
organization

• Stealing is not limited to tangible property
• Data, information, and intellectual property can and are stolen
• Theft is a serious issue that managers need to address
ATTITUDES
An attitude is a cognitive element; it always remains inside a person. In organizational
context, employees have attitudes related to job security or uncertainty, prestige of the
department and the work that does etc. The individual's attitudes toward these factors are
indicative of his apathy or enthusiasm toward the activities and objectives of the organization.
The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or
events.
More precisely attitudes can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a
particular way toward some object which may include events or individuals as well.
Attitude can be characterized in three ways:
 First, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.
 Second, attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very
unfavorable.
 Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings
(sometimes called ―affect‖) and beliefs.
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES (ABC MODEL OF ATTITUDE)
The three basic components of attitude are cognitive, conative and affective part.
1. Cognitive Component (thinking mode)
Cognitive Component of Attitude refers to opinion or belief part of attitude. ―What
you know and think about an object (product). Acquired from direct or indirect
experience/knowledge‖.
Example:
―I believe Japanese are Industrious‖ ―I believe spiders are dangerous‖.
2. Affective Component
Affective Component of Attitude refers to the emotional aspect of attitude A
consumer‘s emotions or feelings about a particular product or brand.
For example: ―I am scared of spiders‖.

3. Conative Component (Behavioural)
Conative Component of Attitude refers to the behavioral part of attitude. ―An
individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particular way with regard to the
attitude object‖
For example: ―I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one‖.
Formation of attitudes
1. Attitudes help predict work behavior.
The following example might help to illustrate it. After introducing a particular policy, it is found
from an attitude survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. During the subsequent
week it is found that the attendance of the employees drops sharply from the previous standard.
Here management may conclude that a negative attitude toward new work rules led to increased
absenteeism.
2. Attitudes help people to adapt to their work environment.
An understanding of attitudes is also important because attitudes help the employees to get
adjusted to their work. If the management can successfully develop a positive attitude among
the employees, they will be better adjusted to their work.
Attitudes are a result of beliefs. If the employees believe that their current job will provide them
with the experience and training necessary to be promoted.
1. Past experience:
People come to believe or not believe things on the basis of what they have experienced in
the past. If everyone who has held job A has been promoted within six months
2. Generalization
These come from similar events or situation. If no one has hold closely related job B has
ever been promoted, this may lead job A holders to believe that they will not be promoted either.
3. Association
People are highly influenced by the major groups or associations to which they belong. Our
religion , educational background, race, gender, age and income class, are strongly
influence our attitudes.
4. Family
Family experts influence on the initial core at attitudes held by an individual. Individuals

develop certain attitudes from the family members, parents, brothers, sisters, etc. some
investigation has found a high degree of relationship between parents and children in
attitudes than they found between children and their peers.
5. Peer groups
As people of adulthood they increasingly rely on their peer groups for approval attitude.
How others judge an individual largely determines his self image and approval seeking
behavior. We often seek out others who share attitudes similar to our own or else we
change our attitudes to conform the attitudes of those in the group whose approval is
important to us.
6. Society
Social class and religious affiliation also play a vital role in forming attitudes of an
individual. The culture, language and the structure of society, all provides an individual
with the boundaries of his initial attitudes. At the very early age an individual is taught
that certain attitudes are acceptable and certain others are non acceptable in the society.
Functions of Attitude
According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational
behaviour. These are as follows.
1. The Adjustment Function.
Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Well-treated employees tend to
develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general while
berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. In other words,
attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for future behaviour.
2. Ego-Defensive Function.
Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image. When a young faculty member who
is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members might feel
somewhat threatened by him. But they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as ‗crazy‘ and
‗impractical‘ and dismiss him altogether.
3. The Value-Expressive Function.

Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing their values. For example, a manager
who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee who is having a very
casual approach towards work.
4. The Knowledge Function.
Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to understand and
perceive the world around him. If one has a strong negative attitude towards the management,
whatever the management does, even employee welfare programmes can be perceived as
something ‗bad‘ and as actually against them.
CHANGING ATTITUDES
Some of the possible ways of changing attitudes are described below.
1. Providing New Information.
Sometimes a dramatic change in attitude is possible only by providing relevant and adequate
information to the person concerned. Scanty and incomplete information can be a major reason
for brewing negative feeling and attitudes.
2. Use of Fear.
Attitudes can be changed through the use of fear. People might resort to change their work habit
for the fear of fear of unpleasant consequences. However, the degree of the arousal of fear will
have to be taken into consideration as well.
3. Resolving Discrepancies.
Whenever people face a dilemma or conflicting situation they feel confused in choosing a
particular course of action. Like in the case where one is to choose from between two alternative
courses of action, it is often become difficult for him to decide which is right for him. Even when
he chooses one over the other, he might still feel confused. If someone helps him in pointing out
the positive points in favor of the chosen course of action, he person might resolve the dilemma.
4. Influence of friends and peers.
A very effective way of changing one‘s attitude is through his friends and colleagues. Their
opinion and recommendation for something often proves to be more important. If for example,
they are all praise for a particular policy introduced in the work place, chances are high that an
individual will slowly accept that even when he had initial reservations for that.
5. Co-opting.

If you want to change the attitude of somebody who belongs to a different group, it is often
becomes very effective if you can include him in your own group. Like in the case of the union
leader who are all the time vehemently against any management decision, can be the person
who takes active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that
decision making process himself.
Nature and Characteristics of Attitude
An attitude is a tendency to react positively or negatively in regard to an object. An attitude is
always directed toward some object, such as the temple, school, etc. A person who has an
attitude has a readiness or a disposition to react favorable or unfavorable to anyone of a large
variety of related situations. Until some situation arouses it, however, the attitude is latent.
Attitude can be characterized by:
1. Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups of individuals.
2. The feelings and beliefs are directed towards other people, objects or ideas.
3. Attitudes tend to result in behaviour or behaviour.
4. Attitudes endure.
5. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence hold attitudes.
6. Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavourable
Measurement of attitude:
For the measurement of attitudes, different types of scales are used.
1. Thurston’s scale
It collected a large number of statements relations to the area in which attitudes were to be
measured. The statements may be relating for any objects. For example religion, education, war,
peace, etc.
The statements both favorable and unfavorable are place in to eleven files. The respondents will
be asked to check those statements with which they agreed.
For example, if the average happens to be low, this would indicate high degree of favorableness
in attitudes in the particular area of field and if the average happens to be high this indicates low
degree in favorableness in attitudes in the area.
2. Likert’s scale
It has five boxes exhibiting from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Under each statements of

attitude the respondent will be given a chance to check the five boxes and finally all the ratings
will be summed up. This scale is a kind of a summed-rating measure as several statements are
collected in an person‗s attitude towards his job. The summed rating scale provides a means of
measuring the intensity of one‗s attitude toward a particular object.
3. Bogardus’s social distance scale
It is the simplest scale developed by Bogardus. The scale is composed of a large number of
statements regarding national, or racial or ethnic groups. Bogardus used a seven point scale
from the most favorable acceptance picture. That acceptance to close kingship by marriage, to
termination or exclusion from the country as the other by extreme end of scale.
TYPES OF ATTITUDES (ELEMENTS OF ATTITUDE)
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but OB focuses the attention only a very limited
number of job related attitudes. The following are some types of attitudes:
Job Satisfaction:
It refers to an individual's general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of
job satisfaction holds positive attitudes towards the job, while a person who is not satisfied holds
a negative attitude about the job.
Job Involvement:
It measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and
considers his or her perceived performance level important to his or her self worth. Employees
with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work
they do on their job
Organizational Commitment:
It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its
goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So high job involvement means
identifying with one's specific job, while high organizational commitment means identifying
with one's employing organization.

PERCEPTION
Introduction
Perception is the selection and organization of material which stems from the outside
environment at some time or the other to provide meaning to what we experience. The two basic
elements in this definition are:
"Perception is a cognitive process which selects, organizes and interprets the stimuli‖
"The psychological processes that allow an individual to adjust his behaviour is called
perception‖
"It is a cognitive process by which people attend to incoming stimuli, organise and
interpret such stimuli into behaviour‖
Elements of Perception
Perception is a process of sensory organs. The mind gets the information through the
five sense organs, i.e., eyes, nose, ears, tongue, and skin. The stimulation comes to the organs
through action, written messages, oral communication, taste, touch, etc. The perception starts
with the awareness of these stimuli. Recognising these stimuli takes place only after paying
attention to them. These messages are then translated into action.
Perception involves several elements (sub processes) which are listed below:
(i)Stimuli:
The receipt of information is the stimulus which results in sensation. Knowledge and behaviour
depend on senses and their stimulation. These senses are influenced by a larger number of
stimuli. The family, social and the economic environment are important stimuli for the people.
The physiological and psychological functions are impact of these stimuli. The physical work
environment, socio-cultural environment and other factors have certain stimuli to influence the
employee's perception.
(ii) Attention:
The stimuli that are paid attention depend purely on the people's selection capacity and the
intensity of stimuli. Educated employees pay more attention to any stimuli, for example,
announcement of bonus, appeal for efficiency, training, and motivation. The management has to
find out suitable stimuli, which can appeal to the employees at the maximum level. An

organization should be aware of all those factors, which affect the attention of the employees.
(iii) Recognition:
The messages or incoming stimuli are recognized before they are transmitted into behaviour.
Perception is a two-phase activity, i.e., receiving stimuli and translating the stimuli into action.
The recognition process is dependent on mental acceptability. For example, if a car driver
suddenly sees a child in front of his running car, he stops the car. He recognizes the stimuli, i.e.,
the life of the child is in danger. His mental process recognises the danger after paying attention
to the stimuli. If he does not attention to the stimuli, he cannot recognize the danger. After
recognizing the stimuli, he translates the massage into behaviour.
(iv) Translation:
The management in an organisation has to consider the various processes of translating the
message into action. The employees should be assisted to translate the stimuli into action. For
example, the announcement of bonus should be recognised as a stimulus for increasing
production. The employee should translate it into appropriate behaviour.
(v) Behaviour:
Behaviour is the outcome of the cognitive process. It is a response to change in sensory inputs,
i.e., stimuli. Perceptual behaviour is not influenced be reality, but is a result of the perception
process of the individual, his learning and personality, environmental factors and other internal
and external factors at the workplace. Perception is reflected in behaviour, which is visible in
different forms of employees' action and motivation.
(vi) Performance:
Proper behaviour learns to higher performance. High performers become a source of stimuli
and motivation to other employees. A performance-reward relationship is established to
motivate people.
(vii) Satisfaction:
High performance gives more satisfaction. The level of satisfaction is calculated with the
difference in performance and expectation. If the performance is more than the expectation,
people are delighted, but when performance is equal to expectation, it results in satisfaction. It
is essential to understand the factors that influence the perception process and mould
employees' behaviour towards the corporate objectives and self-satisfaction.

Factors Influencing Perception
Internal External
factors factors
 Habit a) Intensity
 Needs & desires b) Size
 Learning c) Contrast
 Organizational and d) Repetition
specialization e) Motion
 Economic and social f) Novelty and familiarity
background g) Situations
 Personality
 Response Disposition
 Response Salience
Internal factors influencing the perception process

The internal set factors are as under:
a. Habit:
Habits die hard and therefore individuals perceive objects, situations and conditions differently
according to their habits. A Hindu will bow and do Namaskar when he sees a temple while
walking on road, because of his well-established habit. These are several instances in life settings
where individuals tend to react with the right response to the wrong signals. Thus a retired
soldier may throw himself on the ground when he hears a sudden burst of car tyre.
b. Needs & desires
An individual‘s perception about stimuli is influenced by inter alia, his needs and desires at that
time. Perception varies depending upon variations in his/her needs and desires from time to
time. The perception of individual is greatly influenced by his needs & desires. This is because
the bahaviour of an individual is need based
c. Learning:
The state of learning influences and plays a crucial role in the perception process. However, it
should be recognized that the role of learning is more pronounced in respect of complex forms
of perception where the symbolic content creeps into the process. Although interrelated with

motivation and personality, learning may play the single biggest role in developing perceptual
set.
d. Organizational role and specialization:
The modern organizations value specialization. Consequently the specialty of a person that casts
him in a particular organizational role predisposes him to select certain stimuli and to disregard
others. Thus in a lengthy report a departmental head will first notice the text relating to his
department.
e. Economic and social background:
The employee perceptions are based on economic and social backgrounds. Socially and
economically developed employees have a more positive attitude towards development rather
than less developed employees.
f. Personality:
The personality of the perceiver as well as the stimulator has an impact on the perception
process. The age, sex, race, dress, etc of both the persons have a direct influence on the
perception process.
g. Response Disposition
Response disposition refers to a person‘s tendency to perceive familiar stimuli rather than
unfamiliar ones. Thus, a person will perceive the things with which he is familiar.
h. Response Salience
Response salience is the set of dispositions which are determined not by the familiarity of the
stimulus situations, but by the person‘s own cognitive predispositions.
External factors influencing the perception process
The external attention factors are:
a. Intensity:
The intensity of stimulus implies that the more intense the stimulus audio or visual, the more is
the likelihood it will be perceived. A loud noise, strong odour or bright light or bright colors will
be more readily perceived than soft sound, weak odour or dim light. It is because of this
advantage that advertisers employ intensity to draw the consumers' attention.
b. Size:

The size of the object or stimulus has a greater impact on the perception process because the size
influences attention and recognition in a more effective manner. A Great Den dog which is tall
attracts the attention. At the same time a pocket dog also attracts attention because of its size.
However, generally the larger the object the more likely it will be perceived. The amount of
attention enhances with the size of the newspaper advertisement exposed to the individuals
although the increase in attention may not be directly proportional to the increase in size.
c. Contrast:
Contrasting objects have more impact on behaviour. The contrast principle states that external
stimuli, which stand out against the background or which, are not what the people expect will
receive attention. Plant safety signs, which have black lettering on a yellow background or white
lettering on a red background, are attentions getting.
d. Repetition:
Repeated stimuli have more impact on performances than a single statement. Repetition has the
advantage of being attention catching. Perhaps, it is because of this that supervisors tend to
repeat directions regarding job instructions several times for even simple tasks to hold the
attention of their workers. Advertisers while putting T.V. or radio advertisements repeat the
brand name they are advertising.
e. Motion/Movement:
The factor of motion implies that the individuals attend to changing objects in their field of
vision than to static objects. It is because of this advantage that advertisers involve signs, which
include moving objects in their campaigns. The movement principle says that people pay more
attention to a moving object than the stationary ones. People will be attracted more by a running
train than one standing on the platform.
f. Novelty and familiarity:
A novel object in the familiar situation or a familiar object in a novel situation tends to attract
attention. Thus a white person or a black person in India catches attention faster. Job rotation is
an example of this principle. Recent research indicates that job rotation not only increased
attention but also employees' acquisition of new skills.

g. Situations:
Situations have a great influence on people's perceptions. A favourable work environment
develops a positive attitude and work culture because the perception process is easily
channelized and rightly directed.
Steps in Perceptual Process
1. Perceptual Inputs (Receiving Stimuli)
2. Perceptual Mechanism
a) Selection of Stimuli
b) Organization of Stimuli
c) Interpretation of Stimuli
3. Perceptual Output
Perpetual process
3. Perpetual outputs
1. Perpetual inputs
Stimuli (objects , events, Actions/response
people)
(Attitudes, feelings, opinions)
2. Perpetual throughputs
Receiving Selecting Organizing Interpreting
• Perceptual Process Selecting Stimuli

External factors : Nature,
Receiving Stimuli Location, Size, contrast,
(External & Internal) Movement, repetition, similarity
Internal factors : Learning,
needs, age, Interest,
Organizing
Interpreting
Figure Background ,
Attribution ,Stereotyping,
Perceptual Grouping
Halo Effect, Projection
( similarity, proximity,
closure, continuity)
Response
Covert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,
Feeling
Overt: Behavior

1. Receiving Stimuli
The first process in the perceptual processes is the presence of stimuli like people, objects,
events, information etc. Though the presence of stimulus is necessary for perception, it is not the
actual process of perception. Nevertheless the perception process cannot start in the absence of
stimuli.
2. Perpetual mechanisms;
The actual perception process starts with the receipt of information, or data (of stimuli) from
various sources. The receipt of stimuli is a psychological aspect of the perception process. And
most perceptual inputs are received from various sensory inputs. One sees things, hears them,
smells, tastes, or touches them and learns other aspects of the things. Thus, reception of stimuli
is a physiological aspect of perception process
(i)Selecting stimuli:
Not all the stimuli received by the human organism are accepted by it.Some stimuli are noticed
and some are screened out. These are caused by variety of factors which can be Internal
(Factors of Perceiver) and External (Factors of the Target)
Perpetual Selectivity:
Perception is a selective process. Certain amount of stimuli is screened out and others
are admitted.
(ii). Perpetual organization
While perceptual selectivity deals with factors affecting the stimuli for further processing,
perceptual organization deals with the manner in which selected stimuli are organized in order
to make sense out of them. A Person‘s perceptual process organizes the incoming information
into a meaningful whole. Principles used are –
1. Figure-ground,
2. Grouping
 Proximity
 Similarity

3. Simplification
4. Closure.
(1) Figure and Ground
The eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. a form, silhouette, or shape is
naturally perceived as figure (object), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground
(background). Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image clearer. Using
unusual figure/ground relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.
Figure: The word above is clearly perceived as figure with the surrounding white space
ground.
(2) Grouping
There is a tendency to group several stimuli into recognizable pattern. There are certain
underlying uniformity I grouping. It can be on the basis of proximity or similarity.
Proximity: Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together (Nearness). They tend to
be perceived as a group.
The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are perceived as separate shapes.
When the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs. While they continue to be separate
shapes, they are now perceived as one group.
Similarity: Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often
perceive them as a common group or pattern.

The example above (containing 11 distinct objects) appears as single unit because all of the
shapes have similarity. Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the bottom of the eagle
symbol look similar to the shapes that form the sunburst
(3) Simplification
When people are overloaded with information they try to simplify it to make it more meaningful and
understandable. In this process the perceiver subtracts the less important information and concentrates on
important ones. It makes things more understandable.
(4) Closure
Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of
the shape is indicated, people perceive the whole by filling in the missing information.
Although the panda above is not complete, enough is present for the eye to complete the shape.
When the viewer's perception completes a shape, closure occurs.
(iii) Interpreting the stimuli
After data has been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the
information. In fact, perception is said to have taken place only after the data have been
interpreted several factors contribute toward interpretation of data. More important amongst
them are:
 Attribution
 Stereotyping
 Halo effect
 Perceptual defense
(i)Attribution:
Process by which the individual assigns causes to the behavior. ―Why a person behaved in a
particular way‖.

e.g. a nurse who drops a tray of medicine will be excused if the incident is perceived as caused by
slippery floor, and chastised if it is perceived to be caused by her clumsiness and perhaps fired if
it is perceived as a deliberate act.
(ii)Stereotyping
Stereotyping is tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on the basis of a category of

people to which that person belongs. Stereotyping can lead to inaccuracies and negative
consequences
Example: All New Zealanders are destructive and money grubbers
(iii)Halo effect
Drawing general impression of individual on the basis of a single characteristic. I.e. when a
perceiver perceives another person's total qualities by perceiving only his few qualities or even a
single quality
Example: If someone is good at one dimension, he/she is perceived to be good at other

dimensions as well
(iv)Perceptual defense
According to this principle, an individual is likely to put up a defense when confronted with
conflicting, unacceptable, or threatening stimuli.
(3) Action:
The last phase of the perceptual process is that of acting in relation to what has been perceived.
This is the output aspect of perceptual process. The action may be covert or overt. The covert
action may be in the form of change in attitudes, opinions, feelings, values, and impression
formation resulting from the perceptual inputs and throughputs. The overt action may be in the
form of behavior easily visible.
Interpersonal perception
Interpersonal perception refers to the judgments that a person, called the perceiver, makes
about another person, called the target, where the target is a real person.
As defined according to our text, interpersonal perception is the process of making meaning
from people and relationship interact with in our daily lives.

In interpersonal perception in which the perceiver perceives another person and the latter
becomes a stimulus for perception. Individual in an organization constantly perceive one
another, managers perceive workers, and workers perceive managers.
Person perception is complex process as compared to object perception as involvement of many
factors.
1. Factors of the Perceiver
2. Factors in perceived.
3. Situational Factors
• Factors influencing Perception

Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Factors in the situation

Perception
• Time
• Work Setting
• Social Setting
Factors in the Target
• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
Impression Management
Definition
Impression management refers to the activity of controlling information in order to steer others‘
opinions in the service of personal or social goals.
Impression management is the process by which the general people attempt to
manage or control the perceptions that others form about them.
Impression management is the deliberate 'bending' of the truth in order to make a favorable
impression. Managing impression includes deliberate use of any or all of:
 Dress, make-up, hairstyle and other management of visual appearance.
 Manner and general behavior, such as being pleasant, assertive, and so on.
 Managing body language to conceal anxieties or untruths and show openness, etc.
 Being economic with the truth, not telling lies but also not revealing the whole truth.

 Exaggeration or complete fabrications of things that make you look good.
 Downplaying or denials of negative factors that make you look bad.
The Process of Impression Management
Most recently, however, two separate components of impression management have been
identified –
a. Impression motivation and b. impression construction.
a. Especially in an employment situation, subordinates may be; motivated to control how their
boss perceives them. The degree of this motivation to manage impression will depend on factors
like the relevance that these impressions have on the individual's goals, the value of these goals,
the discrepancy between the image one would like others to hold and the image one believes
others already hold.
b. Impression construction, the other major process, is concerned with the specific type of
impression people want to make and how they create it. Although some theorists limit the type
of impression only to personal characteristics others include such things as attitudes, physical
status, interests, or values.
Using this broader approach, five factors have been identified as being especially relevant to the]
kinds of impression people try to construct: the self-concept, desired and undesired identity
images, role constraints, target values and current social image. Although there has been a
considerable research done on how these five factors influence the type of impression that
people try to make, there is still little known of how they select the way to manage others'
perceptions of them.
Impression management Techniques
 Conformity- Agreeing with someone else‘s opinion in order to gain his or her approval
 Excuses-explanations of a predicament
 Apologies-Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event
 Self promotion-highlighting one‘s best qualities, and calling attention to ones

achievements
 Flattery-complimenting others about their effort
 Favors-doing something nice for someone

 Association- protecting ones image by managing information

MOTIVATION
Basic Concepts
Motivation is the word derived from the word ‘motive‘ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals.
It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals . In the
work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people‘s behaviour can be -
 Desire for money
 Success
 Recognition
 Job-satisfaction
 Team work ,etc
Nature of Motivation
1. Motivation is a psychological concept, which generated within an individual. It is an
inducement of inner feeling.
2. Motivation is a continuous process. Human needs are infinite and man is a wanting animal.
So this process is unending.
3. Motivation may be financial or non-financial.
4. Motivation cause goal oriented behaviour. A person behaves in such a way that ha can satisfy
his goals or needs.
5. Motivation is total not piece meal. A person cannot be motivated in parts.
6. Motivation may be positive or negative.
7. Motivation and satisfaction are different. Motivation refers to the drive and effort to satisfy a
want or goal. Satisfaction refers to the contentment experienced when a want is satisfied.
Importance of motivation
Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following benefits it provides:-
1. Puts human resources into action
Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources to accomplish the goals. It is
through motivation that the human resources can be utilized by making full use of it. This can be
done by building willingness in employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best
possible utilization of resources.

2. Improves level of efficiency of employees
The level of a subordinate or a employee does not only depend upon his qualifications and
abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap between ability and willingness has
to be filled which helps in improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result
into-
a. Increase in productivity,
b. Reducing cost of operations, and
c. Improving overall efficiency.
3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals
The goals of an enterprise can be achieved only when the following factors take place:- a.
There is best possible utilization of resources,
b. There is a co-operative work environment,
c. The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner,
d. Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place
simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.
4. Builds friendly relationship
In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a concern, the above steps should be taken by
a manager. This would help in:
a. Effective co-operation which brings stability,
b. Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce,
c. The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be no resistance to the change,
d. This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which individual interests will
coincide with the organizational interests,
e. This will result in profit maximization through increased productivity.
5. Leads to stability of work force
Stability of workforce is very important from the point of view of reputation and goodwill of a
concern. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of
participation in the management. The skills and efficiency of employees will always be of
advantage to employees as well as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market
which will attract competent and qualified people into a concern.

We can summarize by saying that motivation is important both to an individual and a business.
Motivation is important to an individual as:
1. Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.
2. If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.
3. Motivation will help in self-development of individual.
4. An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team.
Similarly, motivation is important to a business as:
 The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is.
 The more is the team work and individual employee contribution, more profitable and
successful is the business.
 During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity.
 Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.
Motivation incentives- Incentives used for motivation
Incentive is an act or promise for greater action. It is also called as a stimulus to greater action.
Incentives are something which is given in addition to wagers. It means additional
remuneration or benefit to an employee in recognition of achievement or better work.
The need of incentives can be many:-
 To increase productivity,
 To drive or arouse a stimulus work,
 To enhance commitment in work performance,

 To psychologically satisfy a person which leads to job satisfaction,
 To shape the behavior or outlook of subordinate towards work,
 To inculcate zeal and enthusiasm towards work,
 To get the maximum of their capabilities so that they are exploited and utilized
maximally.
Therefore, management has to offer the following two categories of incentives to motivate
employees:-
Motivational factors
There are several factors that motivate a person to work. The motivational factors can be broadly
divided into two groups:

1. Monetary factors: (Financial)
Those incentives which satisfy the subordinates by providing the rewards in terms of rupees.
Money has been recognized as a chief source of satisfying the needs of people. Money is also
helpful to satisfy the social needs by possessing various material items
a. Salaries or wages:
Salaries or wages is one of the most important motivational factors. Reasonable salaries must be
paid on time. While fixing salaries the organization must consider such as :
• Cost of living
• Company ability to pay
• Capability of company to pay etc,
b. Bonus
c. Incentives
The organization may also provide additional incentives such as medical allowance, educational
allowance, hra, allowance, etc.
d. Special individual incentives
2. Non monetary factors: (non financial)

Besides the monetary incentives, there are certain non-financial incentives which can satisfy the
ego and self- actualization needs of employees. The incentives which cannot be measured in
terms of money are under the category of ―Non- monetary incentives‖.
1. Status or job title
2. Appreciation and recognition
3. Delegation of authority
4. Working conditions
5. Job security
6. Job enrichment
7. Workers participation
8. Cordial relations
9. Good superiors
10. Other factors

There are several other factors of motivating the employees:
• Providing training to the employees.
• Proper job placements.
• Proper promotions and transfers.
• Proper performance feed back.
• Proper welfare facilities.
• Flexible working hours.
Positive Incentives (positive motivation)
Positive incentives are those incentives which provide a positive assurance for fulfilling the
needs and wants. Positive incentives generally have an optimistic attitude behind and they are
generally given to satisfy the psychological requirements of employees. For example-promotion,
praise, recognition, perks and allowances, etc. It is positive by nature.
Negative Incentives (negative motivation)
Negative incentives are those whose purpose is to correct the mistakes or defaults of employees.
The purpose is to rectify mistakes in order to get effective results. Negative incentive is generally
resorted to when positive incentive does not work and a psychological set back has to be given to
employees. It is negative by nature. For example- demotion, transfer, fines, penalties.
Furthermore, literature distinguishes 2 types of motivation:
a. Intrinsic motivation –
Intrinsic motivation is available at the time of performance of work. These motivations provide a
satisfaction during the performance of the work itself. Some of the intrinsic motivations are
praise, recognition, responsibility, esteem, power, status, participation etc
b. Extrinsic motivation –
This motivation is induced by external factors, which are primarily financial in nature. These
incentives and rewards have been subjected of debate, whether they really motivate the
employees or simply move them to work or perform. These motivations include higher pay,
retirement benefits, rest periods, holidays, health insurance etc.

Motivation Theories
Theories
Content theories Process theories
Maslow need theory Vroom’s theory
Herzberg’s theory Adam’s equity theory
ERG theory Porter’s theory
Achievement motivation
Content and Process theories
Content theories emphasis the importance of inner needs in motivation. The theories assume
that (i) all employees are alike (ii) all situations are alike (iii) there is one best way to motivate
all employees. Process theories view motivation as an individual‘s decision to act as to put
forth some given level of effort.
(i) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Human behavior is goal-directed. Motivation cause goal- directed behaviour. It is through

motivation that needs can be handled and tackled purposely. This can be understood by
understanding the hierarchy of needs by manager.
The needs of individual serves as a driving force in human behaviour. Therefore, a manager
must understand the ―hierarchy of needs‖. Maslow has proposed ―The Need Hierarchy Model‖.

Self actualization needs
Self-esteem needs
Social needs
Security needs
Physiological needs
The needs have been classified into the following in order:

1. Physiological needs-
These are the basic needs of an individual which includes food, clothing, shelter, air, water, etc.
These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life.
2. Safety needs-
These needs are also important for human beings. Everybody wants job security, protection
against danger, safety of property, etc.
3. Social needs-
These needs emerge from society. Man is a social animal. These needs become important. For
example- love, affection, belongingness, friendship, conversation, etc.
4. Esteem needs-
These needs relate to desire for self-respect, recognition and respect from others.
5. Self-actualization needs-
These are the needs of the highest order and these needs are found in those people whose
previous four needs are satisfied. This will include need for social service, meditation etc.
Criticism
1. Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs may not apply at all times, in all places and in all circumstances.
2. Some people do not require social needs because they might have lost love during their
childhood.
3. A single need cannot motivate any individual.
4. People differ in their expectation significantly. The same need may not lead to the same
response in all individuals.

5. The theory may not have universal applicability.
(ii)Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs (ERG Theory)
Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow‘s Need Hierarchy to align it more closely with empirical
research. Alderfer's theory is called the ERG theory -- Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.
• Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence requirements; what Maslow
called physiological and safety needs.
• Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining interpersonal
Relationships; similar to Maslow's social/love need, and the external component of his esteem
need
• Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development; the intrinsic component of
Maslow's esteem need, and self-actualization
Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow‘s Need Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory
demonstrates that,
a. More than one need may be operative at the same time.
b. ERG theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need must be substantially
satisfied before one can move on.
c. Alderfer also deals with frustration-regression. That is, if a higher-order need is frustrated,
an individual then seeks to increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need.
According to Maslow an individual would stay at a certain need level until that need was
satisfied. ERG theory counters by noting that when a higher- order need level is frustrated the
individual‘s desire to increase a lower- level need takes place. Inability to satisfy a need for social
interaction, for instance, might increase the desire for more money or better working conditions.
So frustration can lead to a regression to a lower need.
In summary, ERG theory argues, like Maslow, that satisfied lower- order needs lead to the desire
to satisfy higher-order needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same
time, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher- level need can result in regression to a
lower- level need.
(iii)Two-factor Theory: (Hertzberg’s two factor theory)
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, was
derived from a study designed to test the concept that people have two sets of needs:

1. their needs as animals to avoid pain
2. their needs as humans to grow psychologically
Research Results: it appeared from the research, that the things making people happy on the job
and those making them unhappy had two separate themes.
1) Satisfaction (motivational factors):
Five factors stood out as strong determiners of job satisfaction:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Work itself
 Responsibility
 Advancement
 Responsibilities for growth

The last three factors were found to be most important for bringing about lasting changes
of attitude. It should be noted, that recognition refers to recognition for achievement as opposed
to recognition in the human relations sense.
2) Dissatisfaction (hygiene factors):
The determinants of job dissatisfaction were found to be:
 Company policy and administrative policies

 Supervision
 Salary
 Interpersonal relations with supervisor

 Interpersonal relations with subordinates
 Interpersonal relations with peers
 Job security
 Personal life
 Status
 Working conditions
From the results Herzberg concluded that the replies people gave when they felt good about
their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad. Certain
characteristics tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction and others to job dissatisfaction.

Intrinsic factors, such as work itself , responsibility and achievement seem to be related to job
satisfaction. On the other dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors such as
supervision, pay, and company policies and working condition. Herzberg proposed that his
findings indicated the existence of a dual continuum: the opposite of ―satisfaction‖ is ―No
satisfaction‖ and the opposite of ―Dissatisfaction is ―No Dissatisfaction.
According to Herzberg, the factors leading to Job satisfaction are separate and distinct from
those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can
create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation.
(iv) Expectancy Theory
In recent years, probably the most popular motivational theory has been the Expectancy Theory
(also known as the Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory). Although there are a
number of theories found with this general title, they all have their roots in Victor Vroom's 1964
work on motivation.
Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives
whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The key elements to this theory are
referred to as
 Expectancy (E),
 Instrumentality (I), and
 Valence (V).
Critical to the understanding of the theory is the understanding that each of these factors
represents a belief.
Expectancy refers to the strength of a person's belief about whether or not a particular job
performance is attainable. Assuming all other things are equal, an employee will be motivated to
try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done.
A number of factors can contribute to an employee's expectancy perceptions:
• the level of confidence in the skills required for the task
•the amount of support that may be expected from superiors and subordinates
• the quality of the materials and equipment
• the availability of pertinent information

Vroom defines Instrumentality as a probability belief linking one outcome (a high level of
performance, for example) to another outcome (a reward).
Instrumentality may range from a probability of 1.0 (meaning that the attainment of the second
outcome -- the reward -- is certain if the first outcome -- excellent job performance -- is
attained) through zero (meaning there is no likely relationship between the first outcome and
the second).
The term Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes
(rewards). An outcome is positively valent if an employee would prefer having it to not having it.
An outcome that the employee would rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layoffs) is negatively
valent.
Outcomes towards which the employee appears indifferent are said to have zero valence.
Valences refer to the level of satisfaction people expect to get from the outcome.
There will be no motivational forces acting on an employee if any of these three conditions hold:
(1) the person does not believe that he/she can successfully perform the required task
(2) the person believes that successful task performance will not be associated with positively
valent outcomes
(3) the person believes that outcomes associated with successful task completion will be
negatively valent (have no value for that person)
MF= Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valance
(v) Achievement Motivation Theory
(McClelland’s Theory of Needs)
According to David McClelland, regardless of culture or gender, people are driven by three
motives:
• Achievement,
• Affiliation, and
• Power.
Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies relevant to achievement motivation
have been conducted. These studies strongly support the theory.
• Achievement:

The need for achievement is characterized by the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions
to problems, master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success.
• Affiliation:
The need for affiliation is characterized by a desire to belong, an enjoyment of teamwork, a
concern about interpersonal relationships, and a need to reduce uncertainty.
• Power :
The need for power is characterized by a drive to control and influence others, a need to win
arguments, a need to persuade and prevail
According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in an individual indicates a
predisposition to behave in certain ways. Therefore, from a manager's perspective, recognizing
which need is dominant in any particular individual affects the way in which that person can be
motivated.
(vi) Theory of “X” and Theory of “Y”:
Douglas McGregor observed two diametrically opposing viewpoints of managers about their
employees, one is negative called ―Theory of X‖ and one is positive called ―Theory of Y‖
a) Theory of X :
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the ―Theory of X‖ in regard to their
employees.
• Employees dislike work; if possible avoid the same
• Employees must be coerced, controlled or threatened to do the work
• Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
• Most employees consider security of job, most important of all other factors in the job and
have very little ambition
b) Theory of Y:
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the ―Theory of Y‖ in regard to their
employees.
• Employees love work as play or rest
• Employees are self directed and self controlled and committed to the organizational objectives
• Employees accept and seek responsibilities
• Innovative spirit is not confined to managers alone, some employees also possess it.

Theory of X assumes Maslow‘s lower level needs dominate in employees. Whereas
Theory of Y, assumes Maslow‘s higher level needs dominate in employees.
(vii)Cognitive Dissonance Theory
A cognition is any element of knowledge - an attitude, emotion, belief, value, behavior, etc.
When two cognitions are in direct conflict with one another a state of anxiety is produced -
dissonance is the term for the anxiety.
Compatible cognitions are consonant - i.e. they are in harmony.
A classic example of Cognitive Dissonance is holding the belief that "smoking is bad for you"
while continuing the behavior of smoking. These two cognitions are in direct conflict with each
other. The belief that smoking is bad is part of one neural network - perhaps associated with
health and fitness - while the behavior of smoking is part of another network having to do with
tension management, how to hang with friends, or the like.So, these cognitions exist in different
locations in the brain. Both are trying to accomplish something important for the self - tension
management and hanging with friends is important.
When two cognitions are in conflict anxiety (dissonance) is produced and grows until it becomes
stronger than the cognition with the lesser amount of resistance to change. When this threshold
is reached the subconscious mind is compelled to change, ignore, or modify the weaker of the
two cognitions in order to dispel the anxiety.
The processes of generalization, deletion, and distortion are used to acquire, invent,
repress, or modify beliefs to fit better with the behaviour. In the example of smoking and other
addictions repression is a distortion that allows an offending belief that cannot be deleted -
"smoking is bad for you" - to be ignored by pushing it out of awareness.
When the subconscious mind does this for you without your conscious awareness it's
called repression. When you purposefully and consciously push it out of your awareness it's
called suppression.
Motivation Theories: Behavior
Process theories explain how workers select behavioral actions to meet their needs and
determine their choices. The following theories each offer advice and insight on how people
actually make choices to work hard or not work hard based on their individual preferences,
the available rewards, and the possible work outcomes

(viii) Equity Theory(Adam’s)
Need Effort To To
achieve obtain
goal works
Degree
of
satisfaction
According to the equity theory, based on the work of J. Stacy Adams, workers compare the
reward potential to the effort they must expend. Equity exists when workers perceive that
rewards equal efforts.
But employees just don't look at their potential rewards, they look at the rewards of others
as well. Inequities occur when people feel that their rewards are inferior to the rewards
offered to other persons sharing the same workloads.
Employees who feel they are being treated inequitably may exhibit the following behaviors:
 Put less effort into their jobs
 Ask for better treatment and/or rewards
 Find ways to make their work seem better by comparison
 Transfer or quit their jobs
The equity theory makes a good point: People behave according to their perceptions.
What a manager thinks is irrelevant to an employee because the real issue is the way an
employee perceives his or her situation. Rewards perceived as equitable should have
positive results on job satisfaction and performance; those rewards perceived as inequitable
may create job dissatisfaction and cause performance problems.
Every manager needs to ensure that any negative consequences from equity
comparisons are avoided, or at least minimized, when rewards are allocated. Informed
managers anticipate perceived negative inequities when especially visible rewards, such as
pay increases or promotions, are allocated. Instead of letting equity concerns get out of

hand, these managers carefully communicate the intended values of rewards being given,
clarify the performance appraisals upon which these rewards are based, and suggest
appropriate comparison points.
(ix)Porter and Lawler Performance Satisfaction model
Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation
depending upon expectancy theory.
Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by
the person‘s ability to do the job and also by individual‘s perception of what the required task is.
So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards.
These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of
the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward.
Porter and Lawler: two factors determining the effort people put into their jobs:

● Value of rewards to individuals in so far as they satisfy their needs
● Probability that rewards depend on effort, as perceived by individuals, their expectation
about relationships between effort and reward
● Two additional variables:
● Ability – individual characteristics and skills
Porter and Lawler model

(x) Reinforcement theory
The reinforcement theory, based on E. L. Thorndike's law of effect, simply looks at the
relationship between behavior and its consequences. This theory focuses on modifying an
employee's on-the-job behavior through the appropriate use of one of the following four
techniques:
 Positive reinforcement rewards desirable behavior. Positive reinforcement, such
as a pay raise or promotion, is provided as a reward for positive behavior with the
intention of increasing the probability that the desired behavior will be repeated.
 Avoidance is an attempt to show an employee what the consequences of improper
behavior will be. If an employee does not engage in improper behavior, he or she will
not experience the consequence.

 Extinction is basically ignoring the behavior of a subordinate and not providing
either positive or negative reinforcement. Classroom teachers often use this tech nique
when they ignore students who are ―acting out‖ to get attention. This technique
should only be used when the supervisor perceives the behavior as temporary, not
typical, and not serious.
 Punishment (threats, docking pay, suspension) is an attempt to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior recurring by applying negative consequences.
The reinforcement theory has the following implications for management:
Learning what is acceptable to the organization influences motivated behavior.
 Managers who are trying to motivate their employees should be sure to tell
individuals what they are doing wrong and be careful not to reward all individuals at
the same time.
 Managers must tell individuals what they can do to receive positive reinforcement.
 Managers must be sure to administer the reinforcement as closely as possible to the
occurrence of the behavior.Managers must recognize that failure to reward can also
modify behavior. Employees who believe that they deserve a reward and do not
receive it will often become disenchanted with both their manager and company.
(xi) Goal-setting theory
The goal-setting theory, introduced in the late 1960s by Edwin Locke, proposed that
intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals, i n essence,
tell employees what needs to be done and how much effort should be expanded. In general,
the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance expected.
Managers can set the goals for their employees, or employees and managers can dev elop
goals together. One advantage of employees participating in goal setting is that they may be
more likely to work toward a goal they helped develop.
In addition to feedback, four other factors influence the goals-performance relationship:
 The employee must be committed to the goal.
 The employee must believe that he is capable of performing the task.
 Tasks involved in achieving the goal should be simple, familiar, and independent.
 The goal-setting theory is culture bound and is popular in North American cultures.

If the goal-setting theory is followed, managers need to work with their employees
in determining goal objectives in order to provide targets for motivation. In addition, the
goals that are established should be specific rather than general in nature, and managers
must provide feedback on performance.
2 Marks
1. What is personality?
It is the sum of total ways in which individual reacts and interacts with others.
2. What is learning?
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
3. What is perception?
Perception is a cognitive process which selects, organizes and interprets the stimuli‖
4. What is OB Mod?
It is a tool to modify the behaviour of members in organization. This can be done by using
various steps.
5. What is emotion?
A state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings.
6. What is misbehavior?
An intentional action by members that violates organizational norms. There are many types of
misbehaviors that occurs in an organisation
7. What is attitude?
It is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events.
8. What are the functions of attitudes?
Attitudes serve four major functions for the individual:
(1) the adjustments function,
(2) the ego defensive function,
(3) the value expressive function
(4) the knowledge function.

9. What is Perceptual Selectivity?
Perceptual selectivity is the process by which individuals screen and select the various objects
and stimuli that vie for their attention.
10. What is cognition?
The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses.
11. What is halo effect?
When we consider a person good (or bad) in one category, we are likely to make a similar
evaluation in other categories.
Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic or trait is

called halo effect.
12. What is stereotyping?
Stereotyping means when we generalize. Think of a social group which you may have come
across. We often feel that all the members of the group are alike. This is stereotyping.
13. What is attribution?
Attribution refers to how people in situations like the workplace construct explanations of other
people's behavior.
Attribution refers to explaining human behaviour in terms of cause and effect. The
evaluation and reaction to others behaviour may be heavily influenced by their perception.
For example, if a prosperous worker does overtime on any day, it is perceived that he has done it
in the interest of the organization. If a poor worker also does the same, the action of behaviour
is perceived as being for money.
14. What is Perceptual Distortion?
Lack of correspondence between the way a stimulus is commonly perceived and the way an
individual perceives it under given conditions.
15. What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is an internal belief system and how we experience life externally. Self-esteem is the
opinion you have of yourself. Self-esteem is a state of mind.

16. What is Self-image?
Self-image is the way someone sees themselves.
The conception that one has of oneself, including an assessment of qualities and personal worth.
It is "who we think we are"; it is our self-concept.
The self-image is the collection of traits which we recognize in the ego and our archetypal fields;
for example, we might recognize ourselves as patient, bold, handsome, funny, talented,
successful, etc.
17. How will you achieve personality fit?
The personality–job fit theory assumes that examining a person's personality will give insight
into their adaptability in an organization. Basically, how well they will fit in and work. By
matching the right personality with the right company you we achieve a better synergy and
avoid pitfalls such as high turnover and low job satisfaction.
18. What is interpersonal perception?
Interpersonal perception is the process of making meaning from people and relationship
interact with in our daily lives. It is the bond between two or more people.
19. Define Impression Management
Impression management is the process by which the general people attempt to manage or
control the perceptions that others form about them.
20. What is Type A personality?
These people are very competitive and have a strong sense of urgency. They work well in
moderate-to-high levels of stress. Type As is fast workers who may not be too interested in the
quality of their output.
21. What is Type B personality?
The opposite of Type A people, Type Bs have far less time urgency and less competitive natures.
Type As does better in getting hired, but the work situation itself may indicate that a Type B
person would be an overall better fit.
22. What are values?
Values are the basic convictions that give us a sense of right and wrong, good and bad. Values
mean standards or ideas which most people have about the worth of good qualities such as
kindness, freedom, mercy, respect, and love

23. What are the determinants of personality?
Heredity, Brain, Physical features, Religion, Culture, family, social groups , Parental influences.
24. What are types of learners?
Active/Reflective Sensing Intuitive
Visual/Verbal Sequential/Global Kinesthetic Learners Auditory Learners
25. What is emotional labour?
Emotional labor is a form of emotional regulation wherein workers are expected to display
certain emotions as part of their job, and to promote organizational goals.
26. What is emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, acknowledge, manage and handle your
emotions in such a way that promotes personal growth.
27. What are the types of motivation?
1. Positive and Negative motivation
2. Monetary and Non-monetary motivation
3. Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
28. What is motivation?
It is the process of stimulating or inducing a person to do a desire course of action.
Performance= ability * Willingness ( It depends upon motivation)
29. What are motivational factors?
Six factors stood out as strong determiners of job satisfaction:
Achievement Recognition Work itself
Responsibility Advancement Responsibilities for growth
30. What are hygiene factors?
The determinants of job dissatisfaction were found to be:
 Company policy and administrative policies

 Supervision
 Salary
 Interpersonal relations with supervisor
 Interpersonal relations with subordinates

 Interpersonal relations with peers
 Job security
 Personal life
 Status
 Working conditions
31. What is work life balance?
The subjective definition of work-life balance is used in the current study ―a perceived balance
between work and the rest of life‘‘.
32. What is closure?
When people face with incomplete information, they tend to fill the gaps themselves to make it
more meaningful. They may do it on the basis of their experience, hunches (guess) or past data.
The tendency to form a complete message from an incomplete one is known as closure.
33. What is self-efficacy?
Self efficacy means a person's belief about his or her ability and capacity to accomplish a task or
to deal with the challenges of life.
34. What is locus of control
An individual‘s generalized belief about internal (self)versus external (situation or others)

control is called locus of control.
(1) Internal locus of control – People who believe they control what happens to them are
said to have an internal locus of control.
(2) External Locus of control – People who believe that circumstances or other people
control their face have an external locus of control.
35. How can we differentiate “values, morals and ethics”?
Values are an individual's accepted standards of right or wrong.
Morals are society's standards of right and wrong, very similar to ethics.
Ethics can be described as a structured system of principles that govern appropriate

conduct for a group, including activities such as professional ethics,compassion, commitment,
cooperation.
36. What do you mean by introverts and extroverts?
An introvert is a person who is energized by being alone and whose energy is drained by being
around other people. These type of people may be shy, quite and reserved.

An extrovert is a person who is energized by being around other people. These type of people
may be talkative ,sociable, friendly and outspoken.
37. What do you mean by social learning theory?(Vicarious)
This theory states that behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
experience and by observing others.
38. What do you mean by Machiavellianism?
Machiavellianism is a personality characteristic indicating one's willingness to do whatever it

takes to get one's own way.
39. What is self- monitoring?
Self-monitoring is an individual‘s ability to adjust his/her behavior to external

factors/situations.
40. What are the components of attitudes?
1. Cognitive Component
2. Conative Component (behaviour)
3. Affective Component

Organisational Behaviour

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Organisational Behaviour

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Unit-2

Foundation of Individual Behaviour

Organisation is composed of individuals. Each of them differs in perceptions, motives

Organizational systems Individual development

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 1

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 2

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 3

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 4

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 5

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 6

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 7

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 8

1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

2. The Big Five Model

1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

2. The Big Five Model

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 9

The four Preferences

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 10

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 11

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

2. THE BIG FIVE MODEL

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 12

3.Conscientiousness: Measures reliability. High scorers are responsible, organized,

MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 13

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 14

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 15

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 16

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 17

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 18

learn through , moving, doing and touching...

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 19

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 20

Steps in Learning Process

Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Efforts Motives Habit Reward

3) Recognition: Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 21

6) Behavior: Learning changes behavior through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It

8) Habits: A permanent change in behavior becomes a habit which helps continuous

(i) Classical conditioning theory

(i) Classical conditioning theory

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 22

The Classical Conditioning Procedure:

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 23

Unconditioned Reflex (salivation)

Conditioned Stimulus (bell)

The conditioned stimulus is

Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell)

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 24

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 25

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 26

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 27

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 28

I. James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]:

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 29

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 30

Meaning and definition:

Mrs.A.Padmapriya M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil. UGC-NET (PhD)/CCET/MBA Page 31