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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

CONTENTS

CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... i

PREFACE .......................................................................................................................... iii

UNIT 1 .................................................................................................................................. 1

CRITICAL READING ....................................................................................................... 1

A. WHAT IS CRITICAL READING? ........................................................................... 1

B. WHY DO WE NEED TO TAKE CRITICAL APPROACH TO READING ........... 4

C. CONTRIBUTION OF CRITICAL READING TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE


EDUCATION ............................................................................................................ 5

D. CRITICAL READING DOES NOT HAVE TO BE ALL NEGATIVE ................... 5

UNIT 2 .................................................................................................................................. 6

CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES ............................................................................ 6

UNIT 3 ................................................................................................................................ 13

FACT AND OPINION ...................................................................................................... 13

A. FACT VS NON-FACT ............................................................................................ 13

B. FACT VS OPINION ................................................................................................ 16

UNIT 4 ................................................................................................................................ 21

EVALUATING AN AUTHOR’S OPINION .................................................................. 21

A. JUSTIFIED VS UNJUSTIFIED OPINIONS........................................................... 23

B. RELEVANT VS IRRELEVANT FACTS ............................................................... 27

UNIT 5 ................................................................................................................................ 30

GENERALIZATIONS ..................................................................................................... 30

A. IDENTIFYING GENERALIZATIONS .................................................................. 31

B. HASTY GENERALIZATIONS .............................................................................. 32

C. ACCEPTABLE QUALIFIERS ................................................................................ 34

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UNIT 6 ................................................................................................................................ 37

TONE ................................................................................................................................. 37

A. WHAT IS TONE? .................................................................................................... 37

B. OBJECTIVE REPORTING VS SUBJECTIVE REPORTING ............................... 41

C. VARIOUS TONES .................................................................................................. 44

UNIT 7 ................................................................................................................................ 50

THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE .......................................................................................... 50

A. APPARENT PURPOSES VS NON-APPARENT PURPOSES .............................. 58

B. HOW TO IDENTIFY THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE .............................................. 62

UNIT 8 ................................................................................................................................ 70

BIAS ................................................................................................................................... 70

A. WHAT IS BIAS? ..................................................................................................... 70

B. HOW TO IDENTIFY BIAS .................................................................................... 74

UNIT 9 ................................................................................................................................ 87

DRAWING CONLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 87

A. WHAT IS DRAWING CONCLUSION? ................................................................ 87

B. STEPS IN DRAWING CONCLUSIONS ................................................................ 90

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 95

ANSWER KEY ................................................................................................................. 98

GLOSSARIES ................................................................................................................. 101

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

PREFACE

Critical Reading skill is a receptive skill subject that must be mastered by student of
English department. Critical Reading is advanced Reading to criticize some texts in
understanding of comprehension of text. A good critical reading theory ought to account
for many different aspects in critical Reading use, Including comprehension and
understanding of texts. These topics are introduced in this book and have been arranged
according to relative difficulty of the ideas involved. The materials of Critical Reading Skill
are; what is critical reading, critical reading strategies, fact and opinion, evaluating an
authors’ opinion, generalization, tone, the author purposes, generalization and drawing
conclusions, etc.

We are pleased to acknowledge the assistance of many people in the preparation of


this book. It is hoped that students can practice more by using this book. We are waiting for
suggestion and criticism from the readers. Thanks.

Serang, April, 2015

Writers

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

UNIT 1

CRITICAL READING

Reading in a language, either first language (L1) or second language (L2),


is a complex phenomenon in that the reader, during reading, carries out various
processes. There have been many studies that try to shed ligh on his invetable
skill of life, which caused the existence of a great accumulation of information
on this process. Hence, there appeared different approaches, models,
definitions, and types of reading. Critical reading is one of the recent influential
approaches. This present literature review aims to convey to the reader what
knowledge and ideas have been established on critical reading with a focus on
its strengths, and to provide the readers with a bibliography of the studies
available on critical reading.

A. WHAT IS CRITICAL READING?

There are some definitions of critical reading:

 Critical reading is an important precursor to critical writing.


 Critical reading applies to non-fiction writing in which the author puts
forth a position or seeks to make a statement.

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 Critical reading is the ability to read carefully, to evaluate ideas, and to


judge the value of a text.
 Critical reading is not simply close and careful meaning. To read critically,
one must actively recognize and analyze evidence upon the page.
 Critical reading is a technique for discovering information and ideas
within a text.
 Critical reading referes to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading.
 A critical reader might read the same work to appreciate how a particular
perspective on the events and a particular selection of facts can lead to
particular understanding.

Among various definions of critical reading, there have been two


different perspective: one equates critical reading to critical thinking and other
dwells upon critical discourse analysis. The first perspective of critical reading
has been critized as being a weak one and only considering the logical anomalies
texts and in arguments of all kinds (Wallace,2003). This study deals with the
second pesrpective and definitions in line with this one are provided. Wilson,
Devereux, Macken-Horarik & Trimingham-Jack (2004) defines critical reading
as “engaging in dialogue with texts- both listening to the voices of the text and
responding to them.” McDonald (2004) states that “critical ways of reading are
intended to construct readers who, for example, can identify texts as crafted
objects, who are alert to the values and interests espused by the text, who
recognize their position as compliant or resistant readers”. And Cervetti,
Pardales &Damico (2001) views critical reading as a process, and its definition
is critical reading is the process of evaluating the authenticity and validity of
material and of formulating an opinion about it.
Based on those definitions, critical reading means that a reader applies
certain processes, models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity
and comprehension. There is more involved, both in effort and understanding,
in a critical reading than in a mere “skimming” of the text. What is the
difference? If a reader “skims” the text, superficial characteristics and
information are as far as the reader goes. A critical reading gets at “deep
structure” (if there is such a thing apart from the superficial text), that is, logical
consistency, tone, organization, and a number of other very important sounding
terms.

According to Leicester University (2011), the most characteristic


features of critical reading are that you will:

 Examine the evidence or argument presented


 Check out any influences on the evidence or arguments

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 Check out the limitation of study design or focus


 Examine the interpretation made
 Decide to what extent you are prepared to accept the author’s arguments,
opinions, or conclusions.

According to Kurland (2000), critical reading goes two steps further.


Having recognized what a text says, it reflects on what the text does by making
such remarks. Is it offering examples? Arguing? Appealing for sympathy?
Making a contrast to clarify a point? Finally, critical reader then infer what the
text, as a whole, means, based on the earlier analysis.

These three steps or modes of analysis are reflected in three types of


reading and discussion.

 What a text says (restatement) : after critically reading a piece you


should be able to take notes, paraphrasing-in your own words- the key
points.
 What a text does (description): you should be confident that you have
understood the text sufficiently to be able to use youw own examples
and compare and contrast with other writing on the subject in hand.
 What a text mean (interpretation): this means that you should be able
to fully analyze the text and state a meaning for the text as a whole.

You can distinguish each mode of analysis by the subject matter of


the discussion:

 What a text says – restatement – talks about the same topic as the
original text
 What a text does – description – discussion aspects of the discussion
itself
 What a text means – interpretation – analyzes the text and asserts a
meaning for the text as a whole.

Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask students to accomplish


certain goals:

 To recognize an author’s purpose


 To understand tone and persuasive elements
 To recognize bias

Notice that none of these goals actually refers to something on the page. Each
requires inferences from the evidence within the text.

 Recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content


and language.

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 Recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the


nature of language choices.
 Recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of
content and language.

B. WHY DO WE NEED TO TAKE CRITICAL APPROACH TO


READING

According to Leicester University (2011), regardless of how objective,


technical, or scientific the subject matter, the author(s) will have made many
decisions during the research and writing process, and each of these decisions
is a potential topic for examination and debate, rather than for blind acceptance.
You need to be prepared to step into the academic debate and to make your own
evaluation of how much you are willing to accept what you read. A practical
starting point therefore, is to consider anything you read not as fact, but as the
argument of the writer. Talking this starting point you will be ready to engage
in critical reading.

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To read critically is important. Critical reading requires you to evaluate the


arguments in the text. You need to distinguish fact from opinion and look at
arguments given for and against the various claims. This also means being
aware of your opinion and assumptions (positive and negative) of the text you
are reading so you can evaluate it honestly. It is also important to be aware of
the writer’s background, assumptions and purposes. All writers have a reason
for writing and will emphasise details which support their reason for writing
and ignore details that do not.

C. CONTRIBUTION OF CRITICAL READING TO FOREIGN


LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Wallace (2003) centers her claims about possible contribution of critical


reading to foreign language learners around three major points.

 Critical reading, although its primary focus is not on formal language


development, provides readers with chances to utilize their present
linguistic resources, and to extend them concurrently through
engagement in discussion with the texts.
 Participating in the critical talk around the texts first requires precision
which may enhance grammatical accuracy and general fluency.
 Foreign language readers, especially readers of English, are able to
function in a wider arena than the local through critical talk and critical
literacy.

Wallace (2003) also states that critical talk which is carried around the
texts during the critiquing the text also has contribution to readers. These are as
follows:
 The students offer more opinions and judgement through the use of
mental process verbs, for example, I think, as fas as I can see, etc.
 They comment metacognitively on their own opinion forming and
reflection.
 The students refere directly to the value of having opinions and of being
able to articulate them effectively.

D. CRITICAL READING DOES NOT HAVE TO BE ALL


NEGATIVE

The aim of critical reading is not to find fault, but to assess the strength of
the evidence and the argument. It is just as useful to conclude that a study, or an
article, presents very strong evidence and a well-reasoned argument, as it is to
identify the studies or articles that are weak.

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UNIT 2

CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES

Critical reading applies to non-fiction writing in which the author puts


forth a position or seeks to make a statement. Critical reading is active reading.
It involves more than just understanding what an author is saying. Critical
reading involves questioning and evaluating what the author is saying and
forming your own opinions about what the author is saying.

According to Strichart (2012), here are the things you should do to be a


critical reader.
 Consider the context of what is written. You may be reading
something that was written by an author from a different cultural context
than yours. Or, you may be reading something written some time ago in
a different time context than yours. In either case, you must recognize
and take into account any differences between your values and attitudes
and those represented by the author.

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 Question assertions made by the author. Don’t accept what is written


at face value. Before accepting what is written, be certain that the author
provides sufficient support for any assertions made. Look for facts,
examples, and statistics that provide support. Also, look to see if the
author has integrated the work of authorities.

 Compare what is written with other written work on the subject.


Look to see that what is written is consistent with what others have
written about the subject. If there are inconsistencies, carefully evaluate
the support the author provides for the inconsistencies.
 Analyze assumptions made by the author. Assumptions are whatever
the author must believe is true in order to make assertions. In many
cases, the author’s assumptions are not directly stated. This means you
must read carefully in order to identify any assumptions. Once you
identify an assumption, you must decide whether or not the assumption
is valid.

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 Evaluate the sources the author uses. In doing this, be certain that the
sources are credible. For example, Einstein is a credible source if the
author is writing about landmark achievements in physics. Also be
certain that the sources are relevant. Einstein is not a relevant source
when the subject is poetry. Finally, if the author is writing about a
subject in its current state, be sure that the sources are current. For
example, studies done by Einstein in the early 20th century may not be
appropriate if the writer is discussing the current state of knowledge in
physics.

 Identify any possible author bias. A written discussion of American


politics will likely look considerably different depending on whether the
writer is a Democrat or a Republican. What is written may very well
reflect a biased position. You need to take this possible bias into account
when reading what the author has written. That is, take what is written
with "a grain of salt."

According to Salisbury University (2011), here are other critical


reading strategies as follows:

 Previewing: Learning about a text before really reading it.


Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is about and
how it is organized before reading it closely. This simple strategy
includes seeing what you can learn from the headnotes or other
introductory material, skimming to get an overview of the content and
organization, and identifying the rhetorical situation.

 Contextualizing: Placing a text in its historical, biographical, and


cultural contexts. When you read a text, you read it through the lens of

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your own experience. Your understanding of the words on the page and
their significance is informed by what you have come to know and value
from living in a particular time and place. But the texts you read were
all written in the past, sometimes in a radically different time and place.
To read critically, you need to contextualize, to recognize the differences
between your contemporary values and attitudes and those represented
in the text.

 Questioning to understand and remember: Asking questions about


the content.
As students, you are accustomed (I hope) to teachers asking you
questions about your reading. These questions are designed to help you
understand a reading and respond to it more fully, and often this
technique works. When you need to understand and use new information
though it is most beneficial if you write the questions, as you read the
text for the first time. With this strategy, you can write questions any
time, but in difficult academic readings, you will understand the material
better and remember it longer if you write a question for every paragraph
or brief section. Each question should focus on a main idea, not on
illustrations or details, and each should be expressed in your own words,
not just copied from parts of the paragraph.

 Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: Examining your


personal responses. The reading that you do for this class might
challenge your attitudes, your unconsciously held beliefs, or your
positions on current issues. As you read a text for the first time, mark an
X in the margin at each point where you feel a personal challenge to
your attitudes, beliefs, or status. Make a brief note in the margin about
what you feel or about what in the text created the challenge. Now look
again at the places you marked in the text where you felt personally
challenged. What patterns do you see?

 Outlining and summarizing: Identifying the main ideas and


restating them in your own words. Outlining and summarizing are
especially helpful strategies for understanding the content and structure
of a reading selection. Whereas outlining reveals the basic structure of
the text, summarizing synopsizes a selection's main argument in brief.
Outlining may be part of the annotating process, or it may be done
separately (as it is in this class). The key to both outlining and
summarizing is being able to distinguish between the main ideas and the
supporting ideas and examples. The main ideas form the backbone, the
strand that holds the various parts and pieces of the text together.

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Outlining the main ideas helps you to discover this structure. When you
make an outline, don't use the text's exact words. Summarizing begins
with outlining, but instead of merely listing the main ideas, a summary
recomposes them to form a new text. Whereas outlining depends on a
close analysis of each paragraph, summarizing also requires creative
synthesis. Putting ideas together again -- in your own words and in a
condensed form -- shows how reading critically can lead to deeper
understanding of any text.

 Evaluating an argument: Testing the logic of a text as well as its


credibility and emotional impact. All writers make assertions that they
want you to accept as true. As a critical reader, you should not accept
anything on face value but to recognize every assertion as an argument
that must be carefully evaluated. An argument has two essential parts: a
claim and support. The claim asserts a conclusion -- an idea, an opinion,
a judgment, or a point of view -- that the writer wants you to accept. The
support includes reasons (shared beliefs, assumptions, and values) and
evidence (facts, examples, statistics, and authorities) that give readers
the basis for accepting the conclusion. When you assess an argument,
you are concerned with the process of reasoning as well as its
truthfulness (these are not the same thing). At the most basic level, in
order for an argument to be acceptable, the support must be appropriate
to the claim and the statements must be consistent with one another.

 Comparing and contrasting related readings: Exploring likenesses


and differences between texts to understand them better. Many of
the authors we read are concerned with the same issues or questions, but
approach how to discuss them in different ways. Fitting a text into an
ongoing dialectic helps increase understanding of why an author
approached a particular issue or question in the way he or she did.

Reading effectively requires approaching texts with a critical eye:


evaluating what you read for not just what it says, but how and why it says it.
Effective reading is central to both effective research (when you evaluate
sources) and effective writing (when you understand how what you read is
written, you can work to incorporate those techniques into your own writing).
Being an effective reader also means being able to evaluate your own practices,
working to develop your critical reading comprehension.

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IDENTIFY WHAT YOU’RE READING FOR.


 Knowing why you’re reading a given text can help you organize both
your reading and how you can use what you read.
 Before you read a text, ask and answer the following kinds of questions:
Are you reading only for general content? For data? For specific
information or for general thematic concerns? For arguments that
support or contest your thesis in a writing assignment? For information
that you know you’ll need for an assignment, or for information to get
you thinking about what you’ll need?

ALLOW ENOUGH TIME TO READ, AND TAKE YOUR TIME.


 Reading critically is not a fast process. Many students do not set aside
enough study time for reading (and rereading), and read everything
either too quickly or at the same speed. If you know what you’re reading
for, you can better distinguish information that can be skimmed from
that which should be more closely examined, and make better use of
your reading time.
 Preview or survey the text before detailed reading begins, looking for
clues related to its purpose, its relevance, its difficulty, and how it
connects with ideas or information you already know.
 Be willing to struggle with the text in order to understand it – but don’t
get hung up on single, tough details in first readings. Rather, hold
confusing passages in mental suspension, and continue to read with the
idea that what seems difficult to understand now may be cleared up as
you go along.

REMEMBER THAT RE-READING IS A PART OF EFFECTIVE,


CRITICAL READING.
 Just as having more than one conversation with another person leads to
closer understanding, conducting a number of readings leads to a richer
and more meaningful relationship with, and understanding of, a text.
 If your first reading is for basic information and evaluation, subsequent
readings can take on different levels of focus (on style and tone, on
details, on examples, on intellectual or ideological tradition, etc.).
 In re-reading, work to separate parts of arguments (e.g., thesis idea,
evidence, preview, counterarguments) and to understand how these parts
work to support the author’s thesis.

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ENGAGE WITH THE TEXT TO GET THE MOST OUT OF IT.


 Read with a pen or pencil, highlighting key statements, parts, or points
– even those you find confusing. Also, make note of words or terms you
don’t understand so you can look them up later.
 Note where and how the text relates to lectures or discussions, as well
as general or specific questions you might wish to ask your instructor in
class or office hours.
 Record your own questions, points of agreement or disagreement,
references to related ideas, and points at which ideas match up with each
other. In other words, work to enter into a dialogue with the text, mark
it up, and make it your own.

ASK YOURSELF IF YOU CAN EXPLAIN BOTH “WHAT THE


TEXT SAYS” AND “WHAT IT DOES.”
 In other words, can you both provide a summary of key claims and
theses and understand its purpose, what this text seeks to do (to report
or state facts, to contest a certain idea, to persuade, to open new
inquiries, etc.)?
 Keep in mind that all texts filter reality – distort, persuade, and arrive at
different conclusions – and that all texts are trying to change your view
in some way.

ATTEMPT TO UNDERSTAND HOW EACH WRITER’S


BACKGROUND AND PURPOSES INFLUENCE WHAT
THEY WRITE.
 Reading a text critically requires that you ask questions about the
writer’s authority and agenda. You may need to put yourself in the
author’s shoes and recognize that those shoes fit a certain way of
thinking.
 Work to determine and understand an author’s context, purpose, and
intended audience.

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UNIT 3

FACT AND OPINION

When reading nonfiction, it is important to be able to distinguish


between statements that are facts and statements that are opinion and nonfacts.
Sometimes it is hard to tell the difference between sentences that are facts and
sentences that are fiction. When forming personal convictions, we often
interpret factual evidence through the filter of our values, feelings, tastes, and
past experiences. Hence, most statements we make in speaking and writing are
assestions of fact, opinion and nonfact. The usefulness and acceptability of an
assertion can be improved or diminished by the nature of the asserstion,
depending on which following categories.

A. FACT VS NON-FACT

Based on Oka (2008), distinguish between fact and opinion is an


important critical reading skill. Before you can do this you have to know first
what a fact is and what an opinion is.

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A fact is a truth. Because it is a truth, it can be proven as true. So, any


happening, event, condition, state, etc, that can be proven is a fact. A non-fact
is a statement that can be proven false. For example, look at the statement:

1. The late President Soekarno was born in 1901.


This is a fact because we can easily prove that indeed President
Soekarno was born in 1901. What about the next statement.
2. The late President Soekarno was born in 1925.

Is this a fact? Well, it can be a fact if we can prove that it is true. But if
we can prove that statement (1) is true, statement (2) can not be true. Therefore,
statement (2) is not a fact, it is a non-fact. Is statement (2) an opinion then? We
will answer this later if we come to the discussion of opinion. For now, as an
initial exercise, why don’t you try to distinguish facts from non-fact statements
in the following activity.

Other example is the earth is flat. This statement is not an opinion, but
can be proven false.

Activity 1
Put an F (fact) and NF (non-fact) in the blank in front of the statement
you believe to be true or not true.
1. Indonesia has a population of ± 200 milion.
2. Columbus discovered America in 1492.
3. It is raining right now.
4. Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941.

How did you do on these four statements? Did you mark no. 1 as fact
(F) ? Good. No. 1 is a fact because recent government statistical sources have
announced the birth of baby no. 200,000,000.
What about statement no. 2? I look like a fact. If we open up our history
books we will find that Columbus discovered America. But that information is
nowadayss not accepted anymore. Columbus himself reported that when he set
foot on the America shore, he found people living there. In other words,
Columbus did not discover America, and no. 2 should be marked as NF (non-
fact).
In the case of no. 3, you can see for yourself whether it is raining or not.
If it is, you mark it as F (fact).

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How did you mark the last statement? If you are not sure, you can check
a number of reliable sources, an encyclopedia, for example. According to these
sources no. 4 is true, therefore, you can mark it (F). The difference between fact
and non-fact might still be confusing to you. Let’s do another exercise on fact
and non-facts.

Activity 2
In this activity we will use some familiar nursery rhymes and tales. Of
course you have to assume that the stories are true and pretend that you have
never heard of them. Each rhyme and tale is followed by a number of statement.
Mark each one as F (fact) or NF (non-fact).
Example
a. Little Jack Horner sat in the corner
Eating a Christmas pie
He put in this thumb and pulled out a plum
And said, “What a good boy am !”
Statement : Jack Horner was little
Answer : NF (non-fact)

Explanation
Actually an answer of ‘fact’ is acceptable because the story syas “Little
Jack Horner”. But we cannot prove another Jack Horner was really lttle, or
whether it was just a nickname to tease him. Therefore, the statement better be
marked as NF.
Now, continue with other sentences in the rhyme.
1) Jack was sitting in the corner while he was eating.
Answer ...............
2) Jack was eating a plum pie.
Answer ...............
3) Jack was sitting on a chair.
Answer ...............

b. There was an old woman who lived in a shoe


She had so many children she didn’t know what to do

Statements:
1) The women was old.
Answer ...............
2) The women’s children lived in the shoe with her.
Answer ...............
3) The old woman had a pet cat.

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Answer ...............

c. Mary had a little lamb


It fleece was white as snow
And everywhere that Mary went
The lamb was sure to go
It followed her to school one day
That was against the rule
It made the children laugh and play
1) Mary’s lamb had white fleece.
Answer ...............
2) Mary went to school regularly.
Answer ...............
3) The lamb followed Mary everywhere she went.
Answer ...............
4) The lamb had a ribbon around his neck.
Answer ...............
5) Mary was a boy
Answer ...............

B. FACT VS OPINION

Now that you have an idea what is meant by fact and non-fact, let us
continue discussing statements of opinions.
According to Oka (2008), actually, opinions are easier to identify than
facts, because you do not have to prove them. An opinion is a personal
judgement, feeling, belief, or attitude. If you say “Dangdut music is terrible,”
you are gicing an opinion. Why? Because it is your own judgement, and it might
be different from what other people think. Lots of people dangdut music.
Unlike facts, opinion cannot be proven true or false, right or wrong, and
cannot be tested for its accuracy only the person holding the opinion can defend
his opinion, and even after his explanation others may still not believe him.
Imagine, for example, that you tell your soft-hearted girlfriend that you have
cats as pets and that they are lovable animals. It is very likely what you will lose
your girlfriend. Here are the details of differences between fact and opinion.

NO. FACT OPINION


A statement of fact can be proved A statement of opinion is what
true or false. someone believes or thinks. There
1.
may or may not be good reason to
think this way.

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Evidende to support its truth. Based upon a belief or personal


view (Varies according to
2. individuals’ knowledge,
experince, culture, belief systems,
etc).
3. Undisputed Arguable – open to disagreement
4. Driven by rational thought Driven and reinforced by emotion
5. Head Heart
A fact is verifiable. We can An opinion is a judgement based
determine whether it is true by on facts, an honest attempt to draw
researching the evidence. This a reasonable conclusion from
may involve numbers, dates, factual evidence. (for example, we
tertimony, etc. (Ex: “World war II know that milions of people go
ended in 1945.”) the truth of the without proper medical care, and
fact is beyond argument if one can so you form the opinion that the
assume that measuring devices or country should institute national
records or memories are correct. health insurance even though it
6.
Facts provide crucial support for would cost billions of dollars.) an
the assertion of an argument. opinion is potentially changeable
However, facts by themselves are depending on how the evidence is
worthless unless we put them in interpreted. By themselves,
context, draw conlusions, and, opinion have little power to
thus, give them meaning. convince. You must always let
your reader know what your
evidence is and how it led you to
arrive at your opinion.
Some facts change over time. There are several types of opinion:
- Hypothesis statements
- Theory statements
7.
- Assumptive statements
- Value statements
- Exaggerated statements
As you read, recognize that the As you read, recognize clues that
statements is factual. indicate an opinion
- I believe
- In my opinion
8. - I think
Looks for words which may be
broad statements that reveal a
personal judgement
- Always

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

- Never
- Must
- Cannot
- Best
- Worst
- all
A fact is a statement that can be An opinion is a person’s belief,
tested by examination, feeling, or judgement about
9. observation, or research and something. It is a subjective or
shown to be tru or untrue. value judgement and it cannot be
proven.
10. Objective Subjective
11. States reality Interprets reality
12. Presented with unbias words Presented with value words
13. Can be verified Cannot be verified
A statement of fact decribes the It reveals an author’s personal
world without interpreting it. feelings, beliefs, attitudes or
judgements on a particular
14.
subject. It tells you not only what
was seen but how it was seen by
the author as well.
To test whether a fact is accurate Since opinion depend on the
or not, you can observe or make personal experience, histori,
an experiment. culture, and training of the people
15. who hold them, though they are
sometimes supported by facts,
they cannot be judged true or
false, right or wrong.

Activity 3
The following are statements of opinion. Can you explain why?
1) Boys are better students than girls.
2) The service at the Kartika Hotel is not satisfactory.
3) It seems that drinking coffee can clear your mind.
4) Jurassic Park was the worst movie I’ve ever seen.
5) By the year 2020 tobacco will be illegal.

Yes, because each of these statement cannot be proven as trus, and other
persons can easily disagree with the statements. You could say “Well, maybe in
your class the boys are better students, but in my class the firls are.” In other
words, opinion depens on the personal experience, background, education,
occupation, and culture of the people who state them. Fact and opinion can be

18
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

found in any kind of written text, such as newspaper articles, stories, poems,
advertisements, and announcements. The following activities will give you
practice in identifying fact and opinion in various reading materials.

Activity 4
Mark statement of facts with an F and statements of opinion with an O.
1) Last year there was a horrible outbreak of flu.
Answer ...............
2) Babies generally start to talk between 18 and 24 months of age.
Answer ...............
3) The average temperature in Wyoming in January is 35˚F.
Answer ...............
4) Italian is an easier language to learn than Spanish.
Answer ...............
5) The capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is
Moscow.
Answer ...............
6) More people stopped smoking last year than two years ago.
Answer ...............
7) In Judaism, Rosh hashanah is the festival of the New Year.
Answer ...............
8) Many nutritionists believe a low-carbohydrate, high protein diet is the
healthiest diet.
Answer ...............
9) Smoke detectors can help save lives.
Answer ...............
10) Thousands of people die each year from the interaction of their
presciption drugs.
Answer ...............
11) Cell phones should be banned in all public school classrooms.
Answer ...............
12) Children should not be allowed to watch more than five hours of
television per week.
Answer ...............
13) It’s a fact that soccer and rugby are violent sports.
Answer ...............
14) the Center for Disease Control (DCC) is a government agency that is
responsible for the control and suppression of infectious disease.
Answer ...............
15) surfing the Web is more fun than watching TV.
Answer ...............

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Activity 5
Some of the following sentences state facts, and some express opinions. Some
of the sentences include both facts and opinions. Mark statements of facts with
an F, statement of opinion with an O, and statements of fact and opinion with
F + O.

1) Nothing is better for a stomachache than red clover tea.


Answer ...............
2) Every cook needs to become familiar with basil, which is a member of
the mint family.
Answer ...............
3) In laboratory experiments, papermint extraxts have counteracted some
viruses in test tubes.
Answer ...............
4) Wearing neckties is a ridiculous habit since it serves no worthwhile
purpose.
Answer ...............
5) My father bought a remnant of silk for a dollar and made it into a tie.
Answer ...............
6) Bowties can be bought permanently tied, but the untied type is classier.
Answer ...............
7) The first relevision commercial, for a Bulova watch, was broadcats in
1941.
Answer ...............
8) Children should not be allowed to watch more than an hour of television
a day.
Answer ...............
9) Johnny Carson, the greatest talk show host of them all, became host of
the Tonight Show in 1962.
Answer ...............
10) Watching sports events in person is better than watching them on TV.
Answer ...............

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

UNIT 4

EVALUATING AN AUTHOR’S OPINION

In an opinion, an author tries to convince readers to agree with his or her


position on a particular issue or topic. For example, an author might have a
strong position regarding the amount of waste we throw away. The author’s
position on the topic of reuse might be that people should bring their own cloth
bags to stores instead of using plastic bags. The author would then develop an
opinion in favor of this position. The opinion is made up of claims or statement
in support the author’s position. The author uses reasons and evidence to
support these claims. Using reasons and evidence as support for claims in an
argument helps convince readers to agree with the author’s position.

There are part of opinion or argument:


- ISSUE : problem or controversy about which people disagree
- CLAIM : the position on the issue (ASSERTION)
- SUPPORT : reasons and evidence that the claim is reasonable and
should be accepted
- COUNTER-ARGUMENT : opposing viewpoints

21
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

There are types of claims:

 CLAIM OF FACT is statement that can be proven or verified by


observation or research. The purpose is to support ones viewpoint with
factual evidence. As a result, the argument is more convincing.
Example:
“Within ten years, destruction of rain
Forests will cause hundreds of plant
And animal species to become extinct.”
 CLAIM OF VALUE is states that one thing or idea is better or more
desirable than another. The purpose is to help sway the reader by
convincing them to consider a “better” option.
Example
“Requiring community service in high school will produce more
community-aware graduates. If students do not volunteer, they will not
learn about the real world and the value of helping others”

 CLAIM OF POLICY is suggests what should or ought to be done to


solve a problem. The purpose is to convince individuals to take what the
author believes is the best possible action to solve a problem or issue.
Example:
“To reduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be
installed in public schools.”

Types of Support: How an author supports his or her viewpoint


• REASON - a general statement that supports a claim.
• EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons,
and examples that show why the claim is valid.
• EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted toward needs or
values that readers are likely to care about.

Strategies for Evaluating Opinions /Arguments

• Evaluate Types of Evidence


– Is it sufficient to support the claim?
– Is the evidence relevant to the claim?
– Can the evidence be proven as fact, not opinion?

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

• Is there bias?
– Personal experiences may be biased

– Watch for leading language


Words that have strong positive or negative connotations like
“wise” or “terrible”.

– Did the author omit (leave out) important information?

– Are all sides of an argument presented?

 Opposing Viewpoints or Counter-argument


– Does the author address opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly?
– Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint with logic and
relevant evidence?

 Advertising or Propaganda Techniques


– Bandwagon technique: “Everyone is doing it! You should too!”
– Plain Folk: the “average” person uses this or a politician can
relate to the typical American

– Celebrity or Doctor Endorsement: Adam Levine for Proactive!

 Identify the claim.

 Outline the reasons to support the claim.

 What types of evidence are used?

 Evaluate the evidence. Is there enough evidence provided and does


it make sense?

 What emotional appeals are used?

 Is there language with strong positive or negative connotations?

 Does the author recognize or refute counter arguments?

A. JUSTIFIED VS UNJUSTIFIED OPINIONS

In Unit 3 you have learned the skill to distinguish between statements of


fact, non-fact and opinion. This skill is very closely related to the skill you are
about to learn in Unit 4, evaluating an author’s opinion. It would even be more

23
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

accurate to say, if you cannot distinguish between fact and opinion, you cannot
evaluate an author’s opinion.

In evaluating an author’s opinion, we have to be able to say whether an


author’s opinion is justified or not. What is justified opinion? Let’s go back to
a while to the meaning of opinion. As you have gathered from Unit 3, an opinion
is a person’s (author’s) feelings, belief, attitude, or judgement on a certain
subject. And if somebody states an opinion, he usually wants his listeners and
readers to believe him, to agree with him, right? If so, he must try to give good,
acceptable, and logical reasons for such an opinion. If he simply utters an
opinion, but cannot give reasons for it, he will, of course, fail in making people
believe him. But if he gives neat and relevant arguments in defending his
attitude or belief, he might easily persuade his audience to be on his side. In this
case we can say that opinion is justified. In other words, an opinion is justified
if the authors have given his readers an number of facts to support his opinion
and to convince the readers.

Here is the details of definition between justified and unjustified opinion

NO. JUSTIFIED OPINION UNJUSTIFIED OPINION


1. A justified opinion is one that is An unjustified opinion is an
accompanied with acceptable and opinion which fails to supply
logical reasons for such an opinion. acceptable and logical reasons.
2. A justified opinion is the one Unjustified opinion is lack of
supported by a number of factual support. To take them
convincing and relevant facts. It is seriously, one needs to do
worthy of one’s serious further reading on the subject.
consideration and could be take to
enrich his knowledge.

Is it important for us to be able to evaluate an author’s opinion? Yes,


very much so. If we don’t have this skill we can be easily misled. If we are not
critical, we can be tricked into believing a dangerous opinion. Foe example, the
statement “The most important factor in becoming a success is luck, not effort.”
If you cannot evaluate this opinion you may believe it and you might stop
working hard. Therefore, watch out for statements of opinions, that are not
supported by facts. Such opinions are unjustified opinion, and we should be
careful in interpreting them. The activity below will help you see the differences
between justified and unjustified opinions. Have a try!.

24
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Activity 1
Read the following pair of paragraph carefully. Each paragraph
expresses an opinion.
Paragraph 1
The National Bureau of Standards invertigated the Hyatt Regency
accident in Kansas City, where many people died when a skywalk collapsed.
Through that investigation it was dicovered that the original design of the
skywalk had been changed during the construction of the building. As a result,
the loads those structures could carry were greatly reduced. In addition, a second
study by the International Conference of Building Officials concluded that a
building inspection procedures at the time of construction were not adequate.
Given the results of these two studies, I would make the following suggestion:
the design of buildings, especially if they incorporate novel features and are
used by large crowds, should be carefully examined and evaluated at all states
of construction.

Paragraph 2
We Americans like to brag about progress, but, in fact, life was better in
the nineteenth century that it is in the twentieth. People were happier and more
at peace with themselves. There just wasn’t the same kind of anxiety and tension
that there is today. If we had a chance, we would probably all get into a time
machine and go backward in time, rather than forward. All of our highly touted
technological progress has not brought us contentment.

Questions
1) What is the author’s opinion in each paragraph?
2) Which one is justified, which is not?

Activity 2
Now judge the authors of the following paragraph in the same manner.
1) Transcendental meditation is a simple technique that can improve the
quality of life. To practice TM, as it is commonly called, individuals just
have to close their eyes and concentrate on a mntra, a word or sound
used to focus concentration. Although mediators can let any and all
thoughts enter their minds, they must always come back to their point of
concentration, the mantra. When that simple procedure is followed twice
a day for twenty minutes, mediators report some very beneficial effects.
For example, in one study, conducted by Kenneth Pelletier at the
University of California, those trained in mediation indicated an
increased ability to concentrate and remember, while L.C. Doucette of

26
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

McMaster University in Canada had shown that university students


practicing TM experienced less anxiety than other subjects in the study.
Recently, the New York Times reported that transcendental mediation
was being put to use in the men’s prison of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and prison
authorities have noted a reduction in violence as well as decreased use
of drugs and alcohol among prisoners practicing mediation.
2) A recent study by the Rand Croporation estimate that American
teenagers watch ate leasr five hours of television per day. Teenagers
should not be allowed to watch thus much television: it’s not good for
them. Accustomed to the bright images of television, teenagers will lose
interest in books and reading. They won’t want to do any homework
because compared to television, homework will be too boring. It is not
acompanied by enough pictures, and there isn’t any music. If this trend
toward more and more television viewing continues, the future
generation will not be able to read, write or think.
3) Knowledge and love are both indefinitely extensible: therefore, however
good a life may be, a better can be imagined. Neither love without
knowledge, nor knowledge without love can produce a good life. In the
Middle Ages, when pestilence appeared in country, holy men advised
the population to assemble in churches and pray fir deliverance: the
result was that the infection spread with extraordinary rapidity among
the crowded messes of supplicants. This was n example of love without
knowledge. The late War afforded an example of knowledge without
love. In each case, the result was death on a large scale.
4) I quite agree with the observation that the longer one syats in school the
more salary he is likely to receive. The 1990 Census Reposrt tells us that
in 1989, of all men 25 years and older, those who complete eight years
of grade school, received a median income of $25330. Those with four
years of high school received a median income of $32850. Those who
stuck out four years of college received a median of $44070.

B. RELEVANT VS IRRELEVANT FACTS

Just now you have been engaged in activities that taught you how to
judge an author’s opinion. The main focus of the activities were on how to
distinguish between justified and unjustified opinions. You have learned that
justified opinions are opinions supported by verifiable facts, while unjustified
opinions are not accompanied by facts. In other words, only if an author gives
facts to support his opinion, can we say that this opinion is justified.

27
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

But you should be careful: it is possible that even if an author gives


supporting facts, his opinion can still be considered unjustified. This can happen
if he has chosen the wrong facts. Wrong facts are those that re not related to the
opinion stated; wrong facts are irrelevant facts. If an author, provided his
opinion with irrelevant facts, his opinion remains unjustified. The example
below will make this clear.

It is just not fair for smokers to be allowed to smoke when non-smokers


are present; there should be more regulations forbidding people to indulge in
smoking if non-smokers are present. In a recent study, the American Cancer
Association has reaffirmed and strengthened its original position on smoking
cigarettes. There is a clear-cut link between smoking cigarettes and the
incidence of lung cancer. In addition, smokers are three times more likely to get
heart disease and emphysema.
In this text the writer expresses his opinion that smokers should be
prohibited to smoke if non-smokers are found, because it is not fair to the non-
smokers. He gives us the fact that smoking is dangerous for the smoker’s health,
and this danger is confirmed by the American Cancer Association. In other
words, the fact he gives is scientifically proven right. But is this fact relevant?
His opinion talks about the non-smokers’ danger, not the smoker’s. So, his fact,
although true, does not support his opinion. Therefore, we can say that his
opinion is unjustified,

In the following acticity, you are to evaluate a number of paragraphs.


Decide whether the opinions stated are justified or not. In doing this ask
yourself:

1) What is the author’s opinion?


2) Does the author support his opinion with verifiable facts?
3) Are the supporting facts relevant?

Activity 3
Read the following text carefully. Underline the sentence that states the
author’s opinion. On the blank line, put a J for justified, if you think the author
presented relevant facts. Put for U for unjustified, if you think the author has
not given any facts or has given only irrelevant ones.
1) All over the country, union membership is down, and the percentage of
successful strikes has diminished. Unions now win fewer battles with
management each year than they did twenty years ago. In a recent article
in the New York Times, union organizers said that they were having
trouble recruiting new members. During interviews with prospective
members, they all reported hearing the same comment : people no longer
believe that unions can deliver on their promise to protect work interests.

28
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

The signs are clear: at the present time, American unions are undergoing
a serious crisis.
2) Although my running friends no doubt disgaree, I still have to make my
position clear. If you want to be healthy, walk, don’t run. In a recent
study, the journal of Sports Medicine reported then 40% of all amateur
runners experience some form of injury. In some cases, the injuries were
relatively minors, like twisted ankles or shin splints. But in the other
cases, they were serious, with runner reporting broken arms and legs
from falls taken while running on pavement. These injuries do not
happen to people who walk rather than run for exercise. Similar studies
done on people who walk a fifteen minutes mile twice a day report
almost no injuries of any kind. The exceptions were those walkers who
had been chased and bitten by dogs. However, even that kind of injury
cannot be linked to the activity of walking as running injuries can, and
that just proves my point: walking is better for you than, running.
3) The chemist is essential in our life today. Aviation uses lightweight
aluminium, magnesium, high octane gasoline- all processed or created
by the vhemist- the automotive industrty uses plastic, improved gasoline
and oils, improved rubber, and other creations or discoveries of the
chemist. The cloting industry uses rayon nylon, dacron, orlon, all
chemically made fibers. From the chemist, too, come dyestuffs. Farming
depends on the chemist for many fertilizers and insecticides. Medicine
has received the miracle drugs and synthetic vitamins from the chemist.
Our national security, our future power resources, and our advance in
other scientific fields, such as geology and biology, depend in large part
on our progress in nuclear chemistry. The housewife, too, has gifts from
the chemist- among them foam rubber and dacron pillows, detergents
for cleaning, plastic for forniture and dishes and cosmetics to protect her
beauty. Indeed, the chemist today is irreplaceable.

29
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

UNIT 5

GENERALIZATIONS

A generalization is a broad statement about a group of people, things, or


ideas. It states something they have in common. Generalizations are one of the
most common forms of reasoning. Generalizations make broad statements about
a group. Some a valid, others are faulty. Valid generalizations are supported by
facts, examples, and logical thinking. Watch out for words like all or never.

A generalization is a conclusion that is made about a large group or a


class of items based on observation of or experience with a part of that group or
class. For example, the conclusion. The writing teacher is always late is a
generalization made based on observations and experiences during the writing
course.

Generalizations is an important reading skill because it is a means to


summarize one’s observations and experiences. However, when reading in
identifying as well as in making generalizations, you should always take a
critical attitude. Watch out for hasty generalizations: generalizations that are
neither supported by sufficient facts, not provided with acceptable qualifiers.

30
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

There are two types of generalization as follow:

• Valid generalization means true.


– Supported by facts
– Uses logic and reasoning
– Agrees with what you already know about the topic
– Proven with several examples
• Faulty generalization means false.
– Not supported by facts
– Watch for the key words: none, all, always, never, everyone,
nobody
A. IDENTIFYING GENERALIZATIONS

In this unit you will learn how to identify generalizations, a critical


reading skill that is closely related to identifying opinion. In fact, many opinions
are generalizations. Generalizations are conclusions about whole groups drawn
from knowledge of individual cases. Suppose you chose to spend your vacation
in a small village called Junggo. During your stay you occasionally dropped by
tasted terrible. Later you told your friends that everything about Junggo was
great expect the coffee: Junggo coffee is awful. What have you done? You have
made a generalization. From a few visits you drew the conclusion that the coffee
in Junggo is no good.

You have expressed an opinion as well. Most generalization are


opinions but not all opinions are generalizations. If you say, “I love red shoes,”
you have stated an opinion, not a generalization. But if you say, “All women
love red shoes,” you have expressed both an opinion and a generalization. Since
generalization are also opinions they are distinguished from acts the same way
opinions are. Look at activity 1 and find out whether you can differentiate
generalizations from facts.

Activity 1
On the lines below write F if the sentence is a factual statement; write G
if it is a generalizations. Remember that a statement of fact is not necessarily tru
(non-fact) but can be shown true or false.

Example
All the guests at the party preferred the chocolate cake.
Answer is G

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

1) The licorice plant is used to make cough medicine.


Answer ...............
2) Switzerland is the most beautiful country in the world.
Answer ...............
3) Six percent of the history class failed the final exam.
Answer ...............
4) College students are more interested in social life than in scholarship.
Answer ...............
5) It rains too much in this part of the country.
Answer ...............
6) This desk is thirty-three inches high and twenty inches wide.
Answer ...............
7) Lewis Carrol was born on January 27, 1832.
Answer ...............
8) Alaska has the longest coastline of any state in the Union.
Answer ...............
9) Shopping for a pizza after the game is always a man’s idea.
Answer ...............
10) Ice-skaters has been in more accidents than skiers.
Answer ...............
11) All freshman are confused during their first week on campus.
Answer ...............
12) Most parents are concerned for the happiness of their children.
Answer ...............
13) Pshychology, instructors are interested in the pshychology of learning.
Answer ...............
14) Thanksgiving Day is always on Thursday.
Answer ...............

B. HASTY GENERALIZATIONS

In other words, like other statements of opinion, generalizations need to


be supported by facts. To make audience believe a generalization about all
people, the author must show that he has examined many people, not just one
or two or even none at all. If he doesn’t do this, he has made a hasty
generalization. Thus, a hasty generalization is a generalization which is not
supported by enough evidence for the readers to believe it. A hasty
generalization is a broad claim based on too-limited evidence. It is unethical to
assert a broad claim when you have only anecdotal or isolated evidence or
instances.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Activity 1 has shown you that generalizations are no fact. However, they
are frequently misused (by the author) and misinterpreted (by the reader) as
facts/ you might notice this if you do the following activity.

Activity 2
Read the passage below and determine whether it contains facts,
generalizations or both.
The wedding is a tradition that most young adults still value. Most
engaged couples carefully plain their wedding and regard it as an important
occasion in their life. Couples also are very concerned that their ceremony
follow rules of etiquette and that everything is done “just so”. Most give a great
deal of attention to personalizing their ceremony, including their own vows,
songs and symbols.

Key to Activity 2
All the sentences are generalization
How did you on activity 2? Is your answer the same as the key’s? If not
it means that you were misled and interpreted some generalizations as fact,
because they look like facts. The first sentence The wedding is a tradition that
most young adults still value is the topic sentence and the writer’s main opinion.
If the author wants us to believe him he should have suported his opinion with
facts. For example, he could have added A study on attitudes and customs of
marriage in the USA shows that 909 of all couples have some sort of wedding
ceremony. What he did instead, was presenting more generalizations up to the
end of the paragraph.
In other words, like other statements of opinion, generalizations need to
be supported by facts. To make the audience believe a generalization about all
people, the author mush show that he was examined many people, not just one
or two oe even none at all. If he doesn’t do this, he has made a hasty
generalization. Thus, a hasty generalization is a generalization which is not
supported by enough evidence for the readers to believe it. Try to do Activity 3
and see if you are improving.

Activity 3
On the lines next to the generalizations write H (hasty) if the support is
not sufficient; write HH if the statement is not supported at all; and write A
(accepted) if the statement is sufficiently supported. Example –HH- students
attend college to prepare for a career. Statements:

1) Marriage just cannot survive these days. Three of my friends from


school are already divorced.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Answer ...............
2) Walking is more popular than running.
Answer ...............
3) Government welfare programs are filled with people who are cheating
the taxpaying public. In today’s newspaper, for example, there are three
cases of welfare fraud.
Answer ...............
4) Marriages just cannot survive these days.
Answer ...............
5) Architects are an incompetent lot.
Answer ...............
6) Walking is more popular than running. When I was in the park today
nobody was running. Everyone was walking.
Answer ...............
7) American courts are finnaly beginning to take drunk driving seriously.
In fourty-eight of our fifty states, penalties for the offense of drunk
driving have been made more severe, with thirty states set to institute
jail terms in addition to heavy monetary fines.
Answer ...............
8) Architects are an incompetent lot. A recent study showed that the
architect who designed the McNair building was responsible for the roof
collapsing.
Answer ...............

C. ACCEPTABLE QUALIFIERS

You have just learned that for generalizations to be accepted they must
have actual proof. In everyday life, however, it would be very formal, boring
and maybe annoying if we always try to give scientific proof for our statements,
or always require proof others. In informal situations outside the world of
science we can be less strict about acceptability. We can consider a
generalization acceptable as long as we use acceptable qualifiers. Without
acceptable qualifiers or without qualifiers at all the statement remains
unacceptable. What are acceptable and unacceptable qualifiers? Acceptable
qualifiers are words like most, some, occasionally, likely, generally, almost and
the like. Using them means that you are careful with your statement. You don’t
say all government officials are corrupt, you say most government officials are
corrupt. It means that you realize nothing in this world is absolute, there are
always exceptions, and there fore you leave some possibilities open. So, avoid
making generalizations that use the words all, never, always, none and the like.
These words are called unacceptable qualifiers.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

To recognize acceptable generalizations in this informal sense also


needs practice. Do the following activity in order that you develop this skill.

Activity 4
Identify which generalizations are acceptable (A) and which aren’t
(NA). Mention the qualifiers or the reasons that make them either acceptable or
unacceptable.

Example
a. People in the military are very dogmatic.
b. Even the most radical youths are likely to grow conservative when they
acquire power and property.
Answer
a. NA, because not all people in the military are digmatic.
b. A, because of the qualifiers likely.
Statements:
1) Some mexicans are hot-headed and love to argue.
Answer ...............
2) Orientals sometimes have trouble learning English because the linguistic
systems of Indo-European Languages and oriental languages are so
different.
Answer ...............
3) A person who has taken three writing courses will generally write better
than the person who has taken none.
Answer ...............
4) All politicans are dishonest.
Answer ...............
5) Jones is a well-liked instructor. In student evaluations, over 90% of his
students give him the highest possible rating.
Answer ...............
6) A great number of people go to Bali in the holidays.
Answer ...............
7) College graduates are more intelligent than anyone else.
Answer ...............
8) Almost everyone enjoys sports, but a few people become fanatical sports
fans.
Answer ...............
9) Hemingway is regarded as one of the greatest writers of this century.
Everyone who reads him likes him.
Answer ...............
10) If the New York Times say so, it’s probably true.
Answer ...............

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

11) Joe worked twenty hours a week this term and failed his exam. It just
goes to prove you can’t go to school and work at the same time.
Answer ...............
12) Women who have children cannot work and still care for their children.
Answer ...............
13) Television programs harm children’s minds.
Answer ...............
14) Only college education increases one’s earning power.
Answer ...............
15) Women who support women’s liberation are those who are frustated and
unsuccessful.
Answer ...............
16) Many students are like machines: they should be oiled regularly with
recreation and given frequent rests or they will wear out.
Answer ...............
17) Young people today are not likely to obey their parents.
Answer ...............
18) All Germans like opera: I have never met a German who did not.
Answer ...............

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UNIT 6

TONE

Like tone in voice, tone in writing is an aspect that reveals the author’s
feelings and contributes to the overall message. Many human emotions can be
communicated through tone, e.g disapproval, hate, admiration, disgust,
gratitude. Because tone is very often the author’s main tool in expressing his
feelings and attitudes, it is very important for the reader to learn to recognize
tone. An author’s tone is primarily achieved through the choice of words and
stylistic features.

A. WHAT IS TONE?

At this point you have mastered various critical reading comprehension:


distinguishing between fact and opinion, identifying the author’s opinion and
identifying generalizations. There are still a few comprehension that you should
master. This unit will be concerned with the fifth reading skill: identifying tone.

You are of course familiar with tone of voice. It is not hard for you to
know from somebody’s speech whether he or she is angry, happy, disappointed,
or excited. How do you know? Yes, his/her tone- a loud voice, a rising

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intonation, certain rude words – will give you the clue that the speaker is angry.
Without him saying “ I am angry!”, you know that he is angry.

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Tone in writing is like tone of voice: The author does not want to write
something directly; so, by choosing a certain tone the author informs you of his
feelings, attitudes, views toward a topic, and purposes for writing about this
particular topic. Like in speaking, his tone can be lighthearted or angry,
optimistic or pessimistic. Therefore, if you want to knwo the author’s feelings,
attitudes, views toward a topic, and purposes for writing you must have the skill
to identify tone. This skill will help you understand and correctly interpret the
meaning of a passage.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

However, identifying tone in writing is harder than in speech. In speech,


loudness of voice, stress, pitch, intonation will help you identify the speaker’s
tone. Writing does not have these features, and you must use other means. What
are these means? You should know that the author’s main tool in setting up his
tone is the careful choice of words. Certain words in his writing will establish
his tone, and this tone will reveal his feelings: disapproval, hate, admiration,
disgust, gratitude, etc. now, read the two paragraphs below and pay attention to
the words used. What tone do they try to establish?

Senator X is everything a statesperson should be. An eloquent speaker,


she has the ability to choose the right word at the right moment. Filled with
determination as she is, she will undoubtedly be elected governor.

Senator X is atrue politican. A smooth talker, she knows just what to say
and when to say it. Devoured by ambition as she is, she undoubtedly will be
elected governor.

After reading the first paragraph, we are quite sure that the author is in
favor of senator X; he takes an approving tone toward the subject of senator X.
What words set up this tone? Look at the words statesperson, eloquent, and
determination. These are words indicating positive characteristics; through
these words the aauthor tries to convince the reader that the senator in a
competent person, and to persuade him to support the senator. In contrast, the
second paragraph uses the words politican, smooth talker, and devoured by
ambition, words that have a negative connotation. Through such words the
author established a critical tone: the author disppsoves of the senator and tries
to persuade the reader not to support him.
Look at the following activity and see if you can identify tone.

Activity 1
Read tesxt A and text B. What tone does the author use in each text?

Text A
The cat is a stupid animal, incapable of learning any tricks. Whoever
heard of a cat who would play dead or shake hands?

The dog, on the other hand, is quick to learn. He can be taught to beg, to
shake hands, to fetch his master’s slippers, and to guard, even with his own life,
his master’s child.

The cat is stubborn; she does as she pleases. If a child tries to play with
her and she wants to sleep, she scratches the child and runs away.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

But a dog is obedient and docile. If a baby pulls his ears, he takes the
matter patiently. He asks only that baby love him and that his master reward
him with a kindly pat on the head.

The cat is selfish and lacking in affection. She prefers being left in a
cozy spot by the fire to being petted and played with.

But the dog is most loving. He lives, not by meat alone, but by the
affection and caresses of his master. Dogs have been known to refuse food and
even to die when a beloved master has left him.
Clearly, the dog is a much better pet than the cat.

Text B
The dog is a filthy fellow. He litters the dooryard with bones, old shoes,
and other things he drags in. He wades through mud but protests when he is
given a bath.

The cat, however, is clean. She never litters the house or the lawn, and
she constantly washes herself, this keeping her coat glossy and beautiful.

The dog appears more intelligent than he is because he aims to please.


By patience, repetition, and praise, his master can teach him to perform many
tricks. And if the dog is given food as a reward, he will learn more quickly than
otherwise.

But the cat is shrewd. She knows how to get what she wants. A Persian
cat once learned to pretend that she wanted to be let outside in order to get her
mistress out of bed. But when Miss Green got up, Pussy always went straight to
the refrigerator, where the food was kept.
The cat, though affectionate (how she loves to be stroked), is
independent. She is a free animal and will not cringe or frawn for favors.

But the dog is servile. Whip him, and he comes crawling like a slave.
Truly, the cat, unlike the dog, is a noble animal, one worthy of respect.

B. OBJECTIVE REPORTING VS SUBJECTIVE REPORTING

The example in our discussion above as well as the texts in activity 1


show that the author has a certain opinion accompanied by a particular attitude.
The writer in text A, for example, thinks that dogs are better pets than cats and
implies that he likes dogs. We can say that he is subjective, because the opinion
and attitude is his only and others may not agree with him. Because he is
subjective, his writing is called subjective reporting.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

You might conclude from the discussion and the examples that an author
is always subjective and that his tone is always reflecting a certain attitude.
However, this is not always the case; authors do not always use a particular one.
It is possible that the writer tries to be neutral and does not include his own
personal feelings in his writing. This kind of writing is called objective
reporting. Consequently, the words he uses do not need to be emotionally
loaded, and he uses less conotative language than in subjective reporting. Below
is an example of objective reporting where no particular tone and attitude are
present. It is taken from a local newspaper,
Mr. and Mrs. Van Hilary are very wealthy and live in an expernsive part
of the city called Mission Hill. On April first, they gave a dinner party. It is said
the food they served was spoiled and could not be eaten. We do not know why.
Some people say the event was to raise money for a charity, but we do not know
this for a fact.
Proceed to activity 2. Find out if you have understood the difference
between subjective and objective reporting.
Activity 2
Read the following paragraphs. Decide if the author uses a certain tone.
Then label each paragraph S for a subjective report or O for an objective report.
Example
Americans have always lusted for heroes, and lacking them, we have
been driven to invent them. Such was certainly the case with the man born Joel
Hagglund but christened Joe Hill. A poet and songwriter, Hill first came to
public attention when he wrote a series of songs that were adopted by the early
American labor movement. His name, however, did not become popular until
he was arrested for armed robbery and murder. According to the story that
people believed, Hill never committed the murder, and he was executed in an
attempt to destroy the labor movement. Although it is true that Hill was tried
and convicted on insufficient and inadequate evidence, it is equally true that his
own story contained numerous contradictions and loopholes. At his best, he was
a man unfairly tried and convicted; at this worst; he was a criminal who boldly
proclaimed himself innocent. But in neither case was he a legendary hero, and
the tendency to eulogize him is a misguided attempt to create a hero where none
existed.
Explanation
The author of the paragraph uses a skeptical tone; he doubts whether Joe
Hill was a hero. The use of the plural pronoun we along with highly connotative
language, such as lusted and misguided attempt, tell you this is an example of
subjective reporting.
Do the rest of the activity in the same manner.
1) At the present time, cognitive psychology offers the promise of a
scientific breakhtrough. Although it has been unfashionable for more

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than half a century to theorize about the inner workings of the mind,
more and more attention is being paid to the work of cognitive scientists,
who hold that the functions of the brain, and ultimately the human mind,
can be scientifically investigated. Despite the fact that much research
needs to be done, scientists have already begun to explore the
complexities of memory and speech acquisition. By all accounts, it
appears that the most sophisticated modern computers is no match for
the intricacies of human thinking. Experiments have shown, for
example, that even very small children can perceive complicated
patterns and anticipate cause and effect relationships.
2) Fifty years ago, parents could lean over the back fence and chat
companioably with other adults who had the same family problems.
Today things have changed, and we live in a highly urbanized society
where it becomes harder and harder to meet our neighbors. Many single
parents feel particularly isolated in their home; they lack the easy
camaraderie an earlier generation enjoyed. As a result, many have turned
to public and private support groups in which they can talk over
problems and exchange information. Parents who feel unable or
unwilling to cope by themselves can find a wide variety of services in
these parent centers, including health information, crisis intervention
family counseling, and financial advice. For a long time, it has been
assumed that only children needed the support of their peers. As a result,
the emphasis has been on the creation of counseling centers and meeting
places for young people. It’s about time we thought of parents as well.
They too need the guidance and friendship available ina peer group.
3) The Japanese have accustomed themselves to the presence of robots in
the work place. More than two-thirds of all industrial robots, infact, are
found in Japan. Although robots are not capable of assembling finished
products, they can do the many simpler tasks that lead up to that stage,
and they have proven to be a boon to their employers, increasing worker
productivity by a substantial amount. For their part, Japanese workers
are relaxed about the rise in the robot population. Most contracts
guarantee the average worker employment until the age of fifty-five. In
addition, the majority of workers participate in some kind of profit
sharing plan, with the result that robot productivity only increases the
workers paychecks.
4) William Howard Taft was the twenty-seventh president of the United
States, and, by all accounts, his presidency was undistinguished. A huge
bear of a man, Taft did not inspire confidence; even his own mother did
not support his candidacy. Instead she publicly maintained that the
White House would be a mistake for her son’s career. Taft himself is
said to have claimed that any party nominating him would make a “great

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mistake”. Once in office, Taft proved to be as incompetents as he had


predicted, and he managed to alienare an old friend and mentor,
Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt was so outraged at Taft’s conversation
policy, he decided to challenge his former friend when re-election time
came. Although Roosevelt did not win, he managed to split the
Republican party sufficiently so that Woodrow Wilson was elected. Taft
was not surprised at his loss and accepted defeat graciously.

C. VARIOUS TONES

By now you have familiarized yourself with a number of tones; angry,


happy, disappointed, excited, serious, supportive/sympathetic, hateful,
admiring, disgusted, grateful, emotional, approving, disapproving, skeptical,
optimistic, pessimistic, light-heated, or no particular tone at all. You should
keep in mind, however, that a passage is not confined to just one tone. An author
may set up a combination of tones; he may sound serious, admiring and
optimistic at the same time.
There are amy more tones that an author can establish. The more tones
you are familiar with the easier for you to identify them if you gace a reading.
In our discussion about objective reporting, a writing taken from the local
newspaper about a dinner party, was used to exemplify no particular tone. In the
following examples the tones that you need to be able to recognize are example
tells you what happened at the dinner party, and each writer has used a different
tone, depending on his or her viewpoint.
According to Oka (2008), look what happends to the text if the tone
established is critical, cynical, sarcastic, soelemn/somber/serious, ironic,
sentimental, satirical, or humorous, and do the activities following the
discussion of each tone.

1. Critical Tone
It is true that many tones can be used to criticize, but the critical tone
itself criticizes straight forwardly. The author points out the actions and beliefs
of a person or institution which he judges to be wrong. The following is a letter
from a college professor to the local newspaper.
When we do not know the complete facts about a story, we must be
careful not to draw conclusions that may not be true. We tend to tell stories if
all the facts are not known, but in the case of the Van Hilary’s dinner, has there
been any proof that the dinner was for charity? Has anyone proved that the food
was inedible, or that it was purposely ruined? Until we learn more facts, if
indeed we have the right or the need to know more facts, we should with hold
our judgement.

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Activity 4
1) Who/ what is the professor criticizing?
2) Besides a critical tone is there another tone present?

2. Cynical Tone
Cynicism is a belief that people are motivated by selfish reasons and not
by inner kindess. Thus, an author’s cynical tone implies that he thinks human
begins are basically corrupt and are always after personal advantages. Consider
the letter below, written by a college students to his roommate.
I’ll sure be glad to get back to the campus. It’s deadly around here. The
biggest thing that’s happened all spring vacation is a big flap about a charity
dinner. How can anyone believe in these so-called charity causes! The Van
Hilarys, you know, the money bags on the Hill, gave ahuge dinner party, which
nobody could eat because somehow the food was spoiled, the party was for
charity, but I’m sure the Van Hilarys wouldn’t have thought of anything
charitable unless they needed a big write off on their income taxes. As for the
food, it was probably spoiled long before the party began. These do-gooder give
me a pain. Who do they think they’re fooling, anyway? Charity? There’s no
such thing as charity. Nobody cares anything about anyone except number one-
me!. Just spell charity that way –n-u-m-b-e-r-o-n-e spells m-e, m-e, m-e.

Activity 5
1) According to the writer, what personal advantages are the Van Hilarys
trying to get through this party?
2) What words does the writer use to establish the cynical tone?

3. Sarcastic Tone
Like criticism and cynicism, sarcasm is used to criticize, but on a more
personal level. Sarcasm aims at hurting a person’s feeling and can, therefore, be
very sharp and painful. The writer uses words which show the writer’s
contempt, anger, splite, malice at a certain person. The following is a part of
political speech of a candidate opposing a candidate supported by the Van
Hillarys.
You may think that the Van Hilarys gave that dinner party last Saturday
night dor charity, but I have never seen that the Van Hilarys give any money go
for anything they didn’t benefit from. Ruined food, my eye! That wasn’t ruined
food, it was spoiled food, bought cheaply, and then purposely said to be ruined
so that all the excess profits could go to some charity or other. Van Hilary’s
going to have a fine tax break from that. He’s already thinking about how he
can invest so he can get both the government and us next time around. However,

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once we get our investigative committee to look into it, there won’t be a next
time round for Van Hilary!
Activity 6
1) Who is the object of attack in the text in activity 5 and who is beaing
attacked in the above text?
2) What threat does the writer make to wound Van Hilary?
3) What words establishes the writer’s sarcastic tone?

4. Soelemn/Somber/Serious Tone
The author uses this tone if he is serious about and dedicated to the topic.
This following is a part of a sermon.
We Americans must change our wasteful ways. One of our basic
Christian tenets is that we must do acts of charity for others. When we use every
resource God gives us for the betterment of humanity, then we will not deny our
fellow man by being wasteful. An example of the worst kind of waste comes to
mind. Can there be any greater waste than to purposely ruin food that could have
helped others who do not have not long ago. It seems that a dinner party was
given at which the hist and histess became intoxicated, as evidently did their
guests. Then everyone set about to ruin the food by putting the wrong
seasonings in everything. Finally the food could not be served because it was
inedible. So it was discarded.

Activity 7
1) Why does the writer say that the dinner was the worst kind of waste?
2) Quote the sentence(s) that shows the writer’s solemn tone.

5. Ironic Tone
When the writer uses the ironic tone, he chooses words that are the
opposite of what he means. It is used to criticize indirectly. The following
paragraph is a continuation of the sermon above.
An exceptional dinner party, I’ve been told. Enjoyed by all and thus, a
true blessing in this time of frustation and financial anxiety. A truly unique way
to be charitable and to honor Our Lord with our deeds. When the wealthy give
of their welath to benefits the poor, it’s a fine thing. Ah, you may say! How
wonderful of the Van Hilarys to give such a bash and to make it such a fun affir.
What harm can their be in having a little food spoiled? What does it matter that
the money spent on the food and it preparation could feed the poor of this city
for an entire year?

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Activity 8
1) What does the writer mean by the mean by the dinner was a ‘true
meaning’?
2) Quote from the test some examples of irony.
6. Sentimental Tone
A sentimental tone uses words and phrases that aims at making the
reader feel pity, sympathy, affection, or tenderness towards a certain subject or
topic. Look at the letter Mrs. Van Hilary wrote to her son Cyril.
Dear Cyril,
I hope that you and Joanna are enjoying your stay in Paris. We are
having a delightful time with the children, and I really think they are enjoying
their grandpa and grandma, though of course they miss you a lot. They are such
little angels, how could we not grant them every little thing their hearts desire?
After all don’t they say that God made grandparents so they could spoil their
grandchildren just a tiny bit?
The other day they were just precious, though your father thinks they
did go a bit far. I had told them, Scott and Matthew, about April’s Foold Day,
and that it was a time they could do a trick –not a bad one- just a little trick, and
then say “April Fool”, and it would be allright. I’m afraid the little dears got a
bit carried away. We had some people to dinner that night, and, unknown to us,
Scott and Matthew played a few tricks on us salt in the sugar, sugar in the
vegetables, and so on. Well, we just made it into a grand party and, with a few
more drinks, no one seemed to care anyway. It all ended up being great fun.
You may be sure, though, we explained to them that they must not carry
things too far in the future. But boys will be boys, and I remember in your day
you did a few tricks of your own. And you certainly turned out just fine. So you
see, we’re not spoiling the little angels so much.

Activity 9
1) By writing so sentimentally, what kind of feeling does Mrs. Van Hilary
try to arouse in Cyril?
2) Quote words from the letter that establishes his sentimental tone.

7. Satirical Tone
This kind of tone criticizes indirectly. It combines humor, irony,
exaggeration, sometimes sarcasm, to make people see their bad habits and
foolishness. By using a satirical tone the author hopes that the criticism will
work and that people improve.

8. Humorous Tone
A humorous tone is also lighthearted and aims at amusing the readers.
This tone is sympathetic to human nature and good natured about man’s whims

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and follies. There is no intention at all to hurt people’s feelings. Read the
passage below and see whether it makes you smile.
The other day my wife and I were discussing the pros and cons of having
more or less money. She commented that the rich were just like you and me,
only they had more money.
Well, I told her that she might be right, because she certainly knows
more about the way they eat and dress than I do. But on the other hand, I
certainly couldn’t imagine our carrying off a party like the one the Van Hilarys
gave on Mission Hill the other night.
Seems they had invited a few guests for an April Fool’s dinner. It’s not
clear at this point who fooled whom, but there certainly was a good bit of
foolishness on the Day for Fools. The story goes, according to one fool who
gave it to the paper, that the Van Hilarys high spirited grandchildren decided to
spice up the party. Bright little boys, Matt and Scott. A great team. Matt put
sugar in the salt cellars, and Scott put salt in the sugar bowl. Scott spiked the
wine with vinegar, and Matt slipped handfulls of pepper into the gravy.
Well, when the dinner started, Mr van Hilary proposed a toast to April’s
Fool’s day. Everyone raised glass on high, took a sip, and spluttered. Mrs. Van
Hilary thought he’d planned the foolishness, and Mr. Van Hilary thought she’d
had the inspiration, so with great aplomb they argued their guests to join in the
fun of a foolish dinner. By the time the vegetables were sugared and the coffee
was salted, everyone had gone to the fools.
I told my wife she would have liked the deser, though. Pickles with ice
cream. Just what she used to request when she was pregnant with our youngest.
Well, maybe she’s right. Maybe we’re not so different from the wealthy, after
all. Ah, what fools we mortals be!

Activity 10
1) Which words or phrases in the passage amuse you?
2) In what ways does the writer use the word fool? Why does the writer
repeat it so often?

Do the rest of the activity in the same manner.


1) Among the worst bores in the Western world are religious converts and
reformed drunks. I did give up drinking more than a dozen years ago.
This didn’t make me feel morally superior to anyone. If asked, I would
talk about going dry but, from the first, I was determined not to preach
any sermons and not to judge any human being who took pleasure in
drinking. But I must confess that lately my feelings have begun to
change. Drinking and drunks now fill me with loathing. Increasingly, I
see close friends –human of intelligence, wit and style- reduced to
slobbering fools by liquor. I’ve seen other friends ruin their marriage,

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brutalize their children, destroy their careers. I’ve also reached the age
when I’ve had to bury a few people who allowed booze to take them into
eternity.
a. Enthusiastic b. Disapproving c. Cynical

2) When American began settling this magnificient country, they had an


optimistic and winning spirit. Nothing could stand in their way. But
today’s American have grown weak and apathetic. They no longer
believe in the fulfillment of the American dream, and they are ready to
give in to Russian agression. It is not impossible, however, to regain the
spirit of the past. We just have to retrieve our ideas and fight for them,
refusing to take second place to any other nation. American can easily
fulfill their dream if they would only stop giving in to defeat.
a. Optimistic b. Apathetic c. Critical

3) In the world of comedy, Richard Pryor is without peer. Trhe promise of


his early work has finally matured into genius. When pryor walks out on
stage in movies like Richard Pryor in Concert and Richard Pryor, Live
on Sunset Strip, the audience somes alive with eagerness and
enthusiasm, and the star does not fail them. His comic monologues are
masterpiece filled with wit and originality. In addition, his ability to
imitate everything from lions to five-years-old children is astonishing.
He has the vision of the great painters, and he manages to select just the
right details to evoke not just a personality but a way of life. In the world
of comedy, Pryor is the acknowledgement master.
a. Humorous b. Sentimental c. Admiring

4) Each time I visit my man in prison, I relive the joy of reunion and the
anguish of separation. We meet at the big glass door at the entrance to
the small visitor’s hall at Lompoc Federal Correctional Institution. We
look at each other silently, then turn and walk into a room jammed with
hundreds of molded fiberglass chairs lined up side by side. Finding a
place in the crowded hall, we sit down, appalled that we’re actually in a
prison. Even now, after four months of such clocked, supervised visits,
we still can’t get used to the frustations. Yet, as John presses me gently
to his heart, I feel warm and tender, and tears well up inside me, as they
do each weekend. I have seven hours to spend with the man I love, all
too brief a time for sharing a lifetime of emotion: love and longing,
sympathy and tenderness, resentment and anger.
a. Appalled and angrty b. Friendly and intimate c. Sad and desperate.

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UNIT 7

THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE

Many different types of writing exist in the world, ranging from classic
Shakespearean plays to politicians' speeches to the screenplay treatments that
inspired this summer's biggest blockbuster hits. These works may vary in tone,
genre and type, but as pieces of writing, they should have one thing in common:
a purpose. When an author writes to persuade (or sometimes even to entertain
or inform) he/she will have his/her own position on the subject. The author’s
position is an author’s opinion about the subject. Author’s purpose and position
go together. The author will want you to see the topic from his/her point of view
or through his/her eyes. This is the author’s position. For some issues, you will
be able to tell if the author is FOR or AGAINST something.

Authors write for many different reasons. Those reasons are called the
author's purpose. Depending on the purpose, authors may choose all different
sorts of writing formats, genres, and vernacular. According to Janovsky (2008),
a simple trick to summarize the three main categories of author's purpose is to
use the acronym PIE, which stands for Persuade, Inform, and Entertain.

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Types of Author's Purpose


Although there are many reasons to write, to persuade, to inform and to
entertain represent the three main forms of author's purpose. Most other reasons
can be grouped into those three broader categories.

1. To Persuade
What is the author persuading you to do?

To persuade is the first main type of author's purpose. Text written to


persuade means the author's goal is to convince the reader to agree with the
author. This might mean the author wants the reader to think or even act in a
specific way. This type of writing is extremely common. Any piece which
pushes a certain opinion or asks for some sort of call for action is persuasive
writing.

It is true that in these types of writing the author shares his opinion, but
usually he also provides facts and examples. This information serves to support
the author's opinion and further convince the reader to agree with him.
Examples of persuasive writing include speeches, advertisements, commercials,
and newspaper editorials. Any forms of propaganda are examples of pieces
written to persuade. Look at this picture and identify how the author wants you
to think or to act.

If the author’s purpose is to persuade, the author will want you to believe
his/her position. Persuasive pieces are usually non-fiction, biased, and based on
opinion. Although there may be facts, it contains the author’s opinions. With
persuasive pieces, the author’s will make his/her position clear (whether he/she
is FOR or AGAINST it).

The author is trying to make the reader agree with something important.
The author wants to persuade you to see their point of view. Examples of
persuasive writing: Editorials in a newspaper/magazine speeches

2. To Inform
The second main type of author's purpose is to inform. In this format,
the author's goal is to enlighten the reader about real world topics and provide
facts on those topics. However, in contrast to pieces written to persuade, these
facts are not used to support a specific opinion. The facts are presented in order
to teach the reader. Examples of texts written to inform include textbooks,
cookbooks, newspapers, and encyclopedias.
All these forms are written in order to provide information to the reader.
It is also important to note that many authors present their works as
informational texts, while at the same time inserting their own opinions into the

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piece. As a reader, be sure to be ready for opinions masked as information. For


instance, some newspapers claim to only report the facts, but on careful
inspection it is clear it might be trying to persuade you to believe a specific idea.
Be on the lookout for these hidden opinions.

If the author’s purpose is to inform, you will learn something from the
selection. Information pieces sometime use one or more of the following:
– Facts
– Details/Instructions
– Places
– Events
– People

To inform is to teach a lesson or to show how to make something. You


usually read something informational to learn more about a certain subject.
Examples of informational books/text: Non-fiction books News stories in a
newspaper or magazine Encyclopedias and other reference books

3. To Entertain
The final main category of author's purpose is to entertain. This contains
almost all examples of what you think of when you hear the word literature.
Authors who write to entertain have the goal of telling a story or describing real
or imaginary characters, places and events. This includes all pieces of fiction,
which is literature that is not real.

If the author’s purpose is to entertain, one goal may be to tell a story or


to describe characters, places or events (real or imaginary). Examples of
entertaining texts include: scripts, poems, stories, jokes, or even comic strips.

To entertain is to tell a funny story or to tell what a person or place is


like in an interesting or funny way. You usually read something entertaining for
fun. Examples of entertaining books/stories: Charlotte’s Web Holes Cinderella

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Authors write for a variety of purposes: to inform or instruct the reader,


to amuse or entertain, to arouse sympathy, to persuade the reader to do
something or to accept a particular opinion. To be an effective reader you must
be aware of the author’s purpose. The writer’s purpose may be obvious, or may
be not so apparent. It will help you to arrive at the author’s purpose if you know
the audience the writer has in mind, his tone, and his point of view.

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A. APPARENT PURPOSES VS NON-APPARENT PURPOSES

Skillful reading implies critical reading; critical thinking demans the


ability to reason, to judge, and to draw your own conclusions. This skill includes
the ability to know the writer’s purpose. It is the aim of this unit to provide you
with this skill.
The author’s purpose may be a very simple one: to give information on
a subject, to explain something, to share an experience, or it may be to entertain.
Very often, however, writers have more complicated, more serious purposes.
They may want to criticize someone, to arouse sympathy, to persuade the reader
to a certain point of view, or to ridicule a person. Or they may just want to
express their feelings. If you can learn to recognize the purpose, it will be easier
for you to arrive at the real meaning of a writing. If you, for example, recognize
that the writer’s purpose is to make the readers vote against a female chairman,
you may conclude that the writer is prejudiced towards women. The careful
reader always recognizes the purpose behind the author’s words.

Many readings have very clear purposes, and are not hard to recognize,
as in the following advertisements:

At Hair Design Salons we’ll make you look better than you can imagine.
Six professional stylists to meet your every need. Stop in for a free consultation
to day.
Puerto Rican white rum can do anything better than gin or vodka.

The first ad is written to encourage the readers to have their hair styled
at Hair Design Salons. The purpose of the second ad is to encourage readers to
use rum instead of gin or vodka in their mixed drinks. In both ads it is clear that
the writer is trying to convince you to buy a certain product. However, in many
other types of reading material, the writer’s purpose is not so apparent. Even
advertisements can at times be hard to interpret: we know that it aims at selling,
but what does it exactly sell? For instance, in an ad for a particular brand of
cigarettes, a stylishly dressed woman is pictures holding a cigarrete.

The caption reads, “You’ve come a long way, baby.” The ad does not
even mention cigarettes. It is left up to you, the reader, to infer that stylish
women smoke Virginia Slims. Certainly you have read many such puzzling
advertisements.

It often happends that you can predict the author’s purpose from the title
of the article or by your familiarity with the writer. For instance, if you noticed
an article titled “My Role in Watergate,” written by Richard Nixon, you could
predict that the author’s purpose is to defend his previous actions as president.

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Since titles of passages may either provide a good and quick clue or none
at all as to the author’s purposes, let’s start our activities with titles.

Activity 1
Decide whether or not the following article titles give a clue to the
author’s purpose. Write A (apparent) in the blank if it does, write (NA) if it
doesn’t. Formulate this purpose whenever it is apparent.

Example
“A lesson in compassion” A

The purpose of the author seems to be to teach the reader how to have
compassion towards suffering people.

Do the rest of the exercises the same way.


1) The beef against.... beef
Answer ...............
2) Is school unfair to girls?
Answer ...............
3) Do the poor deserve bad schools?
Answer ...............
4) Ms. Kidvil calls it quits.
Answer ...............
5) The strange burden of a name.
Answer ...............
6) Frankly, it’s not worth a damn.
Answer ...............
7) Our disappearing wetlands.
Answer ...............
8) Deepsea geysers of the Atlantic.
Answer ...............

Activity 2
Read each paragraph below carefully and decide what the writer’s main
purpose was in writing it, by choosing among the options provided.

Example:
Audi’s ten years warranty against body rust-through is unlike any other.
This is the only warranty of its kind in the world. And your reminder
that an Audi retains its beauty and value far longer than other cars. Test drive
the new Audi 100 and find out what makes A is better than the competition.
a. To inform b. To entertain c. To persuade

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answer
c. The text is an ad for cars and aims at persuading you to buy treat the resr of
the articles the same way.

1) The Mormon settlement at Salt lake City was a success from the
beginning. The few difficulties with Indians and with government
officials were settled by Brigham Young, the Mormon leader, with skill
and understanding. The city grew and prospered. Salt Lake City today
has a population of about 200,000 people. Most of them are Mormons.
a. To describe b. To advertise c. To inform

2) Be grateful every morning when you get up that yyou have something
to do that day which must be done, whether you like it or not. Being
forced to work, and forced to do your best, will help you develop self-
control, strength of character, cheerfulness, and content. The idle will
never know the hundred virtues which work and activity can provide.
a. To advise b. To explain c. To instruct

3) Magazines have flooded the market. You find them everywhere – in the
stationary store, the drugstore, the beauty shop, the doctor’s or dentist’s
office, the barbershop, railbroad stations, bus terminals- wherever
people seek a pleasant way to spend leisure time reading. Perhaps the
greatest reason for the magazine’s popularity in America is the demand
for short, interesting stories and informative articles with a wealth of
lively, colorful ilustrations. Another reason may be the exciting variety
of magazines appealing to everyone’s taste, whether for sports, fishing,
the outdoors, romance, adventure, fashion, news, westerns, mystery,
movies, science, etc.
a. To instruct b. To explain c. To entertain

4) Even though we were at sea, there was much for me to look at and to
wonder at; for this was my first voyage. What amazed me most was the
sight of the great oceqan itself, for we were out of sight of land. All
around us, on all sides of the ship nothing was to be seen but water not
a glimpse of green, not the smallest island, or speck of moss anywhere.
Never did I realize till now what the ocean was: how grand and majestic;
how solitary; how vast and beautiful and blue. That day it gave no sign
of storms of hurricanes, such as I had heard my father tell about. I could
not imagine how anything that seemed so playful and placid could be
lashed into rage. So, I was not prepared for what I was to see later.
a. To give information b. To arouse sympathy c. To express feelings

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5) A famous doctor had cured a child of a very serious illness. The mother
was grateful and went to the doctor’s office to thank him. “Doctor,” she
said, “there are some things we can’t pay for. I thought that you would
want to accept this wallet which I made for you with my own hands.”
“Madam,” answered the doctor rudely. “I don’t practice medicine for
sentimental reasons. You must pay me with money. Your bill is two
thousand dollars.” The lady opened the wallet, took out the five thousand
dollars she had put in it, and gave the doctor two thousand.
a. To give advice b. To tell a story c. To share an experience

6) One of the pleasantest things in the world is going on a long walk but I
like to go by myself. I can enjoy society in a room; but out of doors,
nature is company enough for me. I cannot see the use of walking and
talking at the same time. When I am in the century I want to enjoy it. I
go out of town in order to forget the town and all that is in it. There are
those who go to beaches and carry the metropolis with them. I like more
elbow-room and less baggage. I like solitude, when I give myself to it,
for the sake of solitude. The joy of a solitary walk is liberty –perfect
liberty- to think, feel, and do just as one pleases. We take a trip chiefly
to be free of all inconveniences to leave ourselves behind and more to
get rid of others. It is because I want a little breathing space to think
about different matters what I leave town for a while, without feeling at
a loss the moment I am left by myself. Give me the clear blue sky over
my head, the green grass beneath my feet, a winding road before me,
and a three hours march to dinner.
a. To present an opinion
b. To give an explanation
c. To state a criticism

7) From his pictures he appears to be swathy, with black hair and sparkling
eyes. But he was really very fair and had blue eyes. They were deep-set
and piercing, though sometimes clouded by melancholy. He had a broad
forehead which was lined with wrinkles by the time he was thirty. His
mouth was well-cut and his chin prominent. He had a deep voice, but
his speech was halting and often trembled with emotion as he spoke
passionately of what interested him. At times he was friendly, but more
often he was ungracious and reserved. He was of medium hieght, broad
shouldered, and sturdy. When seated he seemed much taller than he
really was. He was very restless; he had inherited from his native land
the mountaineer’s passion for walking and climbing, and love of travel
which remained with him nearly to his death.
a. To describe b. To inform c. To ridicule

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B. HOW TO IDENTIFY THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE

The first step in identifying the author’s purpose in a text in which the
purpose is not so obvious is to identify the author’s main idea or topic. Then
find out what he or she does to support this main idea. After you have done this
you start thinking about what he/she is trying to accomplish through the writing
and ask yourself the following questions:

1. Who is the intended audience? Who is the writer writing to? Who id the
writer addressing? What type or group of people does he have in mind?
Often, the level of language, the choice of words, and the complexity of
the ideas, examples, or arguments included suggests the audience the
writer wants to reach. One you have identified a potential audience, it
will be easier for you to decide what his/her purpose is.
A writer may write for a general interest audience (anyone who is
interested in the subject). Most newspaper and perodicals such as Time
and Newsweek appeal to a genera, interest audience. In this case the
writer’s purpose is to inform them about the latesr events. On the other
hand, a writer may writer for medical doctors in the journal of American
Medicine, or for skiing enthusiasts in Skiing today, or for antique
collectors in The Qorld of Antique. Here the writer may have a more
specific purpose: besides giving information, he may want to explain, to
share experiences, to persuade. Also a writer may intend his or her
writing for an audience with a particular political viewpoint with the aim
to argue and to debate a certain issue.

2. What is the tone? Determine which the author is serious or whether he


or she is trying to poke fun at the subject. If a writer is ridiculing or
making light of a subject, he probably wants to amuse or to entertain the
reader. If this tone is serious he may intend to advise, to explain, to
argue. With a sad tone the writer may want to arouse the sympathy of
his readers.

3. What is the point of view? Point of view is the perspective from which
an article or essay is written. An event, for example, may described from
the point of view of someone who present at the scene or from that of
someone who only has heard or read about it. In the former case the
writing is likely to be a subjective reporting while in the latter it might
be more objective. A controversial issue may be discussed from an
objective point of view, examining both sides of the issue, or a
subjective one in which side of the issue is favored. As such, point of
view can often suggest the writer’s purpose in writing: a subjective

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reporting may want to persuade the readers while an objective writing


may simply intend to inform or explain.
4. Does the writer try to prove anything about the subject? If so, what? Try
to determine if the article is written to persuade the reader to accept a
certain point of view or to perform a certain action. For instance, a writer
may write to convince you that inflation will cause a national disaster,
or that abortion is morally wrong, or that the best jobs are available in
health related fields.

Why do you think the author wrote the article? To persuade? To


entertain? To inform? To express? Author’s purpose is the reason or reasons an
author has for writing a selection. If readers enjoyed what they read, one of the
author’s purposes may have been to entertain. If students learn while they are
reading, one of the author’s purposes may have been to inform. If readers
changed the way they thought about a topic or issue, one of the author’s
purposes may have been to persuade. Authors may have more than one purpose
for writing. Author’s purpose can be stated explicitly or readers may have to
infer the intent.

Reflective readers are able to analyze information more thoughtfully


when they know an author’s purpose. Identifying an author’s purpose may give
clues to a reader for how to pace their reading. Students need to adjust their
reading rate for various selections. Informational articles may require a reader
to slow down in order to fully understand ideas described.

Questions that help students explore author’s purpose:

 Based on the title, why do think the author wrote this selection?
 Which words do you think best describe the main reason the author wrote
this selection: to provide readers with information? To describe a person,
event, or issue? To express their own thoughts and feelings? To persuade
readers to think about an issue in a certain way and to take action? Or to
entertain the reader?
 Why did the author write the article from a particular point of view?
 How did the author influence your response to the selection?
 Was the author’s purpose specifically stated?
 Do you think that the author achieved his/her intended purposes? Did the
article effectively give information? Entertain readers? Express the
author’s thoughts and feelings? Persuade readers to think about an issue
and/or take action?
 What examples from the text support your conclusions about author’s
purpose?

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An author always has a purpose in mind when putting words on paper. It


is the reader's responsibility to analyze the information and determine what the
purpose is. Readers expect the author to present materials factually and
objectively in an effort to inform the reader. Most textbooks are written for the
purpose of informing the reader or explaining new concepts and
information. Authors can also present the facts in an effort to persuade the
reader. It is up to the reader to evaluate the content. Persuasive writing is often
found in editorials and advertising. A third purpose for writing is for
entertainment. Examples of material written for the purpose of entertainment
could include magazines, novels and any other readings done for pleasure.
Something that leaves you with a smile on your face or a tear in your eye is
often an example of reading for entertainment.
To determine the author's purpose it is important to analyze the...

 Language used - look at the words the author chooses to use. Do they
convey certain emotions? Is it formal or informal?
 Development - How has the author chosen to develop his or her
thoughts?
 The audience - Who is the author speaking to? Is the vocabulary
technical and specific? Is it targeted to a specific audience? Is the
language easy to read and understand?
 The author's tone - If the author was speaking to you, what would it
sound like? Is the author passionate about the
topic? Sarcastic? Neutral? Is the author arousing emotions? Does it
evoke feelings of sympathy, anger, happiness or sadness? Looking at
the author's tone can lead the reader to the overall purpose
 The author's point of view - What is the author's attitude toward the
subject?

Test yorself now whether you can recognize the author’s purpose by
applying the questions above to the following activities.

Activity 3
Read each paragraph below carefully and identify the author’s tone.
Then write fanciful, frantic, humorous, serious, friendly, or admiring on the line
provided. Decide also what the writer’s purpose was in writing it.
This could be
a. To inform b. To entertain c. To persuade d. To share an
experience e. To amuse f. To advise g. To explain
Then on the line before each paragraph write the a,b,c,d,e,f or g.

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Example
Once upon a time, there was a land called Endella. Every June, when the bright
days of summer had come once more, the king of Endella would send a
proclamatic inviting all the knights to a grand tournament.

Answer : fanciful (B). The author uses a fanciful tone, he is telling fairy tale.
His purpose is b, to entertain.

Do the rest of the activity the way.


1) “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” As the
spoke these words, Neil Amstrong became the first man to set foot on
the moon. The historic date was July 20, 1969. Almost as amazing was
the fact that the whole world was watching the event on TV.
Answer ...............

2) “When I was your age, my family lived near the Missisippi River. Every
afternoon, on the way home from school, I’d stop and watch all that
water rolling by on its way southward, and I’d wonder about all the other
people who must have done the same thing. I could never feel lonely
because I knew that somewhere along its hundreds of miles of banks
there was someone else looking at the river and perhaps wondering
about me.”
Answer ...............

3) Captain Brave of the Cosmis Partol raced to the time machine and set
the dial for Egypt, 3000 B.C. He had to find the builder of the dreaded
“Pharaoh’s Man-trap” and learn its secret. If he didn’t learn the secret,
courages Lieutenant Daring would remain trapped inside forever.
Captain Brave worried, “Is it possible that I save my lifelong friend?”
Then, just moments later the captain stepped out into the shadows of the
Pyramids. His work would begin!.
Answer ...............

4) Lucy looked up from her book. The whole class was laughing at
something. She turned around and asked Maureen what was so funny.
Maureen tried to explain, but she couldn’t stop giggling. Everyone was
looking at Lucy’s feet. Lucy glanced down at her feet and saw a red shoe
on one foot and a brown shoe on the other foot.
Answer ...............

5) Every student at Smithfield Junior High School has an opinion about


what needs to be done to make this a better school. When student council
elections are held next week, every student should express his opinion

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by voting for a candidate with the same views. Remember that it takes
much less efforts to mark your ballot than it does to grumble throughout
the rest of the school year. Make you mark in the world vote!.
Answer ...............

6) Norway is a beautiful country in northern Europe. Mountains cover 75


percent of the country, but the most famous feature of the landscape is
the fiord. Hundreds of these narrow bays indent the coast of Norway,
making it resemble the teeth of a camb. Many fiords are so deep that
ocean steamers can travel far inland on them. Water-falls add beauty to
the sheer rock walls of some Norwegian fiords.
Answer ...............

7) The safety pin was invented in 1846. Now, you are probably asking,
what’s the point of knowing that? I say the safety pin can hold its own
among the great inventions of mankind. People of all ages make use of
the safety pin. Take just one example, mothers all over the country
confidently sending their children off to school knowing that the milk
money is safely pinned inside their pockets. I’m not claiming that the
safety pin is the most famous of man’s inventions. My point is that it
deseves more credit that it gets.
Answer ...............

8) There is just so much water on the face of the earth, and it seems man is
trying to spoil as much of it as possible. The oceans may be used as a
source of water supply for humans in the future, but right now man must
rely on fresh water supplies. The rivers and lakes must be kept free from
pullution. Factories and cities should built so that they do not pollute the
very source from which they must draw water.
Answer ...............

9) My aunt makes lemonade the strangest way. Now you all know the way
poeple usually make lemonade; they open an envelope of artificial
flavoring, coloring, and sweetener and add it to water. Well, my aunt
squeezzer juice from real lemons amd even adds real sugar to the juice.
What some people won’t do.
Answer ...............

10) In this age of automation and mechanical marvels, my car would be the
one to develop a mind of its own! I take the family to a frive in movie.
We all dislike the picture, but my car likes it. There was sit until the
movie is over. Only then will the car start. I rent parking space in a new

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underground garage. The car doesn’t like it and stops in the driveway
every time. I plead with it. I kick the tires and pound the hood. I tell it
the exhaust fumes are piped in from the streets so cars will feel at home.
Nothing!
Answer ...............

11) After a long mgratory flight, it would seem that birds would be
completely exhausted. Actually this is not so. If they have not met with
any severe storms along the route, the birds recover quickly. After a few
hours of resting and feeding, the birds appear to be completely refreshed.
Credits for this seems to belong to a birds’s ability to soar and glide with
the wind currents for long periods of time, making the trip less tiring.
Answer ...............

Activity 4
Read the paragraph below carefully and decide what the writer’s main
purpose was in writing it, by answering the questions following.

MINORITY GROUP REPRESENTATION AND OWNERSHIP

Blacks, Hispanics, and other minority groups have brought strong


pressures to bear the media in recent years. They seek a large, more favorable
tole on the air, both in the number of minority perform is and the elimination of
false, stereotype images of minority individuals. Progress has been made. For
example, a large increase is evident in the number of black performers in
television commercials. However, on a more significant level, serious
examinations of problems facing minorities have been shown more frequently
on television recently, problem arising from history, economic injustices, and
contemporary social attitudes. Among these presentations atr “Rootsa,” which
made a remendous impact on the Amerian consciousness; “The Vanishing
Family – Crisi in Black America,” “Holocaust,” “I Remember Harlem,”
“Playing for Time,” and “The Women’s Room.” Some productions, such as
“The Bill Cosby Show,” provided an excellent showcase for actors from
minority groups to display their talents. Some stereotyping still exists, but
gradually it is being reduced through a sharpened awareness on the part of those
who control television programming. Organized groups that focus attention on
these evidences of stereotyping also help to promote more balanced
programming.

1) What is the subject of the passage?


2) What is the main idea of the passage?
3) How does the author support the main idea?

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4) What audience is the author writing for?


5) What tone is the passage written in?
6) What is the author’s point of view?
7) In conclusion, what is the author’s purpose in writing the passage?

Activity 5
Read the paragraph below carefully and decide what the writer’s main
purpose was in writing it. Complete the statements following by choosing
among the options provided.

Example
Subject and verb have to agree and placing a comma between subject
and verb, is not correct.
The writer’s tone is
a. Serious b. Humorous c. Satirical d. Ironical
answer : d. Ironical

Go on with the activity!


If one is about to clean house, a good first step is to get rid of the garbage.
But one man’s garbage is another man’s keepsake. Garbage is what a person
wants to get rid of. What I want to get rid of is the human garbage that willfully
perpetrates outrage against the resr of humanity and whom we have come to call
terrorists.
1) The writer’s tone in this paragraph is:
a. Serious
b. Angry
c. Critical
d. Sentimental
2) The writer’s intent is to:
a. Give advice
b. Explain
c. Express his feelings
d. To convince
3) Most reader would probably react to this writing with:
a. Amusement
b. Mixed feelings
c. Indifference
d. Fear

They may agree, disagree, feel shocked, they may even be amused.

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UNIT 8

BIAS

The writer reflects his/her bias when the writing does not give a through
presentation of the facts, or when facts are only partially presented or even
distorted or changed on purpose. Bias aims at convincing you that you should
believe as the writer does. Most writing is biased to some extent, because most
writers want to state and defend an opinion. Bias can be harmless or harmful.
To evaluate a piece of writing, it is important to recognize bias and an author’s
inclination toward a particular viewpoint.

A. WHAT IS BIAS?

Recognizing bias is the last of the seven critical reading comprehension


presented in this book. This skill is closely related to tone and the author’s
purpose. Tone helps us recognize the author’s purpose. At the same time,
through tone and purpose we can conclude whether or not the author is biased.

What is bias? What does it mean if an author is biased? In everyday life


we coften come across this term. People say someone is biased if he or she take

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sides without reasons strong enough. For example, a teacher defends a truant
student not because he or she knows the student has acceptable reasons for what
he has done, but because the student happends to be the teacher’s nephew. This
teacher is definitely biased.

Bias in reading does not have a much different meaning. If an author is


biased he is also taking sides: he or she takes one side of a controversial issue
and doesn not want to consider what other people have to say about it. Thus,
bias in reading refers to an author’s partiality toward a certain viewpoint.
Perhaps the best example of bias is in advertising. A magazine advertisement
for a new car model, for instance, describes only positive, saleable features, the
ad does not recognize the car’s limitations or faults. By giving only a partial
presentation of the facts or not all the ad water reflects his bias. Why is he so
biased? Because his aim is to sell. If he is not biased, if he is objective, if beside
the good features he also describes the bad featurs, he will never sell the car.
The potential buyer will not be convinced that the car is a good car.

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In other way or another, most writing is biased to some extent, because


most writers want to express their point of view; this is the reason for their
writing. Bias can be harmsless or harmful. It can be harmful when it is used to
hurt particular groups or society. Examples are the hate campaigns sometimes
used in political campaigns or to criticize ethnic, religious, or racial groups. Bias
can be harmless, and even amusing. When it attempts to convince buyers of the
kinds of products they should buy. The following ad is an example of harmless
bias and the bias is pretty obvious. See whether you can identify some features
of bias by doing activity 1.

Activity 1
Read the ad below, then answer the questions following by choosing
the best option.
From Nature with Love and Technology
Fresh and Tasty
Safe and Healthy
Straight from a Self-Flowing Springly Processed and Bottled with
modern, hygienic high technology equipements.

The most unique product


AQUA – natural mountain spring water

Pioneer of the bottled water industry in Indonesia


First awarded the Indonesian Industry Standard- SII No. 2040-90
1) What is the tone of the writer?
a. Emotional b. Sentimental c. Praising d. Serious

2) What does the writer hope to accomplish?


a. Persuade the readers
b. Describe the features
c. Explain the process
d. Attract the audience

3) What is the object of the writer’s bias?


a. AQUA bottled water
b. All bottled water
c. Bottled water industry
d. Bottled water standard

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4) What bias do the underlined words reveal?


a. Weakly negative
b. Weakly positive
c. Strongly positive
d. Moderately positive

B. HOW TO IDENTIFY BIAS

Sometimes the writer’s bias is direct and obvious, like in the above ad;
other times the bias is hidden and left for the reader to find out. In the latter case
the job of identifying bias becomes more difficult. Your experiences in doing
activity 1 must have given you some tips how to go about identifying bias. In
arriving at the bias in the AQUA ad you first tried to identify tone and purpose.
From these you were able to infer that the writer was biased: a praising tone and
persuasion as a purpose always imply bias. Then you looked at the words and
phrases used and you discovered that most of them had a very positive
connotation. Again you inferred from here that the writer was positively-biased.
Finally, you wanted to know whether the writer presented another viewpoint,
but he did not; he only gave his own viewpoint. You concluded then htat the
writer was not only positively biased but very strongly so.
To identify bias in a passage where the bias is hidden or not so strong,
you still can use the same procedures as you did with the ad, and apply the
following:
1. Analyze the tone and purpose. The author’s tone and purpose provides
important clues.
2. Analyze connotative meanings. Can you find many positive or
negative terms toward the subject?
3. Notice descriptive languae. What impression does the suthor want to
give his readers?
4. Look for opposing viewpoints. Does the author present only one
viewpoint (his own) or does he give both sides of the issue?

The ability to identify bias is an important characteristic of a critical


reader. Bias is defined as “a personal and sometimes unreasoned judgment”
(Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2010); it is usually easily recognized in the
opinions of pundits, in popular television talk shows, and often in spirited
debates with family members. Recognizing bias in written material, particularly
in scholarly literature, can be a little more challenging because scientific
literature by definition is objective. This, however, does not mean that it is bias
free; it simply means that when bias does exist in this type of literature, it tends

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to be subtle and a little difficult to identify. However, by paying close attention


to the content, one is able to identify it.

In their work, writers are making assertions and trying to inform or


persuade readers to believe a particular viewpoint. As a result, they not only
choose what they write (content), they also choose how they write it (tone). Bias
can thus be found in content through an examination of the information the
writer included or excluded, and it can also be found in tone through an
examination of the language used. Bias sometimes comes in the form of
incomplete information, so when reading a passage, it is important to ask, “What
is the writer not saying?” “Is the discussion even handed?” Sometimes bias
comes from a writer’s experience, so one might ask “How is the writer
supporting his or her assertions?” “Are the conclusions supported by the facts
presented?” Identifying bias thus involves reading between the lines and
distinguishing between objective and subjective ideas. One may also ask if the
author’s tone reveals bias, keeping in mind that objective ideas are not
influenced by emotions and biases and subjective ideas are.

Recognizing Bias
 Look for loaded words – words that are charged with emotion (whether
positive or negative) can reveal an author’s opinion about his/her topic.
 Watch out for stereotypes – if the author labels an entire group, the
writing is probably biased.
 Notice vague language or generalizations – if the author isn’t using
specific language, this could be an indicator of bias.
 Be on the lookout for one-sided arguments – if the author only presents
one side of an argument, his/her writing is probably biased.
 Does the author present facts or opinions? Facts are what they are – the
truth. But opinions can be based on feelings, emotions, or prejudices,
which aren’t objective.

How to Recognize Bias in a Newspaper Article


According to Wikihow (2010), when all you want is the facts, navigating
the newspaper might be a tricky ordeal. Sometimes bias is the result of laziness,
and sometimes it's a deliberate attempt to push a particular point of view. Either
way, you should always be on the lookout for bias.

1. Research the newspaper. Some papers have a reputation for giving a


particular slant on the news, in addition to the news itself. But don't
assume that views expressed on the editorial pages have any influence
on coverage; reputable newspapers strictly separate the news and

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editorial staffs. Also, take note of how many ads the paper runs (not
including inserts which are often added after the fact). If there are large
number of printed ads that may indicate a paper is beholden to numerous
entities such as special interest groups, local and/or federal
governments, corporations etc. for funding.

2. Take notes as you read the article. Identify "who, what, when, where,
why and how" and make a note of any missing information or extra
analysis.

3. See if you could rewrite the article, using the same information, to tell a
completely different story.

4. Look at how the writer treats the people he is writing about. Do some
sources or witnesses "claim" their stories while others "explain" them?
Make notes of language that gives you a positive or negative feeling
about a piece of information, but which represents the writer's opinion,
and not a verifiable truth.

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5. Pay attention to the overall tone of the article. Does the feeling it gives
you relate to the information given (e.g. murder makes you feel sad) or
to the writer's opinion (e.g. a particular political party is scary)?

6. What's missing from the article? Is there a source, witness or explanation


that has obviously been ignored? Is the "why" unclear? Does the article
fail to present the position of one or more parties involved in the story?

7. Watch for buzzwords. These are vaguely-defined terms ("the


homosexual agenda" or "the Christian agenda") that are designed or tend
to evoke an emotional reaction without giving you any real information.
Investigate the article for undefined terms, especially when you come
across a word that gives you a very strong feeling.

8. Does the writer try to identify with you or label you (or others)? Be wary
if you find yourself being pulled into a particular group as you read the
article. By asking you to identify with a group mentality ("regular guys,"
"working class," "concerned citizens," "mothers," "Christians," "teens,"
"intelligent people"), the writer may be expecting you to forget to think
for yourself. This can also be turned around to demonize a group.
Something innocuous will have quotes around it so as to appear as

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something less than mainstream or even deviant. These type of quotes


are called "scare quotes". For example, look for terms like 'these
"volunteers" often work long hours', or 'people are "encouraged" to
contact their friends'.

9. Observe the placement of stories. The stories on the front page are
considered to be more important than the stories in the back.

10. Consider how people are portrayed through pictures. A photo can make
someone look good, bad, noble, sleazy, etc. Ask yourself the following
questions: What impression does this photo imply about this person?
Could a more objective photo have been used?

11. Look for at least two sides to every story. A good reporter will allocate
adequate space in the story to present facts and figures supporting all
sides of an issue. Ask yourself if all sides of this argument or dispute
would agree that their views were represented fairly? If not, the story
may show bias.

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12. If statistics are provided or studies are mentioned, dig a little deeper.
Where did those statistics and studies come from? Who collected or
conducted them? Who funded the research? The best articles will reveal
this information.

13. If headlines or charts tout "the worst/best/highest/lowest in X years, do


some research. More data might show that if you go back 2 or 3 times
"X" years ago, "X years ago" things really weren't so good or bad as the
headlines would lead you to believe.

14. Learn to recognize press releases. Corporations and organizations


regularly issue press releases to distribute their side of an issue or story
to the media. Some media outlets reprint these releases as "news"
without doing their homework or any investigative journalism. Press
releases tend to follow a predictable formula of 1. Introductory
paragraph 2.a single quote from a company executive or spokesperson
3. Summary paragraph or "for more information" reference/link. Also
common are "MAT" releases which are actually advertisements
disguised as "soft" journalism and run by typically smaller-market
newspapers.

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It's important to understand bias when you are researching because it


helps you see the purpose of a text, whether it's a piece of writing, a painting, a
photograph - anything. You need to be able to identify bias in every source you
use. According to State Library of Victoria (2015), the following questions will
help you work out how reliable and accurate information is.

1. Who created the resource?


Whether it's a book, journal article, website or photograph, sources are
influenced by the ideas of the person who created them. Think about:
– The creator's age, religion, race and occupation.
For example: If you and your teacher both had to write an essay about
the importance of homework, you would probably give very different
answers...
– Whether the creator is presenting the whole story – you'll need to read
widely to get all perspectives whether the creator is an expert on the
topic.

2. When was the resource created?


Any type of resource you look at will reflect the society and time in
which it was created. So it's useful to think about the events, people and
ideas – or historical context – that surround it. Keep in mind that:
– The less time between the event and the time of writing, the more likely
certain details – such as dates, names and locations – will be accurate
– Older documents show us what life was like in the past, and can also
reveal attitudes that may be uncommon or unacceptable today
– Particular formats – such as diaries, emails, video, sms, etc – reflect the
era in which they were created, so think about what the format reveals
about the resource
– Even if the resource is only a few years old, it may not be the most up-
to-date information, especially if it is part of an ongoing study or
changing theories.

3. Why was the resource created?


Writers, artists, historians, photographers and other creators will
sometimes use their work to persuade people about a particular
viewpoint or interpretation of an idea or event. So, it's important to work
out why the resource was created. Remember:
– The creator's purpose is, more often than not, the message you remember
long after you've finished reading or looking at it
– In printed material, look for a range of opinions that are supported by
different sources – this helps you make up your own mind about the
information being presented

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– In secondary sources a bibliography is often a good sign of a reputable


resource, but you'll need to check whether the references listed are
reliable and credible.

4. Who was the resource created for?


Many different kinds of resources – from maps, government documents
and diaries to photographs, websites and advertising materials – are
created for many different audiences. So it's important to think about
how the intended audience has affected the format and overall message
in the resource. Ask yourself:
– Who is the target audience?
For example

A teen magazine, travel website or tabloid newspaper has a very


different audience to an academic journal, government annual report or
a reputable broadsheet newspaper. You would expect the approach to
text in each of these publications to be very different.
– Did the creator intend for their work to be looked at by someone else?
For example

Someone's personal diary is a great primary resource, but it's important


to remember that it presents that individual's opinion. The author
probably wasn't expecting their writing to be read by others, so they
wouldn't necessarily have presented an objective and balanced account.

Identifying Bias

1) Author

a) Who wrote it? (It could be an individual or an institution).

b) Google the author or institution to find out more about them. Once
you know more about the author, what is their stake in making this
argument? In other words, why do they care?
(For example, the president of the Plastic Bag Manufacturers
Association of America may be very knowledgeable about plastic
bags, but his argument against city-wide plastic bag bans would be
biased because he has a stake in protecting the plastic bag
manufacturing industry.)

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2) Publication

a) Who published it? (Sometimes the author and publisher are the
same, as on some websites or blogs)
b) Who pays to produce this publication or who sponsors it? What does
that tell you about the bias?
c) Who is the audience? What does that tell you about the bias?

3) Opposing Viewpoints

a) Does the author recognize a viewpoint that opposes his or her own?
If so, what is it?
b) Is that viewpoint presented objectively or emotionally?
c) List some quotations to support your claim.

4) Language

a) Does the author present his argument in extreme language? Does he


write to appeal to emotions? If so, provide some examples.
b) Does the author use value-laden terms that lend a negative
impression (as in ‘illegal aliens’ versus ‘undocumented workers’). If
so, provide some examples.

5) Overall, what would you say about the bias of this document?

Now, read the description of the environmental protection group called


Greenpeace. Activity 2 will help you apply the above guidelines.

Activity 2
Read the following passage and underline words and phrases that reveal
the author’s bias. What is the subject of the author’s bias? Example Greenpeace
is an organization dedicated on the preservation of the sea. Answer: dedicated;
this word has a positive connotation and reveals the author’s positive bias.
Continue the exercise!

Greenpeace is an organization dedicated on the preservation of the sea


and its great mammals, notably whales, dolphins, and seals. Its ethic is
nonviolent but its aggressiveness in protecting our oceans and the life in them
is becoming legendary. In their roving ship, the rainbow warrior, Greenpeace
volunteers have relentlessly hounded the profiteering ships of any nation

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harming the resources Greenpeace deems to be the property of the world


community. Whales, they believe, belong to us all and have a right to exist no
matter what the demand for shoe-horns, cosmetics and machine oil.

Activity 3
In unit 6, Tone, you have done activities focusing on tone in a series of
writings dealing with the same topic: the charity dinner at the Van Hilarys. Refer
to these writings, particularly the Reverend’s sermon, Mrs. Van Hilary’s later
to her son, and the article on charity balls.
Answer the following questions, comparing and contrasting the writings.

1) What is the purpose of the writing?


Sermon:
Letter:
Article:

2) What is the tone of the writing?


Sermon:
Letter:
Article:

3) How does the writer use the tone to achieve the purpose?
Sermon:
Letter:
Article:

4) In what way’s the writer biased?


Sermon:
Letter:
Article:

5) Give the words or phrases that illustrate the bias.


Sermon:
Letter:
Article:

Activity 4
Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.

I think the true discovery of America is before us. I think the true
fulfillment of our spirit, of our people, of our mighty and immortal land, is yet
to come. I think the true discovery of our own democracy is still before us. And

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I think that all these things are certain as the morning, as inevitable as noon. I
think I speak for most men living when I say that our America is. Here, is now,
and beckons on before us, and that this glorious assurance is not only our living
hope, but our dream to be accomplished.

1) What is the main idea of the paragraph?


Answer.............

2) Give the topic sentence.


Answer.............

3) Give all the ideas that support, expand, explain, or describe the main
idea.
a.
b.
c.
d.

4) What tone is the passage written in?


Answer.............

5) What is the author’s purpose in writing?


Answer.............

6) In what ways do you detect the author’s bias? With whom does his
sympathy seem to be?
Answer.............

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GALILEO’S VISION
BY DAVID WHITE

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UNIT 9

DRAWING CONLUSIONS

A. WHAT IS DRAWING CONCLUSION?

Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or inferred.


This means that the information is never clearly stated. Writers often tell you
more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that help you "read
between the lines." Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of your
reading is called inferring. When you infer, you go beyond the surface details
to see other meanings that the details suggest or imply (not stated). When the
meanings of words are not stated clearly in the context of the text, they may be
implied - that is, suggested or hinted at. When meanings are implied, you may
infer them.

Conclusions rely on the facts of a situation to make a determination that


is not implicitly stated or implied by the information. Essentially, a conclusion
is the next logical step in an information series. A statement requires two
conditions to serve as a conclusion. First, it must be a logically derived
statement from the available information. Second, it must not be stated or
inferred from the available information. For instance, if you know that Jane’s
current purse looks discolored and damaged, that she has enough money to buy

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a new purse, and that she is in the purse aisle of a store, you can conclude that
she will buy a new purse. Buying the purse is the next logical step, but there is
no inference that suggests she has made the decision to purchase the new purse.

Many times the author uses description and gives hints instead of giving
away too much information. This makes the story more exciting and
interesting. The reader needs to "draw a conclusion" about what the author
means. According to Hayakawa (2014), when we draw a conclusion, we take
clues the author has given us and use what we already know from our own
experiences to help us understand what is happening in the story.

Why is Drawing Conclusions an important reading strategy?


Drawing Conclusions is very important in understanding what is
happening in a story. For example, many times an author will describe story
elements, rather than directly telling you where, when, who, and so forth. We
need to draw conclusions in order to understand the important parts of the story.

Draw Conclusions from Inferences


You can use inferences to generate additional information, upon which
you can draw a conclusion. For instance, from your inference about the water
damage to Jane’s current purse, you may come to the conclusion that she will
want to purchase a purse that is more resilient against water damage. By using
inferences to gain more information, you can draw conclusions that are more
accurate and more specific. Instead of purchasing a new purse, you now can
predict which kind of purse she will purchase.

Drawing Conclusions Intended by the Author


Despite being aware of how often you draw conclusions in daily life,
you might not realize how frequently you do it when you read. For instance,
authors don't always state the point or main idea of a paragraph in a topic
sentence. Sometimes, they imply, or suggest, a main idea through a series of
specific statements that combine to suggest one general thought, leaving it to
readers to draw the appropriate conclusion based on the paragraph's content and
language.
In the following passage, for example, the author has a strong opinion
about historical accuracy in movies. She does not directly state that opinion.
Still, it's hard to miss her point, given the tone she assumes and the example she
has chosen.

Making Movie History


Are you one of those trusting souls who thinks that movie accounts of
historical events are accurate? If so, you might want to consider the cinematic

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fate of British sea captain William Bligh (1754-1817). In four out of the five
films made about the real life mutiny on board the ship Bligh commanded, the
HMAV* Bounty, Bligh is portrayed as one of the most viscously cruel men ever
to captain a crew. In the movie accounts of the event, Bligh is so brutal his crew
justifiably mutinies and sets him adrift, thinking he will die at sea. Yet by all
historical accounts, the worst thing Bligh did to his men was make them drink
a mixture of sauerkraut and lime juice to fight off the then deadly disease known
as scurvy. Brute that Bligh was, he also insisted that his men bathe and exercise
regularly. While Bligh did use the whip as punishment, he was no different from
any other sea captain of his day, and he relied on such brutal punishments much
less than most. Apparently, Bligh's biggest mistake was to let his men spend six
months on the gorgeous tropical island of Tahiti, while he waited for the
ripening of the breadfruit crop he was supposed to carry back to England for
study. By the time the breadfruit plant was sapling size and Bligh ready to
depart, many crew members had made themselves at home on the island. When
the Bounty finally set sail in 1789, crew members were furious at Bligh for
making them leave. It wasn't long before that fury exploded into an open
rebellion that ended with the crew, led by second-in-command Fletcher
Christian, setting Bligh and his remaining supporters adrift in a twenty-three-
foot-long launch. Bligh, who was a superb navigator, managed to sail across the
Pacific and lived to tell his story in court. However, not surprisingly, some
members of Fletcher Christian's family went to great lengths to make Fletcher
seem the true hero and Bligh a villain. Although the authentic story of what
actually happened on the HMAV Bounty is thoroughly documented, film
makers always liked Fletcher's story better. It has turned out to be the one that
most people, particularly movie fans, believe to be the true "history" of mutiny
on the Bounty.
*His Majesty's Armed Vessel

Did you notice how the writer carefully selected her material to lead
readers to her intended conclusion: The story of William Bligh illustrates how
uninterested movie makers generally are in historical fact? Bligh's sad tale is the
follow up to the author's opening, and slightly sarcastic, question: "Are you one
of those trusting souls who thinks that movie accounts of historical events are
accurate?" While the phrase "trusting souls" is already an indication that the
author does not agree, the constant contrast between Bligh's film image and the
details of his story force the reader to arrive at the writer's foregone conclusion:
It's probably not wise to learn your history from movies.

The Writer's Expectations, the Reader's Responsibility


In the passage on Captain Bligh, the author lays out a series of facts in
order to lead you to a conclusion. If you, in turn, read every single sentence in

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the passage without drawing a conclusion, you wouldn't be completely doing


your job as reader—no matter how well you understood the individual
sentences. For communication to take place, it's the synthesizing, or combining,
of those sentences into a larger point that's required.

B. STEPS IN DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

To draw a conclusion about implied main ideas in paragraphs, you need


to do the following:

1. Consider what each sentence says about the common topic.


2. Ask yourself what general thought or idea emerges when you put all of
those individual pieces of information together. Here it helps to ask
yourself what common thread the individual sentences seem to share. In
the case of the sample paragraph, the sentences all help build the contrast
between Bligh's actual behavior and his movie image.
3. Think of the idea that emerges as the author's implied main idea and the
purpose of the passage.
Other step of drawing conclusions as follow:

1. Reading between the lines


2. Using clues from the text to figure out what the author is trying get
accross.
3. Some ideas are not stated directly in the text; you have to draw your won
conclusions about what is going on.

Activity 1
Read the selection and answer the questions.

Coffee has been around for over 700 years. It has been used in foods,
wines, and medicine. It grows in several places in the world such as India,
Africa, United States, Mexico, South America, Central America, and the West
Indies. There are over 100 types of coffee; a coffee is usually named for the area
in which it is grown. Different areas of the world prefer different types of coffee.
Caffeine, which is a stimulant, is found in coffee, and if it is taken out, the coffee
is called decaffeinated. Many people all over the world drink coffee.

1) You can conclude that


a. If a coffee is called Brazilian coffee, it might be grown in Brazil.
b. Everyone loves to drink coffee.
c. South American coffee is the best.
d. It is difficult to grow coffee beans.

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2) You can conclude that


a. You never can take all the caffeine out of a product.
b. People should drink decaffeinated coffee because it acts as stimulant.
c. Coffee was first introduced in the West Indies.
d. Coffee is usually grown in warm climates.

The Sahara desert is the largest desert in the world and takes up over
three million square miles, which is almost the size of the United States. The
Sahara desert is found in Africa. The Sahara isn't all just sand. It has almost 100
oases or springs of water. Oil and gas can be found under this vast desert. There
are other natural resources such as: copper, iron, ore, and uranium. The desert
doesn't get much rain. There aren't any paved roads, but cars can be driven on
the desert floor. There are about two million people who live in the large desert.

3) You can conclude that


a. It is difficult to travel in the Sahara desert.
b. All plants die since there isn't any water.
c. People have used all the oil in the desert.
d. People like to live in the desert.

Salmon are born in fresh water but travel to salt water to live their lives
and then travel back upstream to where they spawn more salmon before they
die. Salmon traveling upstream are very determined to get back to where they
were born. They fight against currents, whirlpools, and waterfalls; even though,
man has placed some obstacles in the salmon's way by building dams or rivers.
Once the salmon reaches its birthplace, it lays eggs. These eggs hatch, and the
process begins again.

4) You can conclude that


a. Salmon is a lazy type of fish.
b. When man develops more land, it will be more difficult for the salmon
to survive.
c. Salmon like to stay where they are born.
d. Salmon bury their eggs underneath rocks.

5) You can conclude that


a. Salmon are born in saltwater.
b. Salmon can't survive in fresh water.
c. Salmon is an expensive fish to eat.
d. Salmon live for a very long time.

What sits on every dinner table in the United States? We use it every
day on our food but rarely think about it. Salt is an extremely important mineral
that our bodies need, but too much salt is not good for us. China and the United

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States produce the most salt in the world. Salt comes from dried seawater.
Indians long ago evaporated seawater and made salt to season their food. Salt is
used in many ways. Glass and soap contain salt. It is used to de-ice roads in
winter. Also, it is used in medicine, oil refining, sewage treatment, cattle feed,
and even to soften hard water. As you can see, salt is a very important mineral.

6) You can conclude that


a. The North might use more salt on the roads than the South.
b. The human body can live without salt.
c. The Indians used salt to preserve their meat.
d. Salt makes water better tasting.

7) You can conclude that you might find salt in


a. Tires.
b. Erasers.
c. Detergent.
d. Paper.

William Shakespeare was an actor, poet, and playwright. His plays are
timeless because he deals with the motivating forces behind the daily choices
that man makes. He expresses himself in a lyrical way. He was born in England
in 1564 and died in 1616. He understood man so well that what he had to say
years ago still is appropriate about man today. He continues to influence many
philosophers and writers.

8) You can conclude


a. That Shakespeare couldn't understand the people in his time.
b. That people are able to relate to Shakespeare's characters.
c. Shakespeare was the most successful as an actor.
d. No one reads Shakespeare's plays.

Carla really wanted a puppy, but her parents didn't care for dogs. Most
of her friends had dogs, and she really enjoyed playing with them. Every time
she asked her parents, they would say, "They are a lot of responsibility. You
have to feed and play with them. Also, when they are puppies, they needed to
be trained." Although her parents didn't believe she was mature enough to have
a dog, she knew that she take could care of one. Carla knew she wasn't the most
responsible person when it came to taking care of her toys, but a puppy would
be different. Each day she made a concentrated effort to pick up her toys and
help out around the house. She knew her parents were pleased with her new,
responsible attitude. She was hoping her hard work would finally pay off. When
she came home from school, she heard a whining noise coming from a box with
air holes. Could this be what she thought it was?

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9) You can conclude that


a. Carla started acting more responsible in hopes that her parents would
believe she was mature enough to have a dog.
b. Carla likes to play with boxes.
c. Carla never takes care of her belongings.
d. Carla was paid for helping out around the house.

10) You can conclude that


a. Her parents are going to wait for her birthday to give her a dog.
b. Carla decides not to beg her parents anymore for a puppy, and she will
be happy just playing with her friends' dogs.
c. A puppy was in the box.
d. She doesn't know what responsibility is.

Activity 2
Read the selection and answer the questions.

Julio and his father had been looking forward to their fishing trip for
weeks. They didn't take much food with them on the trip. When they started
fishing they were quickly approached by a forest ranger. He asked Julio's father
if he had a fishing license. Julio's father reached into his wallet and suddenly
got a terrified look on his face. Julio was disappointed that night as he ate dinner.

1) Why did Julio and his father not take much food with them on the trip?
a. They didn't want to eat too much
b. They didn't have any food at their house
c. They were planning on eating the fish that they caught
d. They don't like to eat fish

2) Which of the following is a conclusion that can be drawn about the


story?
a. Julio was disappointed at dinner because he was hoping to have fish for
dinner.
b. Julio's mother doesn't like fish
c. It takes a long time to catch fish
d. Julio's father is a better fisherman than Julio

Richard and Luis had been hiking for hours. Richard had to carry Luis
for the last few miles of the hike. Sweat was rolling down his face as the sun
shone directly overhead.

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3) What conclusion can be drawn about Luis's age?


a. He is older than Richard
b. He is the same age as Richard
c. He just had a birthday
d. He is younger than Richard

4) What time of day is it?


a. Morning
b. Midday
c. Midnight
d. Night

Annie could hear the music playing over the loud speaker in the mall.
She and her mother were shopping for a present for her father. Annie could see
a big line in the center of the mall. She wondered what all the people were
waiting for. She then heard a jolly "HO! HO! HO!" from the center of the crowd
and she quickly realized what the people were waiting on. As Annie and her
mother walked through the mall, she noticed that the store windows were
decorated with green, white, and red decorations.

5) Which of the following is a conclusion that could be made from the


story?
a. Annie and her mother were shopping for a birthday present for Annie's
father.
b. The people were waiting in line to see Santa Claus
c. The mall is close to Annie's house
d. The music was coming from a band

6) What season of the year is it?


a. Spring
b. Summer
c. Winter
d. Fall

7) Which of the following is a conclusion that can be drawn from the story?
a. Annie will get what she wants for Christmas
b. Annie and her mother go to the mall often
c. Santa Claus is coming to town
d. the store windows were decorated for Christmas

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

REFERENCES

Pictures
Blendspace. (2008). Drawing Conclusions. Available at:
http://www.blendspace.com/lessons/D-cm36x9zd1Ug/drawing-
conclusions. Accessed on April, 6th, 2015.

Boston University. (2015). Bias. Available at:


www.sphweb.bumbc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/EP/EP713_Bias/.
Accessed on April, 5th, 2015.
Chen, Yi. (2012). Artist Builds an Igloo Made Entierly of Books. Available at:
www.psfk.com. Accessed on Accessed on April 2nd, 2015.

Rees, Jasper. (2012). Theartsdesk Q&A: Novelist Hilary Mantel. Available at:
www.theartsdesk.com/tv/theartsdesk-qa-novelist-hilary-mantel.html.
Accessed on April, 3rd, 2015.

800 Score Prep Course. (2012). Some Common Reading Comprehension Tones.
Available at: www.800score.com/readingcomp_12.html. Accessed on
April, 4th, 2015.

Strichart, Mangrum. (2012). Critical Reading. Available at: http://www.how-


to-study.com/mobile/article.asp?id=122. Accessed on April 1st, 2015.

Trochim, William M,k. (2006). External Validity. Available at:


http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/external.php. Accessed on
April, 4th, 2015

Virginia Beach City Public Schools. (2010). Author’s Purpose. Available at:
www.irc.vbchools.com. Accessed on April, 5th, 2015.

Vivyan, Carol. (2010). Fact or Opinion. Available at:


http://www.getselfhelp.co.uk/factopinion.html. . Accessed on April, 3rd,
2015.

Walsh, Shirley. (2012). Critical Reading and Thinking. Available at:


http://shirleywalsh45.blogspot.com/2012/11/critical-reading-and-
thinking.html?m=1. Accessed on April 1st, 2015.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Materials

Cervetti, G, Pardalis, M.J., & Damico, J.S. (2011). A Tale of Differences:


Comparing the Traditions, Perspective, and Educational Goals of
Critical Reading and Critical Literary. Available at:
http://www/readingonline.org/article/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/cer
vetti/index.html. Accessed on April 1st, 2015.

Cleveland State University. 2013. Crticital Reading: What is Critical Reading


and Why Do I Need to Do It. Available at:
http://www.scuohio.edu/writing-center/critical-reading-what-
critical-reading-and-why-do-I-need-do-it. Accessed on April
4th,2015.

Cliff Notes. 2014. SAT: Strategy for Critical Reading Passage. Accessed on
http://cliffsnotes.com/test-prep/college-entrance-exam/sat-strategy-
for-critical-reading-passages.
Fowler, H. Ramsey. 1986. The Little Brown Handbook. Boston: Little, Brown.

Hayakawa, S.I. (2014). Drawing Conclusions. Available at:


th
www.laflemm.com/reso/conclusions.html. Accessed on April, 6 , 2015.

Knowledge into Wisdom: Holistic Approcahes to Teachinga and Learning.


Available at:
http://www.herdsa.org/au/conference2004/Contribution/RPapers/P048-
jt.pdf. Accessed on April 1st, 2015.

Kurland, Daniel J. (2000). What is Critical Reading?. Available at:


http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.html. Accessed on
April 1st, 2015.

Janovsky, Angela. (2008). Author’s Puspose: Definition & Examples. Available


at: www.study.com/academy/lesson/authors-purpose-definition-
examples.html. Accessed on April, 5th, 2015.

Leicester Univerity. (2011). What is Critical Reading?. Available at:


www.;e.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources//writing/writing-resouces/critical-
reading.html. Accessed on April, 3rd, 2015.

McDonald, L. (2004). Moving from Reader Response to Critical Reading :


Developing 10-11 Year olds’ as Analytical Reader of Literary Texts.
Literacy 38(1), 17-25.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Oka, Djoehana D,dkk. 2008. Advanced Reading. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka.

Purdue Online Writing Lab. 2010. APA Stylistic: Avoiding Bias. Accessed on
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resourse/560/14/

Salisbury University. 2011. Critical Reading Strategies. Available at:


www.salisbury.edu/counseling/new/7_critical_reading_strategies.html.
Accessed on April 2nd, 2015.
State Library of Victoria. (2015). Identify Bias. Available at:
www.ergo.slv.vic.gov.au/learn-comprehension/research-
comprehension/select-resources/identify-bias. Accessed on April, 5th, 2015.

Strichart, Mangrum. (2012). Critical Reading. Available at: http://www.how-


to-study.com/mobile/article.asp?id=122. Accessed on April 1st, 2015.

Wallace, C. (2003). Critical Reading in Language Education. New York:


Palgrave Macmillan.

Wikihow. (2010). How to Recognize Bias in a Newspaper Article. Available at:


www.wikihow.com/recognize-Bias-in-a-Newspaper-Article.html.
Accessed on April, 5th, 2015.

Wilson, K., Devereux, L., Macken-Horarik, M., & Trimingham-Jack, C. (2004).


Reading Readings: How Students Learn to (dis)engage with Critical
Reading. Paper presented at the meeting of HERDSA 2004 Conference
Transforming

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

ANSWER KEY

UNIT 3
Activity 2

a. 1. F
2. NF (The story says a Christmas pie, not a plup pie)
3. NF (No indication that there is a chair)
b. 1. F
2. NF (It is not mentioned in the story)
3. NF (It is not stated in the story)
c. 1. F
2. NF (The story doesn’t prove it, Mary is not “he”, it refers to “her””
3. NF (The story doesn’t prove this)
4. NF (The story doesn’t mention this)
5. NF (The story doesn’t prove this)

UNIT 4
Activity 3

1. U
Opinion: At the present time, American unions are undergoing a serious
crisis. No facts are given to justify that unions win fewer battles.
2. U
Opinion: If you want to be healthy, walk, don’t run. The author gives
irrelevant facts. The facts support that running causes more accidents
than walking, not that it less healthy.
3. J
Opinion: The chemist is essential in our life today. All the facts the
author presents are verifiable and relevant.

UNIT 5
Activity 1
1. F
2. G
3. F
4. G
5. G
6. F
7. F
8. F
9. G

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

10. G
11. G
12. G
13. F
14. F

UNIT 6
Activity 2

1. S
The writer’s tone is optimistic. He believes that the cognitive scientists
will have success. He uses the words promise, breakthough, the most
sophisticated modern computer is no match for....., even very small
children can perceive and anticipate.
2. S
The writer’s tone is serious and supportive/sympathetic towards the
need of counseling centers and meeting places for parents. The words
and phrases used are lean over the back fence, harder and harder,
isolated, easy camaraderie, it’s about time.
3. O
The writer’s tone is without emotion. He simply states facts.
4. S
The writer’s tone is emotional and disapproving. The words used are
huge bear of a man, did not inspire confidence, even his own mother,
incompetent, managed to elienate, defeat.

UNIT 7
Activity 1
1. NA
2. A To give facts whether or not schools treat girls differently from
boys
3. A To argue that the poor do not deserve bad schools
4. NA
5. A To explain how one’s name can influence one’ life
6. NA
7. A To warn us that our wetlands are disappearing
8. A To give information on the deepsea geysers of the Atlantic

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

UNIT 8
Activity 1

1. C
Prasising; notice the words fresh, tasty, healthy, modern, hygienic
pioneer, first awarded.
2. A
Persuade to buy AQUA
3. A
AQUA bottled water
4. C
Strongly positive. The author doesn’t mention any shortcomings at all.

UNIT 9
Activity 2
1. C
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. D

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

GLOSSARIES

A
Approach The act of moving or becoming near or nearer to
someone or something: the act of approaching: an act or
occurrence in which something comes nearer.
Assertions A positive statement, usually made without an attempt at
furnishing evidence.

Annecdotal Based on or consisting of reports or observations of


usually unscientific observers (anecdotal evidence).

B
Betterment The act or result of making something better.
Buzzword An important-sounding usually technical word or phrase
often of little meaning used chiefly to impress laymen.

C
Connotations The act of connoting; the suggesting of an additional
meaning for a word or expression, apart from its explicit
meaning.
Cynicism Having or showing the attitude or temper of a cynic.

Contradictory Asserting the contrary or opposite; contradicting;


inconsistent; logically opposite; contradictory statement.
D
Disapproval A strong feeling of dislike for something that has a very
unpleasant appearance, taste, smell, etc.
Disgust To cause (someone) to have a strong feeling of dislike for
something especially because it has a very unpleasant
appearance, taste, smell, etc.
Discarded To get rid of especially as useless or unwanted.
E
Enlighten To give intellectual or spiritual light to; instruct; impact
knowledge to.
Exaggerated unduly or excessively magnified; enlarged beyond truth
or reasonableness.

101
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

F
Faulty Containing a fault or defect; imperfect or defective.
Follies The state of quality of being foolish; lack of
understanding or sense.
Fanciful Showing imagination : unusual and appealing.
Frantic Desperate or wild with excitement, passion, fear, pain,
etc.; frenzied.
H
Hramful Of a kind likely to be damaging : injurious.
Harmless Without injury; unhurt; unharmed.
I
Isolated Also called language isolate. Linguistics are a language
with nodemonstrable genetic relationship, as Basque.
Intoxicated Mentally or emotionally exhilarated.
Innocuous Producing no injury : harmless.
J
Joyous Full of happiness and joy.
K
Knights A heroic champion of a lady or of a cause or principle.
L
Lighthearted Cheerfully optimistic and hopeful; free from care,
anxiety, or seriousness
M
Misused To use (something) incorrectly and unfairly.
Misinterpreted To understand or explain (something) incorrectly : to
interpret (something) incorrectly.
Masked Disguised; hidden: masked treachery.
O
Obvious Easy for the mind to understand or recognize or see or
notice.

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CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

P
Profiteering A person who seeks or exacts exorbitant protis,
especially through the same of scarce or rationed goods.
Purse An amount of money that a person, organization, or
government has available to use.
Playwright A writer of plays; dramatist.
R
Ridicule Speech or action intended to cause contemtuous laughter
at a personor thing; derision or ridiculed and ridiculing.
Refining To bring to a fine or a pure state; free from impurities.
S
Skeptical Not convinced that something is true; doubtful.
Selfish Concerned excessively or exclusively with
oneself : seeking or concentrating on one's own
advantage, pleasure, or well-being without regard for
others
Soelemn Characterized or marked by seriousness or sincerity.
Somber Extremely serious; grave.
T
Thoughfully Characterized by careful reasoned thinking.
U
Undisputed To argue, debate, or quarrel about (something).
Unethical Lacking moral principles; unwilling to adhere to proper
rules of conduct.
Urguing An act of urging; impelling action, influence, or force;
impulse.
V
Verifiable To prove the truth of, as by evidence or testimony;
confirm; substantiate:

Valid Well-grounded or justifiable.

103
CRITICAL READING COMPREHENSION

Vivid Presenting the appearance, freshness, spirit, etc, of life;


realistic.
W
Whims A sudden wish, desire, decision, etc.
Whinning A whining utterance, sound, or tone.

104

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