Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

The investigation of the coal ignition temperature and ignition

characteristics in an oxygen-enriched FBR
Junnan Chao a,b,⇑, Hairui Yang b, Yuxin Wu b, Hai Zhang b, Junfu Lv b, Weiguo Dong a, Naiyou Xiao a,
Keda Zhang a, Chunxia Xu a
a
State Key Laboratory of Coal Mining and Clean Utilization, Beijing Key Laboratory of Coal Based Carbon Materials, Beijing Research Institute of Coal Chemistry, China Coal
Research Institute, Beijing 100013, China
b
Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory of CO2 Utilization and Reduction Technology, Department of
Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Oxygen-enriched circulating fluidized bed (CFB) technology is considered as one of the low carbon emis-
Received 20 October 2015 sion power generation technologies. By recycling the flue gas into the furnace, the CO2 concentration in
Received in revised form 14 June 2016 the exhaust gas can reach over 90%. The coal ignition temperature and ignition characteristics are impor-
Accepted 20 June 2016
tant factors for boiler design and for choosing the feeding temperature during the transition from air-
Available online 27 June 2016
firing to oxy-firing. The ignition and combustion processes of five types of coal under four different atmo-
spheres (air, O2 27%, O2 40%, O2 53%) were measured in a laboratory scale fluidized bed reactor (FBR) with
Keywords:
an under-bed preheat system. Using thermocouples and a gas analyzer, the changes in bed temperature
Oxygen-enriched CFB
Coal ignition temperature
and the concentrations of different components, such as O2, CO2 and CO, in flue gas were directly mea-
Ignition characteristic sured to determine the coal ignition temperature, TFi . It was found that TFi decreases with increasing O2
concentration. At lower bed temperatures, two-stage ignition processes were observed in certain ranges
of initial bed temperature and oxygen concentration. The influence of initial bed temperature on volatile
release and the SO2 emission in the ignition processes were also discussed.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
As one of the ‘Green House’ gases, in recent years, CO2 is consid-
ered as one of the main reasons of the climate change. More and
more attention was paid to reduce CO2 emission. As the main
releasing source of CO2, coal combustion burdens much pressure
on the climate change, while, the increasing world population
and energy demand make coal an essential and stable energy
source in the near future [1].
Contrary to the traditional air combustion technology, oxygen-
enriched combustion in a pulverized coal fired (PC) boiler is con-
sidered as one potential technology to reduce CO2 emission [2–
4]. By recycling the flue gas, the CO2 concentration in the exhaust
Abbreviations: CFB, circulating fluidized bed; CCS, carbon capture and storage;
FBR, fluidized bed reactor; SPSS, statistical product and service solutions.
⇑ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Coal Mining and Clean
Utilization, Beijing Key Laboratory of Coal Based Carbon Materials, Beijing Research
Institute of Coal Chemistry, China Coal Research Institute, Beijing 100013, China.
E-mail address: ginobily@126.com (J. Chao).
gas could reach over 90%, which makes it easier to realize the
application of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology.
Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion technology has the
features of good fuel flexibility, low NOX emission and high SO2
absorption efficiency with limestone injected into the furnace.
These advantages make the oxygen-enriched CFB combustion
technology more convenient for CCS [5].
An oxygen-enriched CFB is superior to the traditional CFB [6].
The high oxygen concentration in the furnace will improve the
combustion efficiency and cause the significant reduction in the
gas flow volume, which will decrease the boiler size greatly [7].
Comparably, the recycle ratio of flue gas in an oxygen-enriched
CFB boiler is much lower than that of the oxy-fuel PC boiler by
using external heat exchanging system, which can maintain higher
oxygen concentration in the furnace and reduce the auxiliary
power simultaneously [5,8]. In the view of industrial application,
there are still many problems to be solved for oxygen-enriched
CFB, such as the coal ignition temperature and coal combustion
characteristics in the CFB boiler.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.06.089
0016-2361/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
352 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358
Nomenclature
fSO2 sulfur conversion rate, mol/s
MS the molecular weight of sulfur, g/mol
SV mass of the converted sulfur from volatile
SChar mass of the converted sulfur from char
Tb bed temperature, °C
Ti the bed temperature used in the ith test during the
determination of the coal ignition temperature
Coal ignition temperature in a CFB boiler, TFi , defined as the low-
est bed temperature required for stable coal combustion, is an
important parameter for boiler design and automatic control dur-
ing the startup process. When the coal is fed into a furnace at a
temperature lower than TFi , the coal will not ignite and the furnace
temperature will decrease even more. As the coal particles accu-
mulate in the furnace, once the fuel concentration and temperature
in the furnace reach critical conditions, the mixture will flash and
the furnace temperature will suddenly increase, which leads to
overheating problem. Determining the ignition and combustion
characteristics of certain coal type are necessary for the safety of
the boiler operation.
Though there are many studies on ignition temperature of coal
in air condition [9–12], the investigations on that in oxygen-
enriched condition are still far from enough. In oxygen-enriched
conditions, the influences of CO2 on the reactions of char, the
releasing of volatile and the heat transfer are still unclear [4].
To determine the coal ignition temperature, there are several
different methods used in previous literatures, such as the thermo-
gravimetric analysis (TG) ignition measurement [13],
thermogravimetric-derivative thermogravimetric analysis (TG-
DTG) combination method [15] and so on. A laboratory-scale flu-
idized bed reactor (FBR) with a under-bed preheating system
was used in this study, in which the reaction condition (heat and
mass transfer) is much closer to that in the industrial CFB boilers.
In this work, ignition temperatures and ignition characteristics
of five different coals under four different atmospheres (air, O2 27%,
O2 40%, O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas) were taken into account. The
ignition characteristics of the coals can be described by a revised
ignition index Fi [12], which is defined as:
Fi ¼ DT=ðt2  t1 Þ
where DT is the difference between the initial furnace temperature
and the maximum temperature, t1 is the time to reach the lowest
temperature after the coal sample was injected, and t2 is the time
to reach the maximum temperature.
The bed temperature was monitored by a thermocouple. The
components in the exhaust gas was detected by an O2 analyzer
and a mass spectrometer. The tests results were combined to
determine the coal ignition temperature and the combustion
characteristics.
2. Experimental setup
The measurements were carried out in a laboratory-scale FBR
with an under-bed preheating system, shown in Fig. 1. The com-
bustion chamber is made of quartz glass with height of 70 cm
and inner diameter of 65 mm. Quartz sand with narrow size range
of 0.275–0.3 mm was used as bed material. The static height of the
bed material in the chamber was set as 40 mm. CO2 and O2 were
pre-mixed in the mixer with three different ratio, and the gaseous
mixers with different O2 concentrations were used as inlet gases.
The pre-mixed gas was heated in the preheating system under-
TFi coal ignition temperature in FBR, °C
U fluidizing air velocity, m/s
Umf minimum fluidizing air velocity, m/s
Vdaf volatile content as base of dry free of ash, %
neath the combustion chamber, and delivered into the combustion
chamber. Coal particles were injected into the combustion cham-
ber through the feeding tube above the reactor. The flue gas was
cleaned through the cyclone and then introduced into the gas ana-
lyzers. The superficial gas velocity in the combustion chamber was
about three times of Umf. The operating condition in this work is
specified in Table 1.
The proximate and ultimate analyses of five coal types are listed
in Tables 2 and 3. The particle size of the coal sample was in the
range of 1–2 mm and the mass used in each batch experiment
was about 2 g. The temperature in the dense bed was measured
by thermocouple online. An O2 analyzer and a mass spectrometer
were used to measure the concentration changes of the gas compo-
sitions (especially O2, CO2, H2, CH4, CO and SO2) in the flue gas.
To investigate the influences of the volatile release on the igni-
tion characteristics, the devolatilization processes under Ar atmo-
sphere were carried out in the FBR, and the porosities of original
coal particles and the chars that formed during the devolatilization
processes were measured.
3. Experoment procedure
After the chamber was electrically heated to the selected tem-
perature, Tb, the coal particles were injected into the chamber.
The bed temperature was then recorded by the data acquisition
system. After the coal particles were injected into the chamber, the
whole process was observed through the view port. If flame was
observed and the coal particles started to glow, it was considered
that the coal particles ignited. If the coal particles ignited, the
chamber temperature was reduced to a lower temperature Ti+1
and steps 1 and 2 were repeated until the coal particles did not
ignite.
If the coal particles did not ignite, Tb, was set to be half between
Ti and Ti1 and the process was repeated. The process was termi-
nated when |Ti - Ti1| < 5 °C. Then Ti was considered as the ignition
temperature, TFi .
In the investigation, every single test carried out in this work
was repeated for five times, and the results of each five tests were
averaged as the final result to insure the reproducibility of the data.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Coal ignition temperature
Following the procedure described in Section 3, the coal ignition
temperatures of 5 coal types under air and oxygen-enriched atmo-
spheres (O2 27%, O2 40%, O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas) were deter-
mined, shown in Fig. 2. It can be observed that the oxygen
enriched technology is capable of decreasing the coal ignition tem-
perature comparing with that in air condition. To find out the fac-
tors that might influence the coal ignition characteristics, the
influences of several parameters (bed temperature, volatile con-
tent, oxygen concentration) are discussed in the following sections.
 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358 353

Fig. 1. Sketh of the laboratory-scale FBR.

Table 1
The standard condition of coal particle ignition tests.

Fluidizing U/ Coal Bed Bed height Bed material

gas Umf particles (g) material (mm) size (lm)
O2/ CO2 3 2.0 Quartz 40 275–300
sand

Table 2
Proximate analyses of different coals.

No. Coal type Proximate analyses, wt% LHVar, MJ/kg

Mt Vd Fcd Ad
1 Longyan 4.72 4.51 60.89 34.59 19.07
2 Lu’an 2.12 10.53 62.35 27.11 25.05
3 Fugu 3.96 31.43 46.14 22.42 22.58
4 Yankuang 0.00 35.51 55.67 8.82 21.38
5 Xiaolongtan 9.88 54.45 40.06 5.49 12.43

Mt: total moisture; V: volatile matter; Fc: fixed carbon; A: ash; LHV: lower heating
value.
Fig. 2. Coal ignition temperatures in different atmospheres.

Table 3
Ultimate analyses of different coals.
ignite at higher Tb. Tb directly influences the particle heating rate,
No. Coal type Cad Had Oad Nad Sad Clad Ad volatile release and chemical kinetics. In addition, there was a
1 Long Yan 52.30 1.04 0.83 0.71 1.12 0.026 32.96 jump of the Fi, when Tb was higher than TFi (within the range of
2 Lu An 62.13 2.67 7.33 1.18 0.15 0.033 26.54 550–560 °C). It means that the burning rate increases much faster
3 Fu Gu 56.58 3.61 14.28 1.12 0.42 0.028 21.53 than that at a temperature lower than TFi . When the ignition point
4 Yan Kuang 55.38 2.04 6.42 1.12 0.50 0.019 8.82
is where the heat generating rate match the heat losing rate at the
5 Xiao Long Tan 36.72 1.87 12.59 1.01 1.66 0.037 4.95
surface of the coal particle. When the bed temperature exceeds the
TFi a little bit, the heat generated at the surface of the coal particle
will be higher than the heat loss, and, consequently, the tempera-
4.2. Influence of initial bed temperature
ture of the coal particle will increase sharply under that condition.
However, as the bed temperature goes much higher, the heat gen-
As shown in Fig. 3, the bed temperature changing curves for
erating rate of the coal particle will be limited by the mass transfer
coal 2 in the case of 53% O2 (47% CO2 as balance) at different initial
at the particle surface while the heat losing rate keeps increasing,
bed temperature were compared, within the temperature range
which makes the particle temperature raising rate become much
around the coal ignition temperature (TFi ). As shown in Fig. 4, the
lower.
Fi increased with the increasing Tb, which was same as the results
The test results are nearly similar for different coal types under
obtained in air condition [12]. It means the coal particle is easier to
different atmospheres. Especially, the ‘‘jump” is of great signifi-
354 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358
Fig. 3. Bed temperature difference vs. time (coal 2, O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas).
Fig. 4. Ignition index vs. bed temperature (coal 2, O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas).
cance for the determination of TFi , as well as the observation of the
flame and sparks, and makes the determination of ignition temper-
ature more standardized.
4.3. Influence of volatile content
Previous studies [12,14,15] of coal ignition temperature in air
condition indicated that coal type with high volatile content
always has low TFi , which was also found in the oxygen-enriched
conditions.
The porosity of the char particle is higher than that of the coal
particle because of the volatile release [20]. As a result, after the
coal particles were injected into the combustion chamber, the
volatile release would enhance the porosity and thereby the reac-
tivity of coal particles. Within a certain range of Tb, the coal igni-
tion index increases with increasing volatile content of coal type,
as shown in Fig. 5. It means the coal with higher volatile content
usually has relatively higher combustion rate in these conditions.
However, this trend does not appear in other temperature
ranges. It was found that the volatile content has greater impact
on Fi at the relatively lower Tb and the influence becomes weaker
at higher Tb. Ignition tests of coal 1, 3 and 5 were carried out in
Fig. 5. Fi of different coal types vs. Tb (O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas).
Fig. 6. Fi of coal 1, 3 and 5 at different Tb vs. volatile content (O2 53%, CO2 as balance
gas).
three different atmospheres (O2 27%, O2 40% and O2 53%, CO2 as
balance) at three different Tb, as shown in Fig. 6. Obviously, the
stimulation effect of volatile content on the ignition rate becomes
weak at a higher Tb. Even worse, high temperature may cause some
negative effect on the ignition process. As found in the previous
works [16–22], with increasing bed temperature, the devolatiliza-
tion duration decreases slightly [17,18,21,22], while, the total yield
of the volatile matter increases [18]. The possible explanation for
the results shown in Fig. 5 is that, when the coal particles were
injected into the chamber at a higher Tb, the devolatilization rate
was much faster and the large amount of volatile yield dilute the
local O2 concentration, which decrease and incomplete the burn
out of volatile and char.
For further study of the volatile influence, in atmosphere with
20.9% O2 (CO2 as balance gas) at 785 °C, the ignition characteristics
of coals and chars of 5 different coals were carried out. As shown in
Fig. 7, the coals with low volatile content such as Coal 1 burn faster
than that of the char, while, the results were opposite for coals
with high volatile content such as 3, 4 and 5, shown in Fig. 8.
The influence of the volatile content on coal combustion has dou-
 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358
Fig. 7. Bed temperature difference vs. time (coal 1, 785 °C, O2 20.9%, CO2 as balance
gas, 1.0 g).
Fig. 8. Bed temperature difference vs. time (coal 5, 785 °C, O2 20.9%, CO2 as balance
gas, 1.0 g).
Fig. 9. Fi of coal 5 in different atmospheres (air, O2 27%, O2 40%, O2 53%, CO2 as
balance gas).
355
ble effects, and it supports the explanation for the nonlinearity pre-
sented in Fig. 6.
4.4. Influence of oxygen concentration
As shown in Fig. 9, Fi of coal 5 in different atmospheres increase
with the increasing O2 concentration, which means that it is easier
to ignite at higher O2 concentration. The influence of the O2 con-
centration is more obvious at a high Tb, which was also predicted
by SPSS Analyses. In an oxygen-enriched CFB boiler, coal combus-
tion is controlled by a combination of the chemical kinetics and
species diffusion. When Tb is relatively low, it is mostly controlled
by chemical kinetics, while it is mainly controlled by species diffu-
sion at high Tb. Therefore, the impact of O2 concentration becomes
more significant as Tb increases.
4.5. Two stage ignition
Two stage ignitions were observed in the ignition process of
some high volatile coals in a certain temperature range and O2 con-
centration, as shown in Fig. 10. After the coal particles are injected
into the chamber, the volatile releases and the combustibles in it
are ignited, which forms the first stage ignition. When the combus-
tion of the volatile is almost complete, the char particle begins to
burn and forms the second stage. High volatile content, a certain
bed temperature (discussed in Section 4.6) and proper O2 concen-
tration are essential factors for the two stage ignition formation.
This phenomenon becomes more obvious with increasing of oxy-
gen concentration, and the two stages move closer as the Tb
increases. The two stages finally merge together when Tb is high
enough because of the high reaction rate of char.
However, the two stage ignition was not observed in the tests of
coal 5 with the largest volatile content. In order to investigate the
mechanism for the formation of the first stage, the volatile compo-
sitions of 5 different coals at a high Tb were monitored using a
mass spectrograph in Argon atmosphere. It was found that, though
the coal 5 has the largest volatile content, the combustible compo-
sitions in the volatile such as CO, H2 and CH4 are much lower than
that in coal 4, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. So during
the devolatilization process of coal 5, the yield of the combustibles
is not sufficient to form the first stage of ignition. Therefore, the
combustible composition in volatile is also a key factor for the
two stage ignition formation.
Fig. 10. Two stage ignition, coal 4 (O2 40%, CO2 as balance gas).
356 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358

Fig. 14. Volatile components of coal 5 (806 °C, Ar).

Fig. 11. Volatile components of coal 4 (770 °C, Ar).

4.6. Volatile release, combustion and SO2 emission

The volatile release processes of coal 5 at different initial bed

temperatures from 498 °C to 806 °C in Argon atmosphere were car-
ried out. The concentration variations of volatile components were
recorded and parts of the results are presented in Figs. 13 and 14.
The volatile composition mainly consists of CO2 at a relatively low
Tb. As Tb increases, more H2, CH4 and CO emerge. That is the reason
why a relatively high Tb is needed to form the two-stage ignition.
The maximum SO2 concentrations are in the range of 200–
300 ppm at different Tb and there are no significant changes, which
mean that the SO2 emission during volatile release is not signifi-
cantly impacted by Tb.
The contents of H2, CH4 and CO increase sharply when Tb
increases from 595 °C to 806 °C, while the CO2 remains almost con-
stant. The volatile releasing time, in the range of 20–40 s almost
does not change with Tb. At higher Tb, the large amount of volatile
released within a short time will hinder the ignition of the char
particle, especially with large amount of CO2. As a result, the pos-
itive impact of the volatile release on coal ignition process
decreases with the increasing Tb as is mentioned in Section 4.3.
The ignition tests of coal 5 in different O2/CO2 atmospheres
Fig. 12. Volatile components of coal 5 (770 °C, Ar).
were carried out. As shown in Fig. 15, after the coal sample is
injected into the chamber, a peak of SO2 is detected with higher
content than those presented in Figs. 13 and 14. The SO2 is mainly

Fig. 15. Flue gas components concentrations (coal 5, 770 °C, O2 53%, CO2 as balance
Fig. 13. Volatile components of coal 5 (595 °C, Ar). gas, 2.0 g).
 J. Chao et al. / Fuel 183 (2016) 351–358 357

formed during the processes of the volatile releasing and char com-
bustion. In Fig. 15, point A is the second valley point of oxygen con-
sumption rate caused by char combustion. The corresponding SO2
concentration of 800 ppm, point B, in the flue gas is much lower
than that during the first 30 s. Comparably, the SO2 generating rate
during char combustion is far lower than that resulting from the
volatile combustion and can be neglected during the first 30 s.
Therefore, it is assumes that the SO2 emerges within the first
30 s is formed completely by volatile release and combustion in
the following calculations.

Z 30
SV ¼ MS f SO2 dt ð1Þ
0

Z 1
SChar ¼ MS f SO2 dt ð2Þ
30

SV and SChar, calculated by Eqs. (1) and (2), are used to represent
the masses of the sulfur in volatile and char respectively. Fig. 16
shows the comparison of SV and SChar of coal 5 with four O2 concen- Fig. 17. Comparison of SV and SChar (coal 1, 770 °C, CO2 as balance gas).
trations (21%, 29%, 42% and 56% CO2 as balance gas). At O2 concen-
tration of 21% (CO2 as balance gas), the SV and the SChar are both
relatively low and increase significantly when O2 concentration For coal 1 with low volatile and low CaO content in ash, the Schar
increases to 29%. As the O2 concentration become even higher, SV is higher than SV, shown in Fig. 17.
increases slowly, while, SChar remains nearly constant. At a low
O2 concentration condition, the volatile release makes the local
5. Conclusion
O2 concentration even lower, and most of the sulfur in volatile does
not have enough time to convert to SO2 before leaving the cham-
The ignition temperatures and ignition characteristics of five
ber, which proved by the large peak value of CO emerging in the
different coals were measured in a lab-scale FBR in different atmo-
flue gas, shown in Fig. 15, representing the incomplete combustion
spheres (air, O2 27%, O2 40%, O2 53%, CO2 as balance gas). The igni-
caused by the lack of oxygen. Higher O2 concentration improves
tion characteristics of a same coal type in same atmospheres are
the possibility for the volatile sulfur to react with O2, so, the Sv
different at different bed temperature Tb. There will be a jump of
increases with increasing O2 concentration. The SV is higher than
the Fi, when Tb was over the TFi . The volatile content has twofold
Schar for coal 5, which is consistent with the result of Czakiert
influence on combustion, which depends on the initial bed temper-
et al., who found that the sulfur content in volatile was higher than
ature. TFi decreases with increasing O2 concentration and the
that in char of a brown coal in oxygen-enriched CFB system [7]. The
impact of O2 concentration on the ignition process becomes more
ash composition such as CaO may fix some SO2 released from char
significant as Tb increases. High volatile content with large per-
combustion, which may be the reason for coal 5 because the CaO in
centage of combustible, proper O2 concentration and a certain
ash of coal 5 is about 33% determined by the X Ray Fluorescence.
range of Tb are essential factors for the two stage ignitions forma-
For other coal types, the total sulfur conversion also increases
tion. For different coal types, sulfur conversion ratio increases with
with increase of O2 concentration, while the ratio of SV to SChar
the increasing O2 concentration, while the ratio of SV to SChar
depends on the total volatile fraction and the ash composition.
depends on the total volatile content and ash composition.

Acknowledgment

Financial support of this work by the National Basic Research

Program of China (973 Program) (2014CB744305) is gratefully
acknowledged.

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