ANS 1)

ANS4)
Category 1 WSNs (C1WSNs): mesh-based systems with multihop radio connectivity among or
between WNs, utilizing dynamic routing in both the wireless and wireline portions of the
network.
 Military systems typically belong to this category.

C1WSNs are networks in which end devices (sensors) are permitted to be more than one radio
hop away from a routing or forwarding node The forwarding node is a wireless router that
supports dynamic routing (i.e., it has a mechanism that is used to find the best route to the
destination out of a possible set of more than one route);
wireless routers are often connected over wireless links.
The important characterizations are that
(1)sensor nodes can support communications on behalf of other sensor nodes by acting as
repeaters;
(2) the forwarding node supports dynamic routing and more than one physical link to the rest
of the network is physically and logically present;
(3) the radio links are measured in thousands of meters; and
(4) the forwarding node can support data processing or reduction on behalf
of the sensor nodes.

Category 2 WSNs (C2WSNs): point-to-point or multipoint-to-point (starbased)

systems with single-hop radio connectivity to WNs,
utilizing static routing over the wireless network;
there will be only one route from the WNs to the companion terrestrial/wireline forwarding
node
 Residential control systems belong to this category
C2WSNs are networks in which end devices (sensors) are one
radio hop away from a terrestrially homed forwarding node
The forwarding node (call it a wireless router) is connected to the terrestrial network via either
a landline or a point-to-point wireless link. The important characterizations are that
(1) sensor nodes (i.e., the WNs) do not support communications on behalf of any other sensor
nodes;
(2) the forwarding node supports only static routing to the terrestrial network, and/or only one
physical link to the terrestrial network is present;
(3) the radio link is measured in hundreds of meters; and
(4) the forwarding node does not support data processing or reduction on behalf of the sensor
nodes.
ANS 10)
For WSNs to achieve wide-scale deployment, the size, cost, and power consumption of the
nodes must decrease considerably and the intelligence of the WNs must increase
To meet evolving functional requirements of the various user communities, it will be necessary
for sensor systems to leverage and incorporate advances in adjacent technologies, such as
nanofabrication, biosystems, massively distributed networks, ubiquitous computing, broadband
wireless communications, and information and decision systems
Evolving requirements for new WSNs and WNs include, among others:
1. The ability to respond to new toxic chemicals, explosives, and biological agents
2. enhanced sensitivity, selectivity, speed, robustness, and fewer false alarms
3. The ability to function, perhaps autonomously, in unusual, extreme, and complex
environments.
These needs can be addressed by the design and synthesis of functionalized receptors and
materials, resulting in next-generation devices.

ANS4)

Self-Organizing Medium Access Control for Sensornets (SMACS)

SMACS is a medium access control protocol to enable the formation of random network
topologies without the need to establish global synchronization among the network nodes
A key feature of SMACS is its use of a hybrid TDMA/FH method referred to as nonsynchronous
scheduled communication to enable links to be formed and scheduled concurrently throughout
the network without the need for costly exchange of global connectivity information or time
synchronization Each node in the network maintains a TDMA-like frame, referred to as a
superframe, for communication with known neighbors. The length of a superframe is fixed. The
size of each frame is not fixed and may vary in time for a single node and also from node to
node. SMACS requires that each node regularly execute a neighborhood discovery procedure to
detect neighboring nodes Each node establishes a link to each neighbor discovered by assigning a
time slot to this linkThe selection of time slots is such that the node talks only to neighbors at
each time slotHowever, since a node and its neighbors are not required to transmit at different
slot times, the link establishment procedure must ensure that no interference occurs between
adjacent links.This is achieved by randomly assigning a channel, selected from a large number
of channels (FDMA), or spreading code (CDMA) to each linkUsing the superframe structure,
each node maintains its own time slot schedules with all its neighbors, and nodes are required
to tune their radios to the proper frequency channel or CDMA code to achieve communication.

ANS5)
SENSOR TAXONOMY
Because of the variety of sensor types (sensor systems) that exist, a taxonomy is useful
The taxonomy in Table 3.1 This taxonomy is somewhat daunting since there are 8 x 9x 7x 9x 9x
10x5 = 2,041,200 cases or combinations
However, the classification ‘‘buckets’’ are reasonable, and a large majority of the combinatorial
combinations are, in fact, validin Table 3.2; here one has only 4 x 2 x4 x 3 x 4 x2 = 768 cases or
combinations.
For example, a s(2)m(2)p(3)cp(2)md(1)cm(1) WN is a system that is small, static, battery-
powered, has multiple measurands, and supports multihop networking
ANS6)
Hardware and Software
Related to WN design, the following functionality typically needs to be supported: intrinsic
node functionality; signal processing, including digital signal processing (e.g., FFT/DCT),
compression, forward error correction, and encryption; control and actuation; clustering and
in-network computation; self-assembly; communication; routing and forwarding; and
connectivity management
To support this functionality, the hardware components of a WN include the sensing and
actuation unit (single element or array), the processing unit, the communication unit, the
power unit, and other application-dependent units

Figure 1.2 shows hardware and software components of a typical sensing node
the following are important sensor-node issues:-sensor type, sensor power consumption,
operating environment, computational and sensing capabilities, signal-processing capabilities,
connectivity, and telemetry and control of remote devices
Sensors, particularly Smart Dust and COTS motes have four basic hardware subsystems:
Power:- An appropriate energy infrastructure or supply is necessary to support operation from
a few hours to months or years (depending on the application)
Computational logic and storage:- These are used to handle onboard data processing and
manipulation, transient and short-term storage, encryption, forward error correction (FEC),
digital modulation, and digital transmission. WNs have computational requirements typically
ranging from an 8-bit microcontroller to a 64-bit microprocessor. Storage requirements
typically range from 0.01 to 100 gigabytes (GB)
Sensor transducer(s):- The interface between the environment and the WN is the sensor. Basic
environmental sensors include, but are not limited to, acceleration, humidity, light, magnetic
flux, temperature, pressure, and sound.
Communication:- WNs must have the ability to communicate either in C1WSN arrangements
(mesh-based systems with multihop radio connectivity among or between WNs, utilizing
dynamic routing in both the wireless and wireline portions of the network), and/or in C2WSN
arrangements (point-to-point or multipoint-topoint systems generally with single-hop radio
connectivity to WNs, utilizing static routing over the wireless network with only one route from
the WNs to the companion terrestrial or wireline forwarding node)

Operating system (OS) microcode (also called middleware):-

This is the board common microcode that is used by all high-level node-resident software
modules to support various functions As is generally the case, the purpose of an operating
system is to shield the software from the machine-level functionality of the microprocessor
It is desirable to have open-source operating systems designed specifically for WSNs; these OSs
typically utilize an architecture that enables rapid implementation while minimizing code size
TinyOS is one such example of a commonly used OS
Sensor drivers:- These are the software modules that manage basic functions of the sensor
transceivers; sensors may possibly be of the modular/plug-in type, and depending on the type
and sophistication, the appropriate configuration and settings must be uploaded into the
sensor Communication processors:- This code manages the communication functions,
including routing, packet buffering and forwarding, topology maintenance, medium access
control (e.g., contention mechanisms, direct-sequence spread-spectrum mechanisms),
encryption, and FEC, to list a few
Communication drivers (encoding and the physical layer):- These software modules manage
the minutia of the radio channel transmission link, including clocking and synchronization,
signal encoding, bit recovery, bit counting, signal levels, and modulation
Data processing mini-apps:-These are numerical, data-processing, signalvalue storage and
manipulations, or other basic applications that are supported at the node level for in-network
processing