Accepted Manuscript

Title: A Heat-Transfer Laboratory Experiment with

Shell-and-Tube Condenser

Authors: Adebola S. Kasumu, Nashaat N. Nassar, Anil K.

Mehrotra

PII: S1749-7728(16)30063-X
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.ece.2017.03.002
Reference: ECE 136

To appear in: Education for Chemical Engineers

Received date: 22-10-2016

Revised date: 3-3-2017
Accepted date: 4-3-2017

Please cite this article as: Kasumu, Adebola S., Nassar, Nashaat N., Mehrotra, Anil K.,
A Heat-Transfer Laboratory Experiment with Shell-and-Tube Condenser.Education for
Chemical Engineers http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2017.03.002

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A Heat-Transfer Laboratory Experiment with Shell-and-Tube Condenser

Adebola S. Kasumu, Nashaat N. Nassar* and Anil K. Mehrotra

Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering,

University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4

*Corresponding author: email: nassar@ucalgary.ca, Tel: 403-210-9772

Highlights

 A laboratory experiment for demonstrating heat transfer in a shell-and-

tube condenser has been described.
 It is effective in helping undergraduate students in understanding the
concepts and applications of heat transfer by convection and
condensation.
 The practical application of the theoretical principles of heat transfer has
been demonstrated.
 The laboratory experiment affords the student to develop and improve
their report-writing as well as soft skills, such as leadership abilities and
team-work.

1
Abstract

An in-house-designed undergraduate laboratory experiment for hands-on experiential

learning of heat transfer in shell-and-tube heat exchangers is described. The experiment

allows the student to identify and evaluate the factors that affect the rate of heat transfer in

a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The design affords convective heat transfer inside the

tubes and condensation heat transfer outside the tubes. Experimental measurements are

used to estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient at varying flow rates of the cold fluid,

which is compared with that obtained from calculations using correlations available in the

literature. A student survey was also conducted to evaluate their learning experience and

to identity opportunities for improving the experimental program and the overall

experience of the students. This feedback indicated that the vast majority of the students

had an overall positive experience of the laboratory course, as it provided them with the

opportunity of team work, leadership role, the spirit of industrial experience, and the ability

to develop skills related to heat exchanger calculations.

Keywords: Heat transfer, shell-and-tube heat exchanger, experimental analysis,

experiential learning

1. Introduction

Heat exchangers are commonly used in industrial applications to cool down or warm up a

fluid and to carry out liquid–vapor phase transformation, specifically in oil and gas

industry, power generation, refrigeration, electronics cooling, air-conditioning, automotive

applications, etc. A heat exchanger is a device in which two streams at different

temperatures exchange their internal thermal energy across a heat transfer surface area

2
under the influence of a driving force, i.e., temperature difference (Shah & Sekulic, 2013).

Because of its widespread use, a thorough understanding of the principles and operation of

heat exchangers is of significant importance. Heat exchangers are classified according to

the following main criteria (Kakac, Liu, & Pramuanjaroenkij, 2012):

1. Recuperators/regenerators

2. Transfer processes: direct contact and indirect contact

3. Geometry of construction: tubes, plates and extended surfaces

4. Heat transfer mechanisms: single phase and two phase

5. Flow arrangements: parallel flows, counter flows and cross flows

Accordingly, different types of heat exchanger configurations are employed, including

pipe-in-pipe (or double-pipe or concentric pipe), shell-and-tube, plate-and-frame or

compact, spiral, integrated circuit, air-fan cooler, etc. While these exchangers have

different design configurations and consequently different operating parameters that affect

the exchanger duty, service life, and fixed and operating costs, they, however, have

something in common which is the “heat transfer”. Among all the types of heat exchangers,

the shell-and-tube heat exchanger design offers most extensive rating, i.e., ability to operate

in a variety of process conditions. It is easily available commercially from a large number

of vendors and it is more familiar to plant operators than any other heat exchanger design.

The shell-and-tube heat exchangers include a large number tubes placed inside a large

cylindrical shell, such that the tube-axis is parallel to that of the shell. In such a heat

exchanger, one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other flows on the outside of the tubes

(i.e., through the shell-side). Tube diameter, number of tubes, tube length, pitch of tubes,

and tube arrangement can be selected by the design engineer, leading to considerable

3
flexibility in its design (Kakac, Liu, & Pramuanjaroenkij, 2012). The design of shell-and-

tube heat exchanger is typically aided by sophisticated state-of-art computer software,

which requires a thorough understanding of the heat exchanger design theory and its

underlying principles.

In this paper, we describe a novel laboratory experiment that is incorporated in the

undergraduate heat transfer course as part of the chemical engineering and oil & gas

engineering curricula at the University of Calgary. This laboratory apparatus was designed

and fabricated in-house such that it serves as a simple and inexpensive tool for

experimentally demonstrating heat transfer in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The paper

also describes the calculation steps involved in the determination of the overall heat transfer

coefficient (which determines the duty of the heat exchanger), and the effects of fluid flow

rates, from the measurements. After conducting the experiment, the students are able to

calculate the experimental overall heat transfer coefficient at different flow rates of the cold

fluid, and compare it with that predicted using correlations available in the literature. By

taking part in the laboratory component of a typical undergraduate course on heat transfer,

students are provided with practical hands-on training and an exposure to industrial process

hardware. In particular, the experiments involving the shell-and-tube heat exchanger gives

the students the opportunity to understand the underlying scientific and engineering

principles, and operation of this ubiquitous industrial equipment.

2. Laboratory Objectives

The main objectives of this laboratory experiment is: a) to train the students in carrying out

mass and energy balance calculations, b) to provide the students with the opportunity to

4
become familiar with heat exchanger design principles, c) to develop a framework for

understanding the underlying theory and principles of different types of shell-and-tube heat

exchanger design configurations, and d) to investigate the factors and parameters affecting

the heat exchanger duty. Hence, the students are able to examine the effects of flow rate on

the overall heat transfer coefficient and rate of heat transfer between steam and cold water

in the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The students also learn to conduct heat transfer

experiment using shell-and-tube heat exchangers, collect and analyze data, and compare

the results with those obtained by other students as well as those obtained by using

correlations from literature. The students are able to perform mass and energy balance

calculations and apply theoretical principles learned in the heat transfer class.

It is noted that there are two different configurations of shell-and-tube heat exchangers

(condensers) as part of this heat transfer laboratory program; the horizontal single-pass and

the vertical double-pass shell-and-tube heat exchanger; both units utilize the same basic

heat-transfer principles. However, only the horizontal single-pass heat exchanger is

presented in this paper. The design of the horizontal heat exchanger includes: a)

condensation of steam in the shell-side, b) water flow through the tube-side in the turbulent

regime, c) sufficiently long tubes to accomplish full-developed flow (from both

hydrodynamic and thermal considerations), and d) the tube-sheet layout to allow the tube-

stacking effect on condensation heat transfer.

3. Experimental Setup

Cold water is stored in a large reservoir equipped with a centrifugal pump. It is allowed to

flow through a calibrated rotameter to enter one end of the heat exchanger. Water flows

5
through an array of ten tubes that are stacked in three multitube-stacks having a 3–4–3

configuration. The heated water leaves the tubes from the other side of the heat exchanger.

The steam enters from the top-side of the shell, while the condensate leaves from the

bottom of the shell, as depicted in Figure 1. The condensate passes through a steam trap

and a water cooler before being drained. Note that there are two safety reasons for the water

cooler: it prevents hot condensate from entering the buildings drain pipes and, more

importantly, it prevents the students from touching hot water while carrying out the

condensate flow measurement. Listed in Table 1 are some of the main dimensions of the

heat exchanger. Figure 2 is a photograph of the heat exchanger experimental setup

(showing both the horizontal and vertical heat exchangers). Figure 3 is a screen shot from

the LabVIEW 7.1 software used for data acquisition, monitoring and control in the

laboratory. With steam in the shell and cold water in the tubes, thermocouple measurements

of the inlet and outlet water temperatures, along with the temperature and pressure of the

condensing steam, were monitored. All measurements were recorded when all temperature

values became almost constant, which was used to indicate steady-state operation. The

steady-state condensate rate was recorded using a measuring cylinder and stop watch.

The heat exchanger was fabricated in-house based on the design and equipment

specifications supplied by one of the co-authors (AKM). The university technical staff also

provided the data acquisition and display capabilities.

6
4. Experimental Procedure

The experimental procedure is described as follows.

1. After the water reservoir is filled, the centrifugal pump is turned on. The water valve

to heat exchanger is opened and the rotameter is set at the desired flow rate setting.

2. The steam valve is opened and the steam pressure is adjusted to the desired level. Both

steam temperature and pressure gauge readings are used to ensure that the steam

entering the heat exchanger is under saturation conditions.

3. All of the temperatures are monitored until they reach constant values, indicating the

attainment of a steady state. Thereafter, constant temperatures of the steam, cold water

in, warm water out, and the condensate are recorded.

4. At steady-state, the bypass valve in the condensate exit line (after the water cooler) is

opened to collect condensate over a 2-minute period for estimating the condensate flow

rate. The temperature of the condensate in the measuring cylinder is also measured for

obtaining the water density.

5. The flow rate of cold water is increased while keeping the steam pressure constant, and

steps 3 and 4 are repeated.

6. Step 5 is repeated at another cold water flow rate(s).

4.1 Laboratory Safety Rules

All students must abide by the laboratory safety rules outlined below to safeguard the

health and safety of themselves and others. These rules are strictly enforced for all

7
personnel working in the Chemical & Petroleum Engineering Department’s laboratories at

the University of Calgary.

i. Laboratory coats and C.S.A. approved safety glasses must be worn at all times
ii. Clothing that safely covers any exposed skin on the legs must be worn in the
Laboratory
iii. Shoes that provide full coverage of the feet must be worn in the Laboratory
iv. Cell Phones, music players, etc must be turned off and placed in the wooden
cubbies for the duration of the laboratory
v. Food, drinks and backpacks must be placed in the wooden cubbies inside the
laboratory
vi. All occupants must be familiar with the location of the safety and emergency
equipment such as the fire extinguisher, first aid kits, emergency eye wash
stations, emergency showers, fire alarm pull box, emergency telephone and exits
vii. Procedures involving the liberation of volatile, toxic or flammable materials must
be performed in a fume hood
viii. At least one graduate teaching assistant, instructor or laboratory technician must
be in the laboratory at all times while the experiments are being conducted

5. Theoretical Considerations

Through classroom instruction, the students are provided with the underlying theory of

heat exchange calculations, which is essential for their understanding and analyzing this

laboratory. Additional assistance is provided by laboratory demonstrators and graduate

teaching assistants, both during the experiment and afterwards. The procedure for

calculating the theoretical and experimental overall heat transfer coefficients for the heat

exchanger is described in the following sections.

8
5.1 The Energy Balance Equation

The (thermal) energy balance equation is:

Rate of Energy In – Rate of Energy Out + Rate of Energy Generated = Rate of Energy

Accumulated (1)

Eq. 1 can also be written as:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑞𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑐 (2)

Assuming steady state and without any generation or consumption of thermal energy, Eq.

2 becomes:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 (3)

where 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑠 = rate of heat transferred from steam.

5.2 Experimental Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The general one-dimensional steady-state heat transfer equation for conduction and

convection can be written as Eqs. 4 and 5, respectively:

∆𝑇
Fourier ′ s law of heat conduction: 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑥 (4)

Newton′ s law of cooling: 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 (5)

In a system with multiple thermal resistances, including both conduction and convection,

the rate of heat transfer can be expressed in terms of an overall heat-transfer coefficient,

U, as follows:

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 (6)

In Eqs. 4, 5 and 6, k is the thermal conductivity, A is the area for heat transfer, ∆𝑥 is the

thickness of the tube-wall through which heat is conducted, h is the heat transfer co-

9
efficient of the fluid, U is the overall heat transfer co-efficient, and ΔToverall is the overall

thermal driving force or temperature difference.

Since the thermal driving force in the heat exchanger changes from one end to the other,

the average overall temperature difference, ΔToverall, can be represented as the log mean

temperature difference (LMTD), ΔTL. Thus, Eq. 6 becomes:

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝐿 (7)

where, ∆𝑇𝐿 for a counter-current flow is defined as:

∆𝑇1− ∆𝑇2 (𝑇ℎ(𝑜𝑢𝑡) − 𝑇𝑐(𝑖𝑛) ) − (𝑇ℎ(𝑖𝑛) − 𝑇𝑐(𝑜𝑢𝑡) )

∆𝑇𝐿 = ∆𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ(𝑜𝑢𝑡) − 𝑇𝑐(𝑖𝑛)
(8)
ln( 1 ) ln( )
∆𝑇2
𝑇ℎ(𝑖𝑛) − 𝑇𝑐(𝑜𝑢𝑡)

where, 𝑇ℎ(𝑜𝑢𝑡) is the outlet temperature of the hot fluid (°C), 𝑇𝑐(𝑖𝑛) is the inlet temperature

of the cold fluid (°C), 𝑇ℎ(𝑖𝑛) is the inlet temperature of the hot fluid (°C), and 𝑇𝑐(𝑜𝑢𝑡) is the

outlet temperature of the cold fluid (°C). To account for the configurations and geometry

of the exchanger, other than the double-pipe counter-current flow type, a correction factor

(F) must be considered. Hence, the heat-transfer equation is expressed as (Holman, 2010):

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇𝐿 (9)

where, 𝐹  1.0, which can be determined graphically or numerically based on the

configuration and geometry of the exchanger (Holman, 2010). However, when one of the

fluids undergoes phase change, such as evaporation or condensation, the fluid is essentially

at constant temperature and the relations are simplified. That is, when 𝑇ℎ(𝑖𝑛) = 𝑇ℎ(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = Tg,

F = 1.0.

The rate of (sensible) heat gained by the cold water is given as:

𝑞𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 ∆𝑇𝑐 (10)

10
where, 𝑞𝑐 is the rate of heat gained by cold water, 𝑚̇𝑐 is its mass flow rate, 𝐶𝑐 is its average

specific heat capacity of the cold water, and ∆𝑇𝑐 is the temperature difference between the

cold water outlet and inlet. The value of the average specific heat capacity of the cold

water, 𝐶𝑐 , is taken at the bulk temperature (𝑇𝑏 ) of the cold water, which is represented by:

𝑇𝑐(𝑜𝑢𝑡) + 𝑇𝑐(𝑖𝑛)
𝑇𝑏 = (11)
2

Similarly, the rate of (latent) heat released by the (saturated) condensing steam is given as:

𝑞ℎ = 𝑚̇ℎ ℎ𝑓𝑔 (12)

where, 𝑞ℎ is the heat given out by the saturated steam, 𝑚̇ℎ is its mass flow rate (equal to

the flow rate of the condensate), and ℎ𝑓𝑔 is the latent heat of condensation (or vaporization)

of the steam at the saturation temperature.

At steady state, the rate of heat released by the condensing steam, 𝑞ℎ , is equal to the sum

of the rates of heat gained by the cold water, 𝑞𝑐 , and heat lost to the surroundings, 𝑞𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 :

𝑚̇ℎ ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 ∆𝑇𝑐 + 𝑞𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (13)

Thus, based on the outside tube area, Ao, the experimental overall heat transfer co-efficient

can be determined from Eq. 13 as:

𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑐 ∆𝑇𝑐 𝑚̇ℎ ℎ𝑓𝑔 − 𝑞𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑈𝑜,𝑒𝑥𝑝 = = (14)
𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇𝐿 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇𝐿

5.3 Theoretical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

For heat transfer between the condensing steam (i.e., the ‘hot’ body) and the water flowing

through the tubes (i.e., the ‘cold’ body), separated by the tube wall, there are three thermal

resistances in series between the two fluid temperatures. The three thermal resistances are

the two convective resistances due to the ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ fluids, and one conductive

resistance due to the tube wall. The expression for the rate of heat transfer is:

11
 𝑘𝐴
𝑞 = ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤𝑜 ) = (𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ) = ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (𝑇𝑤𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐 ) (15)
∆𝑥

where ℎ𝑜 is the heat transfer coefficient for the outer fluid (steam), 𝑇𝑔 is the temperature of

condensing steam, 𝑇𝑤𝑜 is the temperature at the outer wall of the tube, 𝑇𝑤𝑖 is the

temperature at the inner wall of the tube, 𝑇𝑐 is the average temperature of the cold fluid,

and ℎ𝑖 is the heat transfer coefficient for the inside fluid (water). For a relatively thin tube

wall made of stainless steel, with sufficiently high thermal conductivity, the thermal

resistance due the tube wall can be neglected in comparison to the other two thermal

resistances, such that 𝑇𝑤𝑜 ≈ 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ≡ 𝑇𝑤 , which is the average tube wall temperature (Nassar

and Mehrotra, 2011).

For the heat transfer process in the shell-and-tube heat exchanger, the area of heat transfer

for the fluid on the outside of the cylinder is different from the area of heat transfer for the

fluid on the inside of the cylinder, the heat transfer relationship expressed by Eq. 15 can be

written as the ratio of the overall temperature difference to the sum of the thermal

resistances, as follows:

∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑇𝑔−𝑇𝑐 )
𝑞= = 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 )
(16)
𝐴 ∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ 1
+ +
1
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖

where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ is the combined thermal resistance. Thus, from Eqs. 7 and 16, the overall heat

transfer coefficient, U can be written as:

1 1
𝑈 = 𝐴∑𝑅 = 1 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 ) 1
(17)
𝑡ℎ 𝐴( + + )
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖

U in Eq. 17 could be based on either the outer or inner area of the tube. By choosing U to

be based on the outside area of the tube:

1 1
𝑈𝑜 = = 1 𝑟𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑜
(18)
𝐴𝑜 ∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ + +
ℎ𝑜 𝑘 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

12
Alternatively, by choosing U to be based on the inside area of the tube:
1 1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑖 𝑟 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑜 /𝑟𝑖 ) 1
(19)
𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑖 +
ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑘 ℎ𝑖

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient, it is necessary to determine the values of

inside (hi) and outside (ho) heat transfer coefficients.

5.3.1 Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient (hi)

Forced convection heat transfer occurs on the inside of the tubes, the inner heat transfer

coefficient can be calculated using a suitable correlation for the Nusselt number, which

requires an estimate of Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers.

Reynolds Number (Re) - The flow of a fluid can either be laminar or transition to a turbulent

flow. Depending on the fluid and surface properties, Re determines the flow regime of the

fluid. For flow through a tube, Re < 2100 indicates laminar flow while Re > 4000 indicates

turbulent flow (Holman, 2010). Values between 2100 and 4000 are considered to be in the

transition region. Re is given by:

2𝑚̇
𝑅𝑒 = (20)
𝑛𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑖

where, 𝑚̇ is the (total) mass flow rate of the fluid, 𝑟𝑖 is the inner radius of the tube, 𝑛 is

the number of tubes, and 𝜇 is the viscosity of the fluid, measured at the bulk temperature.

Fully-Developed Flow – For fully-developed flow, the tube length should be sufficiently

long to neglect the entrance or developing-flow region. For fully-developed flow:

𝐿
≥ 50 (21)
𝑑

13
Prandtl Number (Pr) - The Prandtl number is a dimensionless number that compares the

relative thicknesses of the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers and it relates

momentum and thermal diffusivities of the fluid.

C𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = (22)
𝑘

where, 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat capacity of the fluid, 𝜇 is the viscosity of the fluid, and 𝑘 is

the thermal conductivity (all fluid properties are taken at the bulk temperature).

Nusselt Number (Nu) – The Nusselt number relates the heat transfer coefficient of a fluid

to its thermal conductivity and the tube diameter, as follows:

ℎ𝑑
𝑁𝑢 = (23)
𝑘

There are many applicable correlations for Nu. Holman (2010) recommended the following

Gnielinski equation for fully-developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes:

𝑁𝑢 = 0.012(𝑅𝑒 0.87 − 280)𝑃𝑟 0.4 for 1.5 < 𝑃𝑟 < 500 and 3000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 106 (24)

5.3.2 Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient (ho)

On the outside of the tubes, within the shell, convection heat transfer by condensation

occurs. Assuming a laminar film condensation (Re < 1800), the outside heat transfer

coefficient, ho, was obtained by use of the following correlation for a horizontal tube

(Holman, 2010).

0.25
𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎ𝑜 = 0.725 [ ] (25)
𝜇𝑓 𝑛𝑑𝑜 (𝑇𝑔− 𝑇𝑤 )

where 𝜌𝐿 is the density of the condensate at the average film temperature (Tf), 𝜌𝑣 is the

density of the steam at the steam temperature (Tg), 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration, 𝑘𝑓 is

14
the thermal conductivity of the condensate (at Tf), 𝜇𝑓 is the viscosity of the condensate (at

Tf), 𝑑 is the tube outer diameter, and n is the number of tubes in a stack (to account for the

tube-stacking effect). The average condensate film temperature (Tf) is the average of the

wall temperature (Tw) and the saturation steam temperature (Tg); i.e., Tf = (Tw + Tg)/2. In

Eq. 25, the term ρv was neglected because it was significantly smaller than ρL for the low

pressure saturated steam. In practice, ripples often develop in the film, such that the value

of ℎ𝑜 could be 20% higher than predicted by Eq. 25; hence, Eq. 25 may be considered to

provide a conservative design (Holman, 2010).

For the heat exchanger with tubes placed horizontally, stacking of the tubes should

be taken into consideration. The heat exchanger with 10 tubes has two stacks of 3 tubes

each and one stack of 4 tubes; thus, a weighted average ℎ𝑜 value was obtained, as follows:

6ℎ𝑜(3)+ 4ℎ0(4)
(ℎ𝑜 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (26)
10

where, (ℎ𝑜 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average heat transfer coefficient for all 10 tubes, ℎ𝑜(3) is the average

heat transfer coefficient for each 3-tube stack and ℎ𝑜(4)is the average heat transfer

coefficient for the 4-tube stack.

In Eq. 25, ho depends on the insider tube-wall temperature, Tw, which cannot be measured

directly; instead, Tw must be estimated through an iterative method (Mehrotra, Nassar, &

Kasumu, 2012). This type of trial-and-error calculations can be performed by equating the

steady state relations for the rate of heat transfer for the two fluids (while neglecting the

relatively small thermal resistance offer by the tubes), given by Eq. 27:

ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑐 ) = ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 ) (27)

15
5.4 Percentage Error

A comparison between the experimental and theoretical overall heat transfer coefficients

was accomplished by calculating the percentage error between the two values as follows:

|𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 −𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑝 |
% error = ( ) * 100 (28)
𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜

5.5 Heat Exchanger Efficiency

Theoretically, it is desirable to have 100% heat exchange between the hot and the cold

fluids in the heat exchanger. However, in reality, this is not possible, and the efficiency of

the heat exchanger will always be less than 100% due to heat loss. Thus, the heat gained

by the cold water in this experiment will be less than the heat given off by the steam, with

heat loss to the surroundings accounting for the difference. This efficiency of the heat

exchangers (𝜀, expressed as percent) can be calculated as:

𝑞𝑐
𝜀= ∗ 100 (29)
𝑞ℎ

In the calculations, it is assumed that:

1. The supplied steam is saturated and the measured incoming steam temperature

has been taken to be the saturated steam temperature at the measured steam

pressure. This assumption should be verified by comparing the measured steam

temperature against the temperature of saturated steam corresponding to the

absolute pressure of the steam (in a steam table).

2. Only latent heat is lost by the steam during the heat exchange process.

16
6. Observations and Discussions

In this laboratory, students are able to observe the temperatures of the fluids exchanging

heat in real time via the LabVIEW 7.1 software. Students are also able to use the data

collected to perform a quantitative analysis of the heat transfer process in both

configurations of shell-and-tube heat exchanger involved in the laboratory program. Some

of the key observations are summarized below.

6.1 Steady-State Rate of Heat Transfer and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Following the theoretical analysis presented in Section 5, students can perform mass and

energy balances at different cold water flow rates for estimating the thermal energy

supplied by the steam, and that gained by the cold water, using temperature and condensate

flow rate data collected in the laboratory. In addition, students can also calculate theoretical

heat transfer coefficients, hi and ho, and the overall experimental and theoretical heat

transfer coefficients, Uexp and Utheo, for the heat exchanger. Table 2 shows one set of

experimental results along with the theoretical results obtained from heat transfer

calculations described in the previous section.

6.2 Effect of Cold Water Flow Rate

In this set of experiments, students could study the heat transfer in the shell-and-tube heat

exchanger at several cold water flow rates. For one set of experimental results obtained,

the effect of cold water flow rate on the overall heat transfer coefficients is shown is Figure

4. It is observed that the overall heat transfer coefficient increases as the cold water flow

rate increased. It is also observed that the experimental overall heat transfer coefficient is

17
less than the theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient at all flow rates. As expected, the

rate of heat transfer to the cold water is always less than the rate of heat energy transferred

from the steam, with the remainder accounting for the heat lost to the surroundings. This

results in an efficiency range of 62 – 81%.

7. Evaluation and Student Feedback

It should be noted here that there are four heat transfer experiments included in the

laboratory component of the undergraduate course, ENCH 403: Heat Transfer, at the

University of Calgary. For the laboratory component, all students are assigned to different

groups, with typically four students in each group. Every student is thus provided with the

opportunity of leadership role for one of the experiments, while assisting the team members

in the other three experiments. Students are instructed to come prepared with theoretical

considerations. The team leader for each experiment takes a leading role in the laboratory

work and data collection, he or she also prepares and submits a final formal report that

follows the format presented elsewhere (Nassar and Mehrotra, 2011). While waiting for

the experiment to reach steady-state conditions, students are asked questions related to the

experiment by graduate teaching assistants and/or laboratory demonstrators. “Participation

marks” are awarded based on their answers and active contributions to the laboratory

session. Moreover, graduate teaching assistants and laboratory demonstrators take the

initiative to explain details of the experiment observations as well theoretical

considerations during the experiment.

18
In addition, to measure the success of this laboratory in enhancing student learning, a

quantitative student evaluation was undertaken for all the students registered in ENCH 403

in the Fall 2014 term. Students were asked to give feedback to a number of specific

questions on this particular laboratory experiment. The survey questionnaire was

developed by the course instructors and administered by an independent person. Table 3

lists the questions of the survey. The questions were related to whether the laboratory

training was useful in providing students with hands-on experience, time management,

team-work and leadership role. Responses were received from 52% of the students in that

class. Figure 5 shows the results of the responses received, and Figure 6 shows the results

of the responses received only from the group leaders of this particular experiment.

In both cases, students gave positive feedback to this experiential learning

approach. Indeed, the majority of the students agreed that the experiment was helpful for

understanding heat transfer exchanger design problems, and their understanding of the

subject was enhanced. An overwhelming majority of the respondents were engaged and

involved in the laboratory work, believed that the laboratory apparatus is well-designed for

achieving the aim of the experiment, and felt that the experiment provided them with the

opportunity of team work. Having the opportunity to engage in team work is a preparation

for the students to practice this important soft skill needed for success in their industrial

careers. Figure 6 shows that the feedback from the group leaders of this experiment was

even more positive generally.

8. An Example of Applications

19
This laboratory experiment provides challenging, stimulating and experiential learning

experiences for students through engagement with theory and practice. In fact, this

laboratory experiment equips students with problem solving skills. As an added incentive

to their learning through the experimental component of the course, the final examination

in ENCH 403 typically includes several questions pertaining to the laboratory experiments.

Given below is an example of such questions, taken from a previous final examination in

this course, which is based directly on this laboratory experiment.

Question:

A horizontal condenser (shell-and-tube configuration) is used for liquefying CO2 vapour

at a pressure of 6 MPa (hfg = 144 kJ/kg; Tg = 22 oC). The tube-bundle consists of nineteen

identical copper tubes (inner diameter = 3.0 cm and outer diameter = 3.8 cm), each 4.0-

m long. The 19 horizontal tubes are arranged as 3–4–5–4–3, such that the tube bundle

consists of two 3-tube stacks, two 4-tube stacks, and one 5-tube stack. A coolant at an

average temperature of 10oC flows through the tubes, which yields a heat transfer

coefficient of 3.0 kW/(m2 K). Estimate the rate of CO2 condensation in the shell side and

the rate of heat transfer at steady state. Include the condensate splashing and tube stacking

effects for estimating the average condensation heat transfer coefficient.

Solution:

Assumptions: 1. Steady state heat transfer process with no heat loss to the surroundings

2. Horizontal tubes with stacking effect and splashing

3. CO2 behaves as an ideal gas at 22 oC. CO2 properties from the textbook.

20
Analysis:

̅̅̅̅ )
𝑞ℎ = 𝑞𝑐 = 𝑈𝐴(∆𝑇

Not much information is given for the cold stream, so ignore calculations related to qc.

Ao = 19 π (0.038)(4.0) = 9.073 m2; ΔT = 22-10 =12 oC.

1
𝑈𝑜= 𝑟
𝑟𝑜 𝑙𝑛( 𝑜 )
𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 1
+ +
𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑜

1
𝑈𝑜 = 1.9
0.019 0.019𝑙𝑛( ) 1
1.5
+ + ℎ𝑜
0.015×3000 385

1
𝑈𝑜 = 1
4.22 × 10−4 + 1.17 × 10−5 + ℎ𝑜

The term 1.17 × 10−5 is much smaller than 4.22 × 10−4 ; hence the wall thermal

resistance is much smaller. Thus, Twh ≈ Twc.

The condensation heat transfer coefficient, h1, for a single tube can be estimated as

follow:

1/4
𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑔ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝐾 3
ℎ1 = 0.725 ( )
µ 𝑑(𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 )

(𝑇𝑤+𝑇𝑔)
All properties of condensate should be evaluated at 𝑇𝑓 = 2

Assume: Tw = 16 oC. Then, Tf = 19 oC.

Data and properties taken from the prescribed textbook (Holman, 2010):

𝑘𝑚 = 385 W/(m K), 𝜌𝐿 = 781.32 kg/m3.

At Tf = 19 oC, the CO2 properties are: 𝜌𝑣  107.6 kg/m3, 𝜇𝑓 = 7.19  10-5 kg/(m s), 𝑘𝑓 =

0.0882 W/(m K).

21
 1 1/6
Stacking effect, with splashing, ℎ̅𝑁 = ℎ1 (𝑁 )

̅3 +8ℎ
6ℎ ̅4 +5ℎ
̅5 6ℎ1 (1/3)1/6+8ℎ1 (1/4)1/6 +5ℎ1 (1/5) 1/6
Hence, ℎ𝑜 = ( )= = 0.7984 ℎ1
6+8+5 19

1/4
781.32(781.32−107.6)9.81×144×103 ×0.08823 W
For Tw = 16 oC, ℎ1 = 0.725 ( ) = 1710
7.19×10−5 ×0.038(22−16) m2 K

W
Then, ho = 0.7984 × 1710 = 1370
m2 K

By solving Eq. 27 by trial and error, Tw = 14.2 oC (the condensate properties have been

assumed to not change much due to a small change in Tf from 19.0 oC to 18.1 oC).

22−16 0.25 W
Hence, ̅̅̅
ℎ𝑜 = 1370 (22−14.2) = 1280 m2 K

1 W
Then: 𝑈𝑜 = 4.339×10−4 +(1280)−1 = 823 m2 K

Thus, rate of heat transfer, q = 823  9.073  (22 – 10) = 89600 W or 89.6 kW.

Rate of CO2 condensation, 𝑚̇ ℎ = 89600/144000 = 0.62 kg/s or 2240 kg/h

9. Conclusions

The in-house-designed shell-and-tube heat exchanger experimental apparatus for

demonstrating heat transfer and for teaching heat transfer concepts has proven to be an

effective and successful teaching tool. The theoretical heat transfer principles learned in

the lectures have been successfully applied to analyze the results from laboratory heat

transfer experiment. Through this experience, the students have been observed to acquire

an understanding of the operation of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, they also had the

opportunity to develop the transferable soft skills of the team work and leadership qualities.

Based on their feedback, the laboratory program was well received by students, and they

22
had an overall positive experience of the program. In addition, students developed

technical writing skills while preparing a comprehensive formal laboratory report.

Acknowledgments

Financial and technical support for this experimental apparatus was provided by the

Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering in the Schulich School of Engineering

at the University of Calgary. We also wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of

numerous graduate teaching assistants, laboratory demonstrators, and laboratory and

technical personnel.

23
References

Holman, J.P., 2010. Heat Transfer. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY.

Kakac, S., Liu, H., Pramuanjaroenkij, A., 2012. Heat Exchangers - Selection, Rating, and

Thermnal Design (3rd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Mehrotra, A.K., Nassar, N.N., Kasumu, A.S., 2012. A novel laboratory experiment for

demonstrating boiling heat transfer. Education for Chemical Engineers (Trans. Inst.

Chem. Engrs. Part D) 7, e210–e218.

Nassar, N.N., Mehrotra, A.K., 2011. Design of a laboratory experiment on heat transfer in

an agitated vessel. Education for Chemical Engineers (Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs.

Part D) 6, e83–e89.

Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., 2008. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. McGraw-Hill

Book Company, New York, NY.

Shah, R.K., Sekulic, D.P., 2013. Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design. John Wiley &

Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

24
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the horizontal shell-and-tube heat exchanger.

25
Figure 2: A photograph of the experimental setup.

26
Figure 3: Screen shot from LabVIEW 7.1 software

27
Overall heat transfer co-efficients (W/m2K) 3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5
Uo,theo
Uo,exp
1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Cold water flow rate  104 (m3/s)

Figure 4: Effect of cold water flow rate on overall heat transfer coefficient.

28
 100%

90% Agree
80% Neutral
Disagree
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Question

Figure 5: 2014 class survey response.

29
 100%

90% Agree
Neutral
80%
Disagree
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Question

Figure 6: 2014 class survey response from experiment group leaders.

30
Table 1 – Selected Heat Exchanger Dimensions
Number of tubes 10
Inner tube diameter (m) 0.0047
Outer tube diameter (m) 0.0064
Inner diameter of shell (m) 0.0820
Outer diameter of shell (m) 0.0889
Tube length (m) 0.9144
Material of construction SS304 / SS316

31
Table 2 - Results for Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Cold Cold
Water Water
Uo, Uo, Er qlos Effici
Volumet Mass hi ho qc qs
theo exp ror s ency
ric Flow Flow
Rate Rate
kW/ kW/ kW/ kW/ k
m3/s kg/s % kW kW %
m2 K m2 K m2 K m2 K W
13.
9.2  10-5 9.1  10-2 2.90 12.9 1.69 1.53 9 22.8 36.5 62
7
10.
1.5  10-4 1.5  10-1 4.57 11.1 2.29 1.96 14 31.2 41.7 75
5

2.1  10-4 2.1  10-1 6.04 10.3 2.68 2.25 16 36.8 45.6 8.8 81

32
 Table 3 - Survey Questionnaire

Number Question
1 I received adequate help in preparing for this experiment.
2 I felt engaged and involved in the laboratory work.
I believe that the laboratory apparatus is well-designed for achieving the aim
3
of the experiment.
My expectations regarding the overall quality of experiential learning were
4
met in this experiment.
5 I believe that the allotted laboratory time was sufficient.
My ability to put knowledge into practice was enhanced with this experiential
6
learning.
7 I was given opportunity for independent and critical thinking.
8 I was provided with the opportunity of teamwork.
9 I developed skills related to heat exchanger calculations.

33