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NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY ISOTOPES:

study of the structure of atomic nuclei and  Atoms with the same atomic number but
the changes they undergo. different mass number

Recall: Isotopes of hydrogen:

Nuclide symbol

A = mass number= no. of protons + no. of

neutrons
Z = atomic number = no. of protons
X = chemical symbol for the element
Categories of Isotopes:
 The nucleus is composed of nucleons
– protons 1. Stable Isotopes – atoms that do not release
– neutrons protons or neutrons from the nucleus and ARE
NOT RADIOACTIVE.
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES:
Particle Mass in kg Mass in u 2. Unstable Isotopes (radionuclide) – Atoms
(units) that spontaneously release protons and neutrons
electron 9.11 x 10-31 0.0005485 from its nucleus. These isotopes ARE
proton 1.673 x 10-27 1.0073 RADIOACTIVE.
neutron 1.675 x 10-27 1.0087
NUCLEAR STABILITY
 one atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12th
the mass of a carbon-12 atom
 protons repel each other

The particles inside the atom:

 without neutrons, protons would cause the
neutrons to fly apart

 neutrons act like “nuclear glue”, interacting with

strong nuclear force (force that holds nucleons
together)

 when the ratio of neutrons to protons is too high

or too low, the nucleus becomes unstable and
will release particles to become stable

 Nuclei containing a magic number of protons

and/or neutrons are stable.
The numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 are called
magic numbers
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 There are many more stable nuclei with even
numbers of both protons and neutrons than with
odd numbers of these particles
 High n/p ratio (too many neutrons; lie above
band of stability – undergoes β- decay
 the term radioactivity was coined by Marie
Curie who works with her husband Pierre
Curie , a physics professor. They discovered two
elements, Polonium (in honor of Marie’s
homeland) and Radium ( form Latin radius
which means “ray”)

 Low n/p ratio (neutron poor; lie below band of
stability – undergoes positron decay or
electron capture
 Heavy nuclides (Z>83)undergoes  - decay
 Ernest Rutherford, with his experiment on
gold foil, was able to unlock the mysteries of
atomic structure. He discovered alpha and beta
rays, and proposed the laws of radioactive
decay.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

 involve changes in the composition of nuclei

 accompanied by the release of tremendous
amounts of energy

Comparison of Chemical Reactions and

Nuclear Reactions

Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions

1. Atoms are rearranged 1. Elements ( or
by the breaking and isotopes of the same
forming chemical bonds elements) are converted
from one to another
2. Only electrons in 2.Protons, neutrons,
atomic or molecular electrons and other
orbitals are involved in elementary particles may
the breaking and forming be involved
of bonds
3. Reactions are 3.Reactions are
Band of Stability –portion that represents stable accompanied by accompanied by
nuclides absorption or release of absorption or release of
relatively small amounts tremendous amounts of
RADIOACTIVITY of energy energy
4. Rates of reaction are 4. Rates of reaction
influenced by normally are not affected
The process by which nuclei spontaneously
temperature, pressure, by temperature, pressure
undergo transformation to other isotopes with concentration and and catalysts
the corresponding release of radiation catalysts

 discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896 using

naturally fluorescent compounds containing
uranium to study the properties of x-rays
(discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895)
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RADIOACTIVE DECAY Relative penetrability of alpha, beta and

gamma particles
 spontaneous change of an unstable nuclide into
another

 when a nuclide decays, it forms a nuclide of

lower energy and the excess energy is carried
off by the emitted radiation

Particles in Radioactive Decay

particle symbol Standard
notation
alpha 
Beta (electron) β-
Positron (bata +
plus)
neutron no
proton p+

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

EXERCISES:

1. The following atoms all undergo alpha particle

emission. Write the complete nuclear equation.
210
Po → ___________ + ____________
84

238
U → ___________ + ____________
92

238
Th → ___________ + ____________
90

222
Rn → ___________ + ____________
86
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85
2. The following atoms all undergo beta decay. Sr → ___________ + ____________
38
Write the complete nuclear equation.
14 5. Complete the missing information in the
C → ___________ + ____________
6 reactions. Identify type of decay.

90 14 0
Sr → ___________ + ____________ a. ) ______ → N + e
38 7 1
238 234
b.) U → Th + _____
40 92 90
K → ___________ + ____________
19 15 15
c.) O → N + ______
8 7
13
N → ___________ + ____________ 32 0
7 d.) P → _______ + e
15 1
3. The following all undergo electron capture. Write
105 105
the complete nuclear equation. e.) Ag + ______ → Pd
47 46
106 0 40
Ag + ___________ → ____________ f.) _____ → e + Ca
47 1 20

116
Sn + ___________ → ____________ Rate of Radioactive Decay
50

Radioactive nuclei decay by first-order kinetics.

190
Pt + ___________ → ____________
78  The rate of radioactive decay is therefore the
product of a rate constant (k) times the
123 number of atoms of the isotope in the
I + ___________ → ____________ sample (N).
53
Rate = kN
 The rate of decay of a radioactive sample, is
4. The following all undergo positron emission.
also called the activity of the sample
Write the complete nuclear equation.

116
Sn → ___________ + ____________
50

61
Cu → ___________ + ____________
29

30
S → ___________ + ____________
16
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS NOTES mads/SY2019-2020
t1/2 = 0.693/k
The above equation can be simplified in the form: 2.44 x 104 years = 0.693/k
k= 0.693/2.44 x 104 years
= 2.84 x 10-5
ln N/No = -kt
N/No = e-kt
N/No = e –(2.84 x 10-5)( 9.76 x 104)
=0.0625 or 1/16
MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

EXERCISES:
Radioactivity of a substance refers to the number
of nuclear disintegrations per second that occur in
1. What mass of C-14 (t1/2 = 5730 years) remains
a sample.
after 10,000 years if the initial mass is 145 mg?
(43.4 mg)
SI unit: 1 Becquerel (Bq)= 1 disintegration/s

2. The decay rate of 14C in living organisms is 15.3

Older unit: 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration/s
dis/min gC. An old human skull has a decay rate
of 4.50 dis/min gC. How old is the skull? The
Sample Problem:
half-life of 14C is 5730 years. (10,000 years)
*** dis/min gC = disintegrations per minute per
1. Plutonium-236 decays by emitting an alpha
gram of carbon (decay rate)
particle and has a half-life of 2.86 years. If we
start with 10 mg of Pu-236, how much remains
3. Phosphorus -32 is a radioactive isotope with a
after 4 years?
half life of 14.3 days. A biochemist has a vial
containing compound of phosphorus-32. If the
Given:
compound is used in an experiment 5.5 days
t1/2 = 2.86 years No = 10 mg t = 4 years
after the compound was prepared, what fraction
of the radioactive isotope originally present
Required: N
remains? Suppose the sample in the vial
Solution:
originally contained 0.28 g of phosphorus-32.
t1/2 = 0.693/k N = Noe-kt
How many grams remain after 5.5 days? (0.77,
2.86 = 0.693/k N = 10(2.718)-(0.24)(4)
0.21 g)
k = 0.24 N = 3.83 mg

Energy Changes in Nuclear Decay

2. One of the problems associated with the storage
of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants
is that some of the nuclides remain radioactive
for a very long time. An example is plutonium-
239, which has a half life of 2.44 x 104 years.
What fraction of Plutonium-239 is left after 9.76
x 104 years?
Given:
t1/2 = 2.44 x 104 years
t = 9.76 x 104 years?
Required: fraction left at t
Solution:
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 in nuclear reactions,
mass of reactants ‡ mass of products
For the Helium example given above,
on a nuclear level, there is a significant amount of Binding energy =0.0305 amu x 931.5 MeV/1 amu
energy change and therefore a discernible mass = 28.41 MeV
change
Sample Problem 2:
 Energy and mass of nuclear reactions are
related in Einstein’s famous equation: Calculate the energy change in joules when 1.00 g
E = mc2 of decays to by beta emission.
where: E = energy Masses: - 234.04359 amu ; -234.0433 amu
m = mass
c = speed of light = 3.8 x108 m/s Given:

 mass and energy are proportional to each → +

other,if a system loses mass it loses energy or 1.00 g 0.000549 amu
vice-versa Required: ΔE, in J
Solution:
Δm = [234.0433 + 0.000549] – [234.04359]
Sample Problem 1:
= 0.000259 amu
= 0.000259 g/mol x 1 kg/1000g
Determine the mass change during the formation
= 2.59 x 10-7 kg/mol
of Helium nuclei. (Measured mass of He nuclei
=4.00150 amu)
ΔE = Δm c2
Given: = (2.59 x 10-7 kg/mol)(3.0 x 108 m/s)2
Protons: 2 x 1.0073 amu = 2.0146 amu = 2.33 x 1010 J/mol
Neutrons: 2 x 1.0087 amu = 2.0174 amu 1 gram Th-234 = 4.27 x 10-3 mol
Mass of He = 4.0320 amu ΔE = (2.33 x 1010 J/mol )( 4.27 x 10-3 mol)
Required: Δm = 9.96 x 107 J
Solution:
Nuclear Fission:
Δm = 4.0320 amu – 4.00150 amu
= 0.0305 amu
 the splitting of one heavy nucleus into two or
( Δm is also called mass defect or mass difference) more smaller nuclei, as well as some sub-
atomic particles and energy
The mass difference of a nucleus is the difference
between the total mass of the separate nucleons  A heavy nucleus is usually unstable, due to
added together compared to the mass of the many positive protons pushing apart
nucleus when all the nucleons are together in the
nucleus. When fission occurs:
1. Energy is produced.
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy which 2. More neutrons are given off.
would be required to separate the nucleus into its
individual separate nucleons.  neutrons are used to make nuclei unstable
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 Nuclear reactors have complex systems to

ensure the chain reaction stays at safe
levels.

 An uncontrolled chain reaction can result in

the release of excess energy as harmful
radiation

 It is on this concept that nuclear bombs are

created.

 Nuclear “meltdown” occurs if the chain

reactions cannot be controlled
Induced Nuclear Fission of Uranium-235
Nuclear Fusion:
 A neutron, ,crashes into an atom of stable
 joining of two light nuclei into one heavier
uranium-235 to create unstable uranium-236,
nucleus.
which then decays.

 In the core of the Sun, two hydrogen nuclei join

 After several steps, atoms of krypton and barium
under tremendous heat and pressure to form a
are formed, along with the release of 3
helium nucleus.
neutrons and huge quantities of energy.

 When the helium atom is formed, huge amounts

of energy are released.

The neutrons released in the induced reaction can

then trigger more reactions on other uranium-235
atoms…causing a CHAIN REACTION

A chain reaction can quickly get out of control

 Hydrogen fusion takes place only at
 materials that absorb some neutrons can
temperatures of millions of degrees Celsius.
help to control the chain reaction.
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 To produce these temperatures requires a large
input of energy, and no known material can
sustain these high temperatures.

 Currently, more energy is needed to produce the

conditions needed for fusion than can be
produced by the fusion reaction itself.

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR FUSION

 The hydrogen fuel needed is readily available

from the water in Earth’s oceans.

 The fusion reaction does not produce radioactive

waste or greenhouse gases.

 An accident at a fusion reactor would release

little nuclear radiation into the environment.

RADIATION UNITS:

Roentgen – unit for measuring amount of gamma

or X-rays in air

Rad (radiation absorbed dose)- unit for measuring

absorbed energy from radiation

Rem (roentgen equivalent man) – a unit for

measuring biological damage from radiation