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RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Approved by AICTE
Accredited by NBA
Ranked AAA by careers 360
Ranked A Grade by AP State Knowledge Mission
Ranked 63rd among top 100 private engineering colleges in
India by higher education review magazine.

www.raghuenggcollege.com

DEPARTMENT OF Mechanical Engineering

II B.Tech II Semester
THERMAL ENGINEERING - 1

Raghu Engineering College Dept.of MECH Thermal Engineering -1 Unit - 4

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Raghu Engineering College Dept.of MECH Thermal Engineering -1 Unit - 4

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III Year – I Semester

Unit – 4
Thermal Engineering – II

Topics to be covered:
REACTION TURBINE: Mechanical details – principle of operation,
thermodynamic analysis of a stage, degree of reaction –velocity
diagram – Parson’s reaction turbine – condition for maximum
efficiency – calculation of blade height.
STEAM CONDENSERS: Requirements of steam condensing plant –
classification of condensers – working principle of different types –
vacuum efficiency and condenser efficiency – air leakage, sources and
its affects, air pump- cooling water requirement.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Thermodynamics and Heat Engines, Volume 2 - R.Yadav-
Central book depot.
2. Gas Turbines – V.Ganesan /TMH
3. Heat Engineering – V.P Vasandani and D.S Kumar- Metropolitan
Book Company, New Delhi

REFERENCES:
1. Gas Turbines and Propulsive Systems – P.Khajuria &
S.P.Dubey - /Dhanpatrai
2. Gas Turbines / Cohen, Rogers and Saravana Muttoo / Addison
Wesley
– Longman
3. Thermal Engineering-R.S Khurmi/JS Gupta/S.Chand.

Reference video links for the topic:

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Lec-11 Basic Concept of Turbine, Velocity Diagram- by Prof.P.K. Das,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur-nptel lectures
 http://nptel.iitm.ac.in
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7DpKkcttQOw
Lec-13 Reaction Turbine Compounding - Lecture Series on Applied
Thermodynamics for Marine Systems by Prof.P.K. Das,
 http://nptel.iitm.ac.in

Working Principle of Reaction Turbine - REACTION TURBINE (Intro)

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sep1RSj47B8
Impulse And Reaction Turbine
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nC9IVBGmITo
Degree of Reaction (Reaction Turbine)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9SRVrYWiOI
Condition for maximum blade efficiency for a reaction turbine – Lecture 22
- NPTEL
 http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
KANPUR/machine/ui/Course_home-lec22.htm
 http://www.ques10.com/p/11986/derive-the-expression-for-the-
condition-for-maxi-1/
Steam Condenser- Elements of a modern steam condensing plant
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fdp33HVjXGs
Lecture - 27 Condensers – nptel lectures
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbA81fLXT4E
Condenser types and working
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhk2pmCNwoU
Ejector Systems & Condensers By Jet Vacuum Systems Pvt. Ltd., Vadodara
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypiqOmVbSlA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XCkZQWj11o
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yK4Mzv7ei0
Surface Condenser
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5015p2QSx8

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Central Flow Surface Condenser

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui_GMA_mIfI
Down Flow Surface Condenser
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSR5dhRFA9E
Cooling Tower Basic Operation
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXaK8_F8dn0

Day 27
1. Explain the working of a reaction turbine. Sketch the variations of
velocity and pressure along its axis.
A. Reaction Turbine:
 In the reaction turbine, the high pressure steam from the boiler is passed
through the nozzles. When the steam comes out through these nozzles, the
velocity of the steam increases relative to the rotating disc.
 The resulting reaction force of the steam on nozzles gives the rotating
motion to the disc and the shaft. The shaft rotates in the opposite direction
to the direction of the steam jet.
 In practice, we hardly find any reaction turbine as described above, the
common type is impulse reaction turbine known as reaction turbine in
practice.
 In the impulse reaction turbine, the steam expands both in fixed and
moving blades continuously as the steam passes over them. Therefore the
pressure drop occurs gradually and continuously over both moving and fixed
blades. The example of such turbine is Parsons Turbine.

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Fig 1: Working of a Reaction Turbine

Variations of Velocity and Pressure along Its Axis.

 In reaction turbines, there is a gradual pressure drop and takes place
continuously over the fixed and moving blades.
 The function of fixed blades is to alter the direction of the steam as well as
to expand to a larger velocity (as that of nozzles).
 The function of moving blades is to absorb the KE of the steam as well as to
expand to a lower pressure.

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Variation of pressure and velocity along flow through a reaction turbine is as

shown below in the figure 2 below.

Boiler
Pressure

Fig.2: Variation of Pressure and Velocity along Flow through a Reaction

Turbine
P1 = Boiler Pressure (Inlet pressure), V1 = Initial KE, Ve = Exit velocity, Pe =
Condenser pressure (Exit Pressure)

Functionality of a reaction turbine:

 There are a number of stages in a reaction turbine and each stage
constitutes a ring of fixed blades and a ring of moving blades.
 Rings of fixed blades called stators are attached to the turbine casing
and rings of moving blades called rotors are attached to the turbine shaft.

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 The specific volume increases at lower pressures, therefore the

diameter of the turbine must increase after each group of blade rings.
Since the pressure drop per stage is small therefore no. of stages
required is higher than an impulse turbine for the same capacity.
 The reaction turbines used these days are really impulse-reaction
turbines. Pure reaction turbines are not in general use. The expansion
of steam and heat drop takes place both in fixed and moving blades.
 Relative velocity increases while flowing through the moving blades
because of the effect of continuous expansion of steam during the
flow over moving blades unlike in impulse turbines where relative
velocity remains constant or decreases.
Slightly due to friction
 𝑐𝑟2 ≤ 𝑐𝑟1 in impulse turbine
𝑐𝑟2 > 𝑐𝑟1 in reaction turbine

2. Write short notes on Degree of reaction?

A. Degree of reaction: Degree of reaction of a stage is defined as the ratio of
heat drop over moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 ∆ℎ𝑚
Degree of reaction = =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆ℎ𝑓 +∆ℎ𝑚
𝑐𝑟22 −𝑐𝑟12
∆ℎ𝑚 =
2
𝑐12 −𝑐22
∆ℎ𝑓 =
2
 Degree of reaction is zero (0) for impulse turbines. Moderate power can be
developed with reasonable efficiency and is suitable for small power
requirements.
 Degree of reaction is ‘one’ (1) for pure reaction turbines. No commercial
turbines have been built on pure reaction principle due to very low
efficiencies.

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Fig 1: h-s Plot Representing Degree of Reaction

However, Impulse-reaction turbines, commonly called reaction turbines
have a degree of reaction between 0 and 1. These are suitable for medium
and higher power requirements.
Large power can be developed with high efficiencies. They occupy more
space for the same power.
Parson’s reaction turbine is a commonly used impulse-reaction turbine with
a degree of reaction of 0.5 or 50%.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Give a comparison between impulse turbine and reaction turbine. [(Set 4,
May 2015 R10, Sup, 10M)
2. Write short notes on degree of reaction. (Set 4, May 2015 R10, Sup, 5M)
Explain the term ‘Degree of Reaction’ as defined for a reaction turbine.
Determine the value of Degree of Reaction for Parson’s reaction turbine?
(Set 1, Jan 2014, R07 Supply 8M).
3. Compare the impulse and reaction turbines. (Set 1, Dec 2013 R10, 7M).

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Day 28
1. Derive expressions for work done and various efficiencies of a reaction
turbine.
A. Work done on the blades
Work done on the blades may be found from the change of momentum of
steam jet during its flow over the blades. It is only the velocity of whirl which
performs work on the blades, since it acts in the blade’s direction of motion.
From Newton’s II law of motion,
Tangential force on the wheel = mass of steam x acceleration
change of velocity
= mass of steam x
sec.
mass of steam
= ×change in velocity
sec.
= 𝑚̇[𝑐𝑤1 − (−𝑐𝑤2 )]
The velocity cw2 at exit is given ‘-‘ sign since it is in opposite direction to cw1
and cb blade velocity)
 Ft = 𝑚̇ (𝑐𝑤1 + 𝑐𝑤2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑤 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑤 = (𝑐𝑤1 + 𝑐𝑤2 )

𝑚̇(𝑐𝑤1 +𝑐𝑤2 )𝑐𝑏

Work done/s (or) power = Ft x blade velocity= , kW
1000

𝑚̇(𝑐𝑤1 +𝑐𝑤2 )𝑐𝑏

Work done/ s /stage (or) P = F * C b = kW
1000

Axial thrust in reaction turbines

In reaction turbines, axial thrust is on two accounts,
i) Due to change in axial (flow) velocity and
ii) Due to pressure drop across the rotor

Axial thrust = 𝑚̇(𝑐𝑓1 − 𝑐𝑓2 ) + (𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 )

Where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are the annulus areas at inlet and exit respectively. For a
50% reaction turbine, the change in axial velocity is zero and axial thrust is
entirely on account of the pressure drop.

Turbine efficiencies:
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𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑤 𝑐𝑏
1) Blade or diagram efficiency = = 2 2 2
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑐 𝑐𝑟 −𝑐𝑟
𝑚̇ [ 21 + 2 2 1 ]
𝑵𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒎̇𝑪𝒘 𝑪𝒃
2) Stage efficiency = =
𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒎̇𝒉𝒅

Where hd is isentropic enthalpy drop per kg

Actual enthalpy drop per stage per kg = work done per stage per kg =
𝑐𝑟22 − 𝑐𝑟12 = 𝑐12 − 𝑐22 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑐𝑤 for a 50% reaction turbine.

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

3) 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑅𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

4) Reheat factor:
By the definitions of stage efficiency and internal efficiency, the
expressions for the same can be written with reference to the h-s plot of a
multi-stage reaction turbine shown in the figure 1 below.

Fig 1: h-s Plot Representing Reheat Factor

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ℎ1 − ℎ2′ ℎ2′ − ℎ3′

𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = =⋯
ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ2′ − ℎ3
(ℎ1 − ℎ2′ ) + (ℎ2′ − ℎ3′ ) + (ℎ3′ − ℎ4′ ) + (ℎ4′ − ℎ5′ )
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 =
(ℎ1 − ℎ6 )
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) × 𝜂𝑠𝑡. + (ℎ2′ − ℎ3 ) × 𝜂𝑠𝑡. + (ℎ3′ − ℎ4 ) × 𝜂𝑠𝑡. + (ℎ4′ − ℎ5 ) × 𝜂𝑠𝑡.
=
(ℎ1 − ℎ6 )
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜂 (ℎ1 −ℎ2 )+(ℎ2′ −ℎ3 )+(ℎ3′ −ℎ4 )+(ℎ4′ −ℎ5 )
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒×[ ]
(ℎ1 −ℎ6 )
The ratio of cumulative heat drop to adiabatic heat drop
(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )+(ℎ2′ −ℎ3 )+(ℎ3′ −ℎ4 )+(ℎ4′ −ℎ5 )
[ (ℎ1 −ℎ6 )
] , is called Reheat factor.

Therefore 𝜼𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 = 𝜼𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 × 𝑹𝒆𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

Reheat factor is greater than 1, because cumulative heat drop [(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) +

(ℎ2′ − ℎ3 ) + (ℎ3′ − ℎ4 ) + (ℎ4′ − ℎ5 )] is found to be greater than adiabatic
heat drop (ℎ1 − ℎ6 ).
Therefore efficiency of a multi- stage turbine is greater than the efficiency of
a single stage turbine.
Reheat factor depends on stage efficiency, initial pressure and condition of
steam, final pressure and number of stages.
Reheat factor is higher when the number of stages is more. This is because
reheat due to inefficiencies in the initial stages is more likely to be recovered
in the later stages.
5) Overall efficiency or Turbine efficiency or Net efficiency or Efficiency
ratio:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑚̇ × ∆ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛.

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This efficiency takes into account, internal and external losses.

2. What are the difference between Impulse turbines and Reaction
turbines?
A. Differences between impulse and reaction turbines
S. No Particulars Impulse turbine Reaction turbine
1. Pressure drop Only in nozzle and not In fixed blades (nozzles) as
in moving blades well as in moving blades
2. Area of blade Constant Varying (converging type)
channels
3. Blades Profile type Aerofoil type
4. Admission of Not all round or All round or complete
steam complete
5. Nozzles / fixed Diaphram contains the Fixed blades similar to
blades nozzles moving blades attached to
the casing serve as nozzles
and guide the steam.
6. Power Not much power can Much power can be
be developed developed
7. Space Requires less space for Requires more space for
the same power the same power
8. Efficiency Low High
9. Suitability Suitable for small Suitable for medium and
power requirements higher power requirements
10. Blade Not difficult Difficult
manufacture

Home Work
1. Explain the functions of the blading of a reaction turbine
2. Reaction turbine stages are preferred to impulse stages even though the
reaction turbine occupies more space and runs lower. Comment on the
statement.
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3. What are the important considerations for selection of blade material for
a steam turbine?
Previous JNTUK Important Questions:
1. Deduce an expression for work done per stage of a reaction turbine.
(Set 1, May 2016 R13, Sup., 8M)
2. Deduce an expression for work done per stage of a reaction turbine(Set
1, May 2016, R13 Supply 7M)
3. Define and derive an expression for stage efficiency in case of a steam
turbine. ( Set 2, Jan 2015, R10, 8M )
4. Explain the difference between an impulse turbine and a reaction
turbine? ( Set 2, Jan 2015, R10 , 7M )
5. Write short notes on degree of reaction. (Set 3, May/June 2015, R10
Supply 7M).
7. What are the important considerations for selection of blade material
for a steam turbine? (Set 1, May 2015 R10, 7M)
8. Explain the working of single stage reaction turbine. Sketch the velocity
and pressure variations along the axis of the turbine.(Set 1 Jan 2014
R07 Supply 8M)

Day 29
Topics covered: Parsons Reaction turbine, Degree of reaction of Parson’s
reaction turbine, combined velocity diagram for Parson’s reaction turbine,
condition for maximum blade efficiency.

1. Explain briefly about the salient features of Parson’s reaction turbine.

A. PARSON'S REACTION TURBINE
A Parson's reaction turbine is the simplest type of reaction turbine and is
commonly used.
The main components of it are:
1. Casing.
2. Guide mechanism.
3. Runner.
4. Draft tube.
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 The casing is an air tight metallic case in which steam from boiler under
high pressure is distributed around the fixed blades which are positioned at
the entrance. The casing is so designed that steam enters the fixed blades
with uniform velocity.
 The guide mechanism consists of fixed or guide blades. They allow the
steam to enter the rotor without shock and they allow required quantity of
steam to enter the turbine. The guide blades may be opened or closed by a
regulating shaft which allows steam to flow according to the need.
 The runner consists of moving blades. These blades are designed properly
to allow steam to enter and leave the blades without shock.
 The steam after passing through the rotor flows to condenser through a
draft tube. It minimizes losses due to eddies.
 In impulse turbines, steam pressure on both sides of moving blades is
same and axial thrust is negligible. But, in a reaction turbine, this thrust is
considerable due to fall of pressure within the blades and difference
between blade sizes in various steps. (To accommodate increased volume,
height of blades in increased progressively). Thrust bearings are used to
balance this thrust.
 In a reaction turbine, the pressure is reduced in both fixed and moving
blades. The velocity increases in fixed blades and reduces while passing
through moving blades.

Parson’s Reaction Turbine

 Parson’s reaction turbine is a commonly used, 50% reaction turbine.
 It has the same section for both the fixed and moving blades, that means
moving blade and fixed blades have the same shape.
 The blades are symmetrical i.e., the exit angle of the moving blade is equal
to the exit angle of the fixed blade (α=) and inlet angle of the moving blade
is equal to the inlet angle of the fixed blade (=).
 Since the blades are symmetrical, the velocity diagrams are also
symmetrical i.e., 𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑟2 and𝑐2 = 𝑐𝑟1 .

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The combined velocity diagram for a parson’s reaction turbine is as follows:

Fig.1: Combined Velocity Diagram for a Parson’s Reaction Turbine

In the above velocity diagram, the important points to note are:
α=
=
𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑟2
𝑐2 = 𝑐𝑟1
𝑐𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑓2

2. Prove that Parson’s reaction turbine has a degree of reaction of 50%.

OR
Determine the degree of reaction of Parson’s reaction turbine.
A.
Proof that Parson’s reaction turbine is a 50% reaction turbine:
𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 ∆ℎ𝑚
Degree of reaction = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆ℎ𝑚 +∆ℎ𝑓

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Fig.1: Combined Velocity Diagram for a Parson’s Reaction Turbine

From figure 1, we can write that
𝑐2 2
𝑟2 −𝑐𝑟1
2
∆ℎ𝑓 = 𝑐2 2 2 2
𝑟2 𝑟1 +𝑐1 −𝑐2
−𝑐
2 2
In Parsons reaction turbine, fixed nozzles and moving blades are similar i.e.,
inlet blade angles are the same and also exit blade angles are the same for
the fixed and moving vanes. So
α=
=
∴ 𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑟2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑐2 = 𝑐𝑟1
𝑐𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑓2
𝑐2 2
𝑟2 −𝑐𝑟1
2 1
Therefore ∆ℎ𝑓 = 𝑐2 2 2 2 = = 0.5 𝑜𝑟 50%
𝑟2 𝑟1 +𝑐𝑟2 −𝑐𝑟1
−𝑐 2
2 2

3. Show that for a Parson’s reaction turbine, fixed and moving blades have
the same shape.
A.
Degree of reaction for a Parson’s reaction turbine =50%=0.5=1/2

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𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 ∆ℎ𝑚

But Degree of reaction = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆ℎ𝑚 +∆ℎ𝑓

From the above diagram, we can write that

2 2
𝑐𝑟2 − 𝑐𝑟1
2 1
∆ℎ𝑓 = 2 2 =
𝑐𝑟2 − 𝑐𝑟1 𝑐12 − 𝑐22 2
+
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑐 −𝑐 𝑐 −𝑐
From this equation we see that 𝑟2 𝑟1 = 1 2
2 2
or 𝑐𝑟2 = 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑟1 = 𝑐2
which is possible only in case α= and = which means fixed and moving
blades have the same shape.

4. Derive the condition for maximum blade efficiency for a reaction

turbine.
A. Condition for maximum efficiency of a reaction turbine:
Condition for maximum blade efficiency of a reaction turbine is derived as
follows with the following assumptions:
i) Degree of reaction is 50%
ii) The moving and fixed blades are symmetrical
iii) The velocity of steam at exit from the proceeding stage is same
as the velocity of steam at the entrance of the succeeding stage.

Condition for maximum efficiency

Work done = 𝑐𝑏 (𝑐𝑤1 + 𝑐𝑤2 ) = 𝑐𝑏 (𝑐1 cos ∝ + 𝑐𝑟2 cos ∅ − 𝑐𝑏 )
= 𝑐𝑏 (𝑐1 cos ∝ + 𝑐1 cos ∝ −𝑐𝑏 )
= 𝑐𝑏 (2 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ −𝑐𝑏 )
2
2 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠∝ 𝑐
= 𝑐12 [ 1 𝑏2 − 𝑏2 ]
𝑐1 𝑐1
2
Work done = 𝑐1 (2 ρcos ∝ −𝜌2 )
𝑐
Where blade speed ratio ‘𝜌 ’ = 𝑏
𝑐1

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𝜂𝑏𝑙
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼
=
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼

𝜂𝑏𝑙

𝐶𝑏
𝜌=
𝐶1

Fig 2: Condition for Maximum Efficiency

𝑐12 2 −𝑐 2
𝑐𝑟2 𝑟1
Energy available for moving blades = +
2 2
𝑐12 𝑐12 2
𝑐𝑟1
= + −
2 2 2
2
𝑐𝑟1
= 𝑐12 −
2
(𝑐12 +𝑐𝑏2 −2 𝑐1 𝑐𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠∝)
Also energy available = 𝑐12 −
2
Where 2
𝑐𝑟1 = 𝑐12 + 𝑐𝑏2 − 2 𝑐1 𝑐𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝
𝑐12 2𝑐𝑏 𝑐𝑏 2
Energy available = [1 + . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ − ( ) ]
2 𝑐1 𝑐1
𝑐12
= [1 + 2𝜌 cos ∝ −𝜌2 ]
2
𝑊𝐷 𝑐 2 (2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2 )
Blade efficiency 𝑏𝑙 = = 𝑐2 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 1 (1+2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2 )
2
2(2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2 ) 2𝜌(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝜌) 2(1+2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2 )+2
= (1+2𝜌
cos∝−𝜌 2 ) = (1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝜌2 ) = (1+2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2 )

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2
𝑏𝑙 = 2 − 1+2𝜌 cos∝−𝜌2
𝑏𝑙 is maximum, when (1 + 2𝜌 cos ∝ −𝜌2 ) is maximum
𝑑
Or when (1 + 2𝜌 cos ∝ −𝜌2 ) = 0 (or) 2 cos ∝ − 2𝜌 = 0
𝑑𝜌
𝝆 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝ is the condition for maximum efficiency.
2 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ∝
𝑏𝑙,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 − 1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠2∝−𝑐𝑜𝑠∝ (or) 𝑏𝑙,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2∝

5. Write short notes on blade height of a reaction turbine.

A. Blade height of a reaction turbine:
Blade height in reaction turbines depends on mass flow rate, specific
volume of steam and wheel diameter.
As the pressure drop is continuous in fixed as well as moving blades,
specific volume increases stage by stage and the diameter of the turbine
increases in the direction of flow with out unduly increasing the blade
height.
At any section in the turbine, mass flow rate is given by
𝐴×𝑐𝑓
Mass flow rate of steam 𝑚̇ =
𝑣
where A is area of flow A = ( Π D x b), b is blade height, ‘𝑐𝑓 ’ is flow velocity at
the section and ‘v’ is specific volume at that section.
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
For a 50% reaction turbine 𝑐𝑓 is constant, i.e., 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓 , 𝐷 is the mean
1 2
diameter of the rotor.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Draw the combined velocity triangle for a single stage reaction turbine and
derive an expression for work done per stage. (Set 1, May 2016 R10, Sup.
8M)
2. Draw velocity triangle for 50% reaction steam turbine. (Set 1 May 2016
R13, 8M).

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3. a) Reaction turbine stages are preferred to impulse stages even though

the reaction turbine occupies more space and run slower. Comment on the
statement. (Set 3, May 2015 R10, 8M)
b) What are the conditions for maximum efficiency of a reaction turbine?
(Set 3, May 2015 R10, 7M)
4. Derive the equation for maximum efficiency of reaction turbine. (Set 1
May/June 2015, R10, 7M)
5. What is the Parson’s Reaction turbine? (Set 1, Jan 2015, R10, 5M)
6. Draw the combined velocity triangle for a single stage reaction turbine
and derive an expression for work done per stage? (Set 3, Jan 2014 R07, 8M
7. Show that for a Parson’s reaction turbine, the fixed and moving blades are
of same shape. (Set 1, Dec 2013 R10, 7 M).
8. Derive the expression for Blade efficiency of Parson’s reaction turbine and
hence obtain the condition for maximum efficiency. Derive the expression
for maximum efficiency. Make necessary assumptions. (Set 2, Dec 2013 R10,
8M)
9. Show that for a Parson’s reaction turbine, the fixed and moving blades are
of same shape. (Set 2, Dec 2013 R10, 8M)

Day 30
Topics covered: Problems on Parsons Reaction Turbines, Velocity diagrams.
1. Example Problem: The following data refer to a particular stage of a
parsons reaction turbine:
Speed of the turbine = 1500 rpm
Mean diameter of the rotor = 1m.
Stage efficiency = 80%
Blade outlet angle = 200
Speed ratio = 0.7
Determine the available isentropic enthalpy drop in the stage.
A. 13.08 kJ/kg

2. Example Problem: A 50% reaction turbine (with symmetrical velocity

triangles) running at 400 rpm has the exit angle of the blades as 20 0 and the
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velocity of steam relative to the blades at the exit is 1.35 times the mean
blade speed. The steam flow rate is 8.33 kg/s and at a particular stage the
specific volume is 1.381 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔. Calculate for this stage:
i) A suitable blade height, assuming the rotor mean diameter 12 time the
blade height and
ii) the Diagram work
A. i) 136.25 mm ii)15.03 kW

3. Example Problem: At a particular stage of reaction turbine, the mean

blade speed is 60 m/s and the steam pressure is 3.5 bar with a temperature
of 1750c. The identical fixed and moving blades have inlet angles of 200.
Determine:
i) The blade height, if it is 1/10th of the blade ring diameter, for flow rate of
13.5 kg/s.
ii) The power developed by a pair
iii) Specific enthalpy drop if the stage efficiency is 85%
A. (i) 65 mm ii) 216 kW iii) 19.1 kJ/kg

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. In one stage of reaction turbine, both the fixed and moving blades have
inlet and outlet blade tip angles of 350 and 200 respectively. The mean blade
speed is 80 m/s and the steam consumption is 22550 kg per hour. Determine
the power developed in the pair, if the isentropic heat drop for the pair is
23.5kJ per kg. (Set 1, May 2016, R10,Sup.7M)
2. Following particulars refer to a compound turbine: Inlet pressure and
temperature to the first stage are: 20 bar and 2500C, pressure at entrance
to next stage is 1.5 bar and exhaust pressure is 0.05 bar. Stage efficiency is
0.77. Determine i)Internal heat drop, ii) If external losses are 4% of total
isentropic heat drop, calculate overall efficiency ratio, iii) Reheat factor.(Set
1, May 2016 R13,Sup.,8M)
3. Following particulars refer to a compound turbine: Inlet pressure and
temperature to the first stage are: 20bar and 250o C, pressure at entrance

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to next stage is 1.5bar and exhaust pressure is 0.05bar. Stage efficiency is

0.77. Determine
i) Internal heat drop,
ii) If external losses are 4% of total isentropic heat drop, calculate overall
efficiency ratio,
iii)Reheat factor. (Set 1, May 2016, R13, 15M).
4. A 50% reaction turbine(with symmetrical velocity triangles) running at
400rpm has the exit angle of the blades as 20o and the velocity of steam
relative to the blades at the exit is 1.35 times the mean blade speed. The
steam flow rate is 8.33kg/s and at a particular stage the specific volume is
1.381m3/kg. Calculate for this stage:
i.The suitable blade height, assuming the rotor mean diameter as 12 times
the blade height, and
ii.The diagram work. (Set 1, Jan 2015, R10, 15M)
5. A stage of steam turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 50bar and
350oC, and exhausts at a pressure of 5bar. The isentropic efficiency of the
stage is 0.82 and the steam consumption is 2270kg/min. Determine the
power output of the stage. (Set 2, Jan 2015, R10, 15M)
6. The following data refers to a particular stage of a Parsons
Reaction turbine: Speed of the turbine=1500 r.p.m
Mean diameter of the rotor = 1
Meter Stage Efficiency = 80 Percent
Blade outlet angle=20o
Speed ratio=0.7
Determine the available isentropic enthalpy drop in the stage. (Set 4 Jan
2015 R10, 15M)
7.In one stage of a reaction steam turbine, both the fixed and moving blades
have inlet and outlet blade tip angles of 300 and 200 respectively. The mean
blade speed is 80m/sec and the steam consumption is 22,500 kg per hour.
Determine the power developed in the pair, if the isentropic heat drop for
the pair is 23.5 per kg. (Set 2 Nov 2015 R13, 15M).

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8. At a certain pair in a reaction turbine, the steam leaves the fixed blade at a
pressure of 3bar with a dryness fraction of 0.98 and a velocity of 130m/sec.
The ratio of axial velocity of 130m/sec. The blades are 20mm high and
discharge angle for both the rings is 20o. The ratio of axial velocity of flow to
the blade velocity is 0.7 at inlet and 0.76 at exit from the moving blade. If the
turbine uses 4kg of steam per second with 5% tip leakage. Find the mean
blade diameter and the power developed in the ring. (Set 4 Nov 2015 R13,15
M)
Day 31
Topics covered: Steam condensers-Introduction, elements of a steam
condensing plant, functions and advantages of a steam condenser.

1. Explain the functions and advantages of using a condenser in a steam

power plant.
A. Introduction
 Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle increases with increased mean temp.
of heat addition and with decreased temperature of heat rejection.
 If the exhaust from the prime mover (steam engine or turbine) is at
atmospheric pressure, temperature T2 at which heat is rejected is at
1000C. The temperature T2 can be reduced below atmospheric
temperature if the exhaust of steam takes place at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure.
 Low exhaust pressure is necessary to obtain low exhaust temperature. But
the steam cannot be exhausted to the atmosphere if it is expanded in the
engine or turbine to a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure. Under
this condition, the steam is exhausted into a vessel known as ‘condenser’,
where the pressure is maintained below the atmosphere by continuously
condensing the steam by means of circulating cold water at atmospheric
temperature.
 A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and
where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as
a condenser.

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 Steam condenser is one of the essential components of all modern steam

power plants.

Advantages of condenser (or) Functions of a condenser

The advantages of incorporating a condenser in the steam power plant
are as follows:
i) The efficiency and power output of the plant increase due to increased
expansion ratio made possible by the condenser. The enthalpy drop
increases by increasing the vaccum in the condenser. By reducing the back
pressure of the prime mover, the amount of useful enthalpy drop increases.
ii) The temperature of the condensate is always higher than that of the
water if it is taken from outside source. Therefore the amount of heat
supplied by the boiler per kg of steam generated is reduced.
iii) Air and non condensable gases which have corrosive action are
removed.
iv) Recovery of condensate reduces the makeup water that must be
added to the system.
v) Where the feed water available is not pure, recovery of condensate
reduces the capital and running cost of the water softening plant. This is
important in case of marine plants.

2. What are the important elements of a modern steam condensing plant?

A. Elements of a steam condensing plant:
The different components of a steam condensing plant are as follows:
i) Condenser
ii) Condenser cooling water pump
iii) Make up water pump
iv) Condensate extraction pump
v) Hot well
vi) Boiler feed pump
vii) Air extraction pump
viii) Cooling tower.

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Fig. 1: Elements of a Steam Condensing Plant

The function of each component listed above is briefly described:
i) Condenser:
It is a closed vessel heat exchanger in which the steam coming from
turbine is condensed using a supply of cooling water at atmospheric
temperature.
The quantity of cooling water required to condense the steam in the
condenser is considerably (about 60 to 100 kg/kg of steam) large. Therefore,
a source of water which can provide such a large amount of cooling water
throughout the year is essential for the proper operation of a steam
condensing plant.
ii) Condenser cooling water pump:
Circulation of water through the condenser is maintained by the
cooling water pump.
iii) Make up water pump:
Some cooling water is lost (1 to 2%) passing through cooling tower
therefore, this water is supplied by a separate pump from an external source
which is known as make-up water.

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iv) Condensate extraction pump:

The condensate cannot flow from low pressure in the condenser to the
atmospheric pressure. The function of the condensate pump is to extract
the condensate from the condenser where the pressure is below
atmosphere and feed it to the hot well, where the pressure is atmospheric.
v) Hot Well:
The hot well is a sump between the condenser and the boiler where
the condensate coming from the condenser is collected.
vi) Boiler feed Pump:
The function of the boiler feed pump is to pump the condensate from
hot well into the boiler by increasing the pressure of the condensate above
boiler pressure.
vii) Air-extraction Pump:
The function of air-extraction pump is to extract the air which has
leaked into the condenser by various paths and to maintain the require
vacuum inside.
viii) Cooling Tower:
In many plants, large amounts of cooling water required is not
available throughout the year in the river, under such condition, the hot
water coming out of the condenser is cooled by forcing it through the
cooling tower instead of discharging it to the downward side of the river.
The hot water is cooled by evaporative cooling process rejecting the heat to
the atmospheric air. The cold water is reused in the condenser. Such cooling
system works independent of river supply.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. What is the function of a steam condenser, what are the requirements of a
steam condensing plant? (Set 1, Jan 2015, R10, M).
2. What are the objectives of a steam condenser in a steam power plant?
(Set 3, Jan 2015, R10, 7M)

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3. Steam enters a condenser at 36oC and with barometer reading 760 mm,
if the vacuum of 695mm is produced find the vacuum efficiency? (Set 1,
Jan 2015, R10, 8M)
4. What are the elements of a Condensing plant? Briefly explain the
function of each element or component. (Set 4, Dec 2013, R10, 15 M).
5. What are the principal requirements of a steam condensing plant in
power generation unit? Explain. (Set 1, Dec 2012 R10, 5 M).
6. What are the components of a steam condensing plant? What are the
functions of each component working in steam condensing plant? (Set 4,
Dec 2012 R10, 15 M).
Day 32
Topics covered: Classification of condensers, comparison between surface
and jet condensers, comparison between low level and high level
condensers, requirements of a modern condensing plant.

1. What are the types of steam condensers? Define.

A. Types of condensers: There are two main types of condensers
1. Jet Condensers and
2. Surface condensers.
In Jet condensers, the cooling water is sprayed through jets and comes
in direct contact with the steam to be condensed. The steam gives up its
enthalpy to the cooling water spray, is condensed and finally leaves as
condensate with the cooling water.
In a ‘Surface Condenser’ the cooling water flows through a large
number of tubes which are surrounded by steam. The steam is condensed
on the surface of the tubes as it gives up its enthalpy to the cooling water
passing through the tubes. The condensate and cooling water leave
separately.
The condensers may also be classified according to the relative directions
of flow of the condensing steam and the cooling water.
 In parallel flow condensers steam and cooling water flow in the same
direction.
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 In counter flow condensers steam and cooling water flow in the opposite
direction. In transverse flow, the steam flows across the flow of cooling
water. Transverse flow is possible only in surface condensers.

2. Give the classification of the Jet condensers and explain each one in
detail?
A. Jet Condensers: Jet condensers are classified as follows:
i) Low-level Parallel flow jet condenser: The air extraction is at the top by
means of an air pump and condensate and the cooling water are removed
from bottom by another pump. Figure 1 shows a parallel flow type of low
level jet condenser.

Fig. 1. Low-level Parallel flow jet condenser

ii) Low-level counter flow jet condenser:
In low level counter flow jet condenser, cooling water enters the condenser
from the top and is sprayed throughout. The perforated baffle plates help to
maintain the spray of cooling water throughout the condenser. Steam
enters the bottom side and being lighter, rises up. In its travel, it gives its
enthalpy to the cooling water particles and condenses. Both cooling water
and the condensate fall below and are removed by the pump. During
condensation, air and other un dissolved gases are liberated, which being

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lighter escapes to the atmosphere from top of the vessel. Since both air and
condensate and cooling water are handled separately, the condenser is of
dry type.

Fig.2. Low-level counter flow jet condenser

iii) High level or barometric jet condenser
A jet condenser placed 10.36 m above the hot well, known as a barometric
condenser, does not need condensate extraction pump. It has also the
advantage, that it will not flow the turbine if water extraction pump fails as
in case of a low level jet condenser, but its disadvantages are high cost and
loss of vacuum between the turbine and condenser. It can be only installed
when enough height is available. Barometric condensers are of less practical
importance.

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Fig. 3: Low-level counter flow jet condenser

iv) Ejector Condenser:
An ejector condenser is suitable for moderate vacuum only. In this
condenser cooling water is discharged through a series of convergent
nozzles causing partial vacuum by conversion of potential energy into
kinetic energy.

Fig. 4: Ejector Condenser

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The steam is introduced in to the condenser through a non-return valve and

is condensed through mixing with the cooling water. Vacuum is further
increased by condensation of steam. The series of convergent nozzles are
followed by a divergent nozzle where the kinetic energy is reconverted into
potential energy to obtain a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure for
discharging to the hot well. Ejector condensers are of less practical
importance.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Describe with a sketch a low level jet condenser of the counter flow type.
(Set 1, May 2016 R10, Sup. 5M)
2. Explain briefly the following types of jet condensers: (i) parallel-flow type
(ii) counter flow type (iii) ejector flow type. (Set 3, May 2015 R10, Sup.
15M)
3. Classify jet condensers; explain the working of any one of jet condenser?
(Set 2 Jan 2015, R10, 10M).
4. Explain the working of high level jet condenser, with the help of a neat
sketch. (Set 3, Jan 2015, R10, 10M).
5. With the help of a neat sketch. Explain the working of counter flow jet
condenser. (Set 4, Jan 2015, R10, 10M)
Day 33
1. With a neat sketch explain what is meant by surface condenser?
A. Surface Condensers

Fig. 1: Sectional View of Surface Condensers

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In a surface condenser, the cooling water flows through pipes and the steam
is outside. The number of times that the cooling water crosses any
transverse sections of the condenser is called the number of passes of the
condenser. The figure shows a two-pass shell and tube type surface
condenser. The average temperature difference between the condensing
steam and the cooling water should be about 120C, for better heat transfer.
Separate pumps are required for handling undissolved gases (i.e. air),
condensate and the cooling water. Since air and condensate are separately
handled, the condenser is of dry type.

2. Give the classification of the Surface condensers and explain each one in
detail?
A. Classification of Surface condensers:
Surface condensers may be further classified as
1. Down flow and
2. Central flow type
3. Regenerative type
4. Evaporative type
i) Down flow condenser:

Fig.2: Sectional View of A Down Flow Condenser

In down flow condenser, steam enters at the top and is caused to flow
mainly downwards over the tubes carrying cooling water. The air is
extracted at a lower temperature than the condensate by providing a

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screen, which is called ‘air cooler’. The low temperature reduces the volume
of air handled by the pump and hence the size of the pump is reduced as
much as 50%.
A section of tubes near the air pump suction is screened off by
providing a baffle as shown in the figure. The number of tubes used in this
section per unit area is more compared with other parts of the condenser.
The velocity of water through these tubes is also maintained higher. This is
done to reduce the amount of steam going along with the air. The extensive
cooling of air in this section increases the density of air going out and
reduces the required capacity of air pump as much as 50%.

ii) Central flow condenser: In this type, the air cooler section is provided at
the centre of the condenser and the air is extracted from this region. It
causes the condensate to flow radially, with flow upwards to the centre. This
method is an improvement on the downward flow type as it has an access to
the whole periphery of the tubes.

Fig.3: Sectional View of a Central flow condenser

iii) Regenerative type condenser:
This type is applied to condensers adopting a regenerative method of
heating of the condensate. After leaving the tube nest, the condensate is
passed through the entering exhaust steam from the steam engine or
turbine thus raising the temperature of the condensate, for use as feed
water for the boiler.

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Day 34
1. With a neat sketch explain the evaporative type condenser?
A. iv) Evaporative type condenser:
The principle of this condenser is that the quantity of cooling water needed
to condense the steam can be reduced by causing the circulating water to
evaporate under a small partial pressure.
The exhaust steam enters at the top through gilled pipes. The water pump
sprays water on the pipes and descending water condenses the steam. The
water which is not evaporated falls into the open tank (cooling pond) under
the condenser from which it can be drawn by circulating water pump and
used over again. The evaporative condenser is placed in open air and finds
its application in small size plants.

Fig.1: Evaporative type condenser

2. Give the difference between Jet and surface condensers?

A. Comparison between Jet and Surface condensers
Jet Condenser Surface Condenser
1. Cooling water and steam are 1. Cooling water and steam are
mixed up. not mixed up
2. Low manufacturing cost 2. High manufacturing cost
3. Lower upkeep 3. Higher upkeep

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4. Requires small floor space.
5. The condensate cannot be
used as feed water in the
boilers unless the cooling
water is free from impurities.
6. More power is required for air
pump.
7. Less power is required for
water pumping.
8. It requires less quantity of
cooling water.
9. The condensing plant is
simple.
10. Less suitable for high
capacity plants due to low
vacuum efficiency.
3. Give the difference between low level and high level condensers.
A. Comparison between low level and high level jet condensers
Low level
1. Piping is not very expensive
2. Less possibility of air leaks 2. More possibility of air leaks
3. Easy to accommodate
4. Less wastage of condensate
5. There is possibility of
flooding of condensate into
the condenser in case of
failure of pump.
6. Higher maintenance cost
due to pumps
7. Hot well is necessary
8. Commonly used in modern
condensers
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36
4. Requires large floor space.
5. Condensate can be reused as
feed water as it does not mix
with the cooling water.
6. Less power is needed for air
pump.
7. More power is required for
water pumping.
8. It requires large quantity of
cooling water.
9. The condensing plant is
complicated.
10. More suitable for high
capacity plants as vacuum
efficiency is high.
High Level
1. Piping is expensive
3. Difficult to accommodate
4. More wastage of
condensate
5. No possibility of flooding
6. Low maintenance cost due
to absence of pumps
7. Hot well is not necessary
8. Not in common use
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4. What are the requirements of a modern surface condenser?

A. Requirements of a modern surface condenser
The requirements of an ideal surface condenser used for power plants are
listed below:
i)The steam should be evenly distributed over the whole cooling surface of
the condenser with minimum pressure loss.
ii) There should be no under cooling of condensate. To achieve this, the
quantity of cooling water circulated should be so regulated so that the
temperature of cooling water leaving the condenser is equivalent to the
saturation temperature of the steam corresponding to the steam pressure in
the condenser.
iii) Water should be passed through the tubes and steam must surround the
tubes from outside.
iv) There should be no air leakage into the condenser as it destroys the
vacuum in the condenser and reduces the work done per kg of steam.
v) An arrangement for cooling the air to the maximum possible extent
should be provided in the condenser before its extraction.
vi) For reasons of better thermal efficiency, the rise in the temperature of
the cooling water passing through the condenser is limited to 100C.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Describe with a sketch a low level jet condenser of the counter flow type
(Set 1, May 2016, R10 Sup, 7M).
2. Compare various features of jet and surface condensers. (Set 2, May 2015,
R10 Supply 7M)
3. Explain briefly the following types of jet condensers: (i) Parallel-flow type
(ii) Counter-flow type (iii) Ejector flow type. (Set 3, May 2015, R10, Sup.15M).
4. Describe with neat sketches a modern steam condenser showing how the
air is cooled before it enters the air extraction pump. (Set 4, May 2015, R10,
Sup. 15M).
5. What are the different elements of a condensing plant? Explain the
working of an evaporative condenser with a neat sketch? (Set 1, Jan 2014,
R07, Supply 8M).
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5. Give the comparison between jet and surface condensers. (Set 1, Dec
2013, R10 7M)
6. With the help of a neat diagram, explain the function of Barometric
condenser. (Set 4, Dec 2013, R10, 8M).
7. In a surface condenser the pressure of steam is 12 kPa and the cooling
water flow rate is 40 kg/kg of steam condensed. The condensate leaves at
44ºC and the rise in temperature of circulating water is 14ºC. Determine the
dryness fraction of steam entering into the condenser. (Set 1, Dec 2012 R10,
10 M).
8a.Give the comparison between jet and surface condensers.
b. A surface condenser of 0.75 m3 capacity contains saturated steam and air
at a temperature of 450C and an absolute pressure of 0.13 bar. Air leaks
further into condenser and hence the absolute pressure of the condenser is
increased to 0.28 bar and the temperature falls to 380C. Calculate the mass
of air leaked into the condenser. (Set 1, Dec 2013, R10 15M)

Day 35
Topics covered: Vacuum in the condenser and its measurement, air leakage,
sources of air leakage, effects of air leakage on the performance of a
condenser.

1. Write short notes on vacuum in the condenser and its measurement.

A. Vacuum in condenser and its measurement
The vacuum in the condenser is usually measured in cm of mercury. The
vacuum in the condenser is the difference between the barometric pressure
and absolute pressure in the condenser.
The difference between the barometer reading and vacuum guage reading
as shown in the figure, gives the absolute pressure in the condenser.

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Fig.1: Vacuum in Condenser

The vacuum in the condenser is equivalent to 𝐻𝑣 cm of mercury,
which is generally measured by vacuum guage. The barometric pressure is
equivalent to 𝐻𝑏 cm of mercury. Therefore, the actual pressure in the
condenser is equivalent to (𝐻𝑏 − 𝐻𝑣 ).
 Absolute pressure = (𝐻𝑏 − 𝐻𝑣 ) cm of mercury.
The barometric head 𝐻𝑏 varies according to atmospheric conditions
and therefore the absolute pressure in the condenser is a function of the
barometric pressure also.
If the standard barometric pressure is taken as 76 cm of mercury at sea
level, then the corrected vacuum in condenser (referred to 76 cm of
mercury height) is given by:
Corrected vacuum in cm of mercury = 76 - absolute pressure in
condenser in cm of mercury
= 76 - (𝐻𝑏 − 𝐻𝑣 )
1.0135
1mm of 𝐻𝑔 = bar
760
760
1 bar = mm of Hg
1.0135

2. What are the sources of air leakage in the condenser?

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A. Air leakage in condensers:

There should be no air leakage into the condenser as it destroys the
vacuum in the condenser and reduces the work done per kg of steam. The
presence of air also reduces the heat transfer rates in the condenser very
rapidly. It there is air leakage, an arrangement should be made to remove it
as rapidly as possible with the least expenditure of energy.
Sources of air leakage:
i) Air leaks through joints, packings and glands in to condenser
ii) Feed water contains air in dissolved condition. The dissolved air gets
liberated when steam is formed and it is carried with the steam into
the condenser.
iii) The dissolved air is also carried with the cooling water in jet
condensers. This dissolved air gets liberated in condenser at low
pressures.
Effects of air leakage on condenser performance.
i) It increases the pressure in the condenser or back pressure of the
prime-mover and reduces the work done per kg of steam.
ii) Larger the air leakage, greater is the capacity of air pump required.
iii) Air has corrosive action.
iv) Presence of air in the condenser reduces the rate of condensation of
steam since abstraction of heat by water circulating in the tubes is
then partly from steam and partly from air.
v) Further, due to lower conductivity of air, rate of heat transfer is
lowered.
vi) Cooling water requirement is increased due to presence of air.

3. Define and explain vacuum efficiency.

A. Vacuum efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the actual vacuum to the maximum
obtainable vacuum in the condenser.
The maximum possible vacuum is obtained when there is only steam
and no air is present in the condenser.

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𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
Vacuum efficiency =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
=
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒−𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝
Saturation pressure of steam is obtained from steam tables as
saturation pressure at the temperature in the condenser.

Day 36
1. Explain how, the mass flow rate of cooling water required to condense
steam in a condenser, is calculated.
OR
1. Write the heat balance equations for surface and jet condensers.
A. Cooling water requirement – Energy balance:
Figure 1, shows the details of mass flow and enthalpy values for
surface condenser and jet condenser.
a. Surface Condenser

Fig.1: Energy Balance of Surface Condenser

Energy balance of surface condenser gives:
𝑚̇ 𝑠 [𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤 (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑡ℎ )] = 𝑚𝑤̇ . 𝑐𝑝𝑤 (𝑡𝑤𝑜 − 𝑡𝑤𝑖 ), where ℎ𝑓𝑔 and
𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 are read from steam tables at condenser pressure.
(We assure that there is no air in the condenser for this.)

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b. Jet condenser

Fig.2: Energy Balance of Jet Condenser

Energy balance of Jet condenser gives:
𝑚̇ 𝑠 [𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤 (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑡ℎ )] = 𝑚𝑤 ̇ . 𝑐𝑝𝑤 (𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑤 )
where ℎ𝑓𝑔 and 𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 are read from steam tables at condenser pressure.
(We assure that there is no air in the condenser for this.)

2. Explain the terms under cooling and condenser efficiency.

A. Under Cooling:
In an ideal condenser, the steam should give only latent heat, that
means, the temperature of the condensate should be the saturation
temperature at partial pressure of steam and not less than that and cooling
water outlet temperature should be equal to the saturation temperature of
steam.
Heat rejection to cooling water after the condensation is over, so that
the temperature of condensate is less than saturation temperature is called
‘under cooling’. The cooling water circulation should be controlled so that
cooling water temperature is equal to saturation temperature at its outlet.
When there is no under cooling
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i) Cooling water circulation is minimum,

ii) Hot well temperature is maximum and
iii) Cooling water outlet temperature is maximum.
Mathematically, under cooling = 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 − 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑡𝑐 − 𝑡ℎ
Condenser efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the outlet and inlet
temperatures of cooling water to the difference between the saturation
temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure and cooling water
inlet temperature.
Condenser efficiency =
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝.𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝.
𝑡𝑤𝑜 −𝑡𝑤𝑖
=
𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡. 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. −𝑡𝑤𝑖
Condenser efficiency will be more when under cooling is less. (we assure
that there is no air in the condenser for evaluating condenser efficiency)

3. Briefly explain how air leakage in the condenser is detected and

measured and what are the methods to check the sources of air leakage.
A. Method for air leakage detection and measurement:
 Keep the plant running until the temperature and pressure conditions are
steady in the condenser.
 The steam condenser be isolated by shutting off steam supply and
simultaneously closing the condensate and air extraction pumps.
 In case there is a leakage, the readings of vacuum gauge and thermometer
will record a fall.
 Record condenser vacuum and temperature just before isolating the
condenser and also after a short period of time say 5 minutes.
 Mass of air inside the condenser before and after the short period of time
are calculated and any difference between them is the mass of air leaked
into the condenser during that time. It is divided by the duration of time to
get the rate of air leakage in mass of air per unit time.

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Methods to check the sources of air leakage:

 Put the steam condenser under pressure and note its effect on soap water
at the points where infiltration is likely to occur.
 Put some peppermint oil on the suspected joint(when the condenser is
operating) and make a check on the peppermint odor in the discharge of air
ejector.
 Large leakages in steam condenser under vacuum can be detected by
moving /passing candle flame over possible openings.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. How will you calculate the mass of steam circulated in a condenser? (Set
May 2015, R10, Sup. 8M).
Prove that the vacuum efficiency decreases with the increase in barometric
pressure. (Set 4, Nov 2015, R13, Sup, 8M).
3. Explain the term ‘vacuum efficiency’ of a condensing plant? On what
factors does this efficiency depend upon? (Set 2, Jan 2014, R07 Supply, 8M)
4. What are the disadvantages of the presence of air in a condenser? (Set 3
Jan 2014, R07, Sup., 8M)
5. Explain different methods for the detection of air leakage in the
condenser. Set 4 Jan 2014 R07 Sup., 7M).

Day 37
Topics covered: Problems on vacuum efficiency and condenser efficiency.
1. Example Problem: The following observations were recorded during a test
on a steam condenser:
Barometer reading = 76.5 cm of 𝐻𝑔 , condenser vacuum = 71 cm of 𝐻𝑔
Mean condenser temperature = 350c, temperature of hot well = 280c
Condensate collection = 2000 kg/hr, quantity of cooling water circulated =
60,000 kg/hr.
Temperature of cooling water at inlet and outlet = 80c and 240c
Determine
(a) The vacuum, corrected to standard barometer reading

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(b) The vacuum efficiency of the condenser

(c) The under-cooling of the condensate
(d) Condenser efficiency
(e)Quality of steam entering the condenser
(f) Mass of air present per m3 of condenser volume
(g) Mass of air present per kg of uncondensed steam
A. a)70.5 cm of Hg b)98.2% c)7oC d) 50.5% e) 0.815 f)0.0197kg g)
0.496 kg
2. Example Problem: The following data were obtained from the test of a
surface condenser, condenser vacuum = 711 mm of 𝐻𝑔 , hot water temp =
320 𝐶
Inlet temperature of circulating water = 140 𝑐,
Outlet temperature of circulating water = 280 𝑐
Barometer reading is 760 mm of 𝐻𝑔
Calculate the vacuum efficiency and condenser efficiency
A. Vacuum effiency=98.15% ; Condenser efficiency=59.1%
3. Example Problem: A surface condenser is designed to handle 10,000 kg
of steam per hour. The steam enters at 0.08 bar absolute and 0.9 dryness
and the condensate leaves at the corresponding saturation temperature.
The pressure is constant throughout the condenser. Estimate the cooling
water flow rate per hour, if the cooling water temperature rise is limited to
100 𝐶.
A. 516548kg/hr
4. Example Problem: In a surface condenser, the pressure of steam is 12 kPa
and the cooling water flow rate is 40 kg/kg of steam. The condensate leaves
at 440c and the rise in temperature of circulating water is 140C. Determine
the dryness fraction of steam entering into the condenser.
A: x = 0.975.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. The vacuum in a condenser dealing with 8100 kg of steam per hour is
found to be 710mm of Hg when the barometer reads 750 mm of Hg. The
temperature in the condenser is 200C.The air leakage amounts to 8.1 kg per
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1000kg of steam. Determine the capacity of a suitable dry air pump in m3

per minute required for the condenser. Take volumetric efficiency of pump
as 0.85. (Set 1, May 2016 R10, Sup. 10M)

2. The outlet and inlet temperatures of cooling water to a condenser are

37.50C and 300C respectively, if the vacuum in the barometer is 706mm of
mercury with barometer reading 760mm determine efficiency? (Set 2, Jan
2015, R10,15 M ).

3. The following data were obtained from the test of a surface condenser:
Condenser vacuum=711mm of Hg; Hot water Temp=320C; Inlet temp of
circulating water=140C Outlet temp of circulating water is 280C, Barometer
reading is 760mmofHg. Calculate the vacuum efficiency and efficiency of
condenser. (Set 4, Jan 2015 R10, 15 M)
4. Data from the trial on a surface condenser is as follows:
Barometer reading: 760mm of Hg
Condenser Vacuum: 705mm of Hg
Condenser mean temperature: 350C
Hot well temperature: 280C
Temperature rise of cooling water: 160C
Mass of steam condensed: 2000kg/h
Mass of water circulated: 60000kg/h
Cooling water inlet temperature: 200C.
Evaluate i) Corrected vacuum to standard barometer reading ii)Vacuum
efficiency iii)Condenser efficiency iv)Undercooling of condensate
v)Condition of steam leaving the condenser and vi)Mass of air present in
the condenser per unit condenser volume.
(Set 2, Dec 2013, May 2015, R10, 15 M).

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Day 38
Topics covered: Air pumps, wet pumps and dry pumps, Edward’s air pump,
capacity of wet pumps and dry pumps.

1. Explain the construction and working of Edwards’s air pump.

A. Air Pump : The main function of an air pump is to maintain maximum
vacuum in the condenser i.e., to maintain absolute pressure in the
condenser equal to the saturation pressure corresponding to the exhaust
steam temperature as nearly as possible, by removing leaked air from the
condenser. It may also remove condensate together with air from the
condenser.
Air pumps are classified as:
 Wet pumps and
 Dry pumps.
An air pump which removes the moist air alone is called a dry air.
An air pump which removes both air and condensate is called a wet pump.
Types of air pumps:
(i) Reciprocating piston or bucket pumps
(ii) Rotary pumps
(iii) Steam jet air pumps or air ejectors
(iv) Water jet pumps

Edward’s Air Pump:

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Fig.1: Edward’s Air Pump

 One of the most commonly used air pump is Edward’s air pump. It is a
reciprocating piston or bucket, wet air pump. The feature of this pump is the
absence of in accessible foot and bucket valves.
 This is affected by conical end of the piston and piercing the base of the
liner with ports which communicate with air pump suction pipe down which
the condensate gravitates.
 On the down stroke of the piston, a partial vacuum is produced above it,
since the head valves are closed and sealed by water. Immediately the
piston uncovers the ports, air and water vapour rush into the space above
the piston; further motion of the piston causing its conical end to displace
the condensate rapidly through the ports.

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 The rising piston traps the water, air and steam above the piston and rises
the pressure to slightly over that of the atmosphere until head valves open
and allow the water vapor and air pass through the valve, and the
condensate to gravitate to the hot well over the weir which retains sufficient
water above cover to seal the valves against air leakage.
 A water sealed relief valve is placed in the base of the cylinder to release
the pressure should it, for any reason, exceed atmospheric pressure.

2. What are the main important formulae required to design air pumps?
A. Important formulae for designing air pumps:
Regarding air pumps, the following points can be written:
 Volume of air handled by the air pump = volume of steam handled by
the same air pump. (by Dalton’s law)
 Capacity of a dry air pump = volume of air to be handled per minute
 Capacity of a wet air pump = volume of air to be handled per minute +
Volume of condensate to be removed.
𝑚̇ 3
Where volume of condensate to be removed = 𝑠 𝑚 ⁄ℎ𝑟
1000
 For a reciprocating air pump,
 3
Capacity of air pump = × 𝐷 2 × 𝐿 × 𝑁 × 𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 , 𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
4
 Mass of air is related to its volume by ideal gas equation
PV = mRT where R = 287 J/kg-k for air
When p in N/m2 or pascal
 Mass of steam is related to its volume by
𝑉
𝑚= where 𝜗𝑔 is specific volume of saturated steam at the
𝜗𝑔
suction of air pump.
 By Dalton’s law of partial pressures, in a mixture of gases,
Total pressure = sum of partial pressures of constituent gases. So condenser
pressure 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑠
Where,
𝑝𝑎 = partial pressure of air and
𝑝𝑠 = partial pressure of steam, because of presence of air in the condenser.

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𝑝𝑠 can be found from steam tables as saturation pressure corresponding to

suction temperature of air pump.
However, at the entrance of the condenser, presence of air is negligible and
total condenser pressure 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝑠 alone.
𝑝𝑠 can be read from steam tables at temperature at inlet to the condenser.

Previous JNTUK Important Questions:

1. Explain the construction and working of Edward’s air pump. (Set 1 Jan 2014
R07 Sup,7 M).

Day 39
Topics covered: Problems on air pumps, cooling towers.

1. Example Problem: The air leakage into a surface condenser operating

with a steam turbine is estimated as 84 kg/hr. the vacuum near the inlet of
air pump is 70 cm of Hg when barometer reads 76 cm of Hg. The
temperature at the inlet of vacuum pump is 200c. find
a) The minimum capacity of the air pump in 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
b) Find the dimension of a reciprocating air pump to remove the air if
it runs at 200 rpm. Take L/D ratio as 3:2 and volumetric efficiency as
90%.
c) Mass of vapor extracted per minute.
A. a) 1216 𝒎𝟑 /𝒉𝒓 b) D = 45.8 cm; L = 68.7 cm c) 21 kg/hr

2. Example Problem: A surface condenser deals with 2100 kg of steam per

hour and the air leakage amounts to 0.8 kg per hour. The temperature of air
pump suction is 350c and the vacuum is 680 mm of Hg when the barometer
reads 760 mm of Hg. Determine the capacity of wet air pump which has a
volumetric efficiency of 75%.
A. 16.13 𝒎𝟑 /𝒉𝒓

3. Example Problem: A surface condenser fitted with separate air and water
extraction pumps, has a portion of the tubes near the air pump suction
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screened off from the steam so that the air is cooled below the condensate
temperature. The steam enters the condenser at 380 𝑐 and the condensate
is removed at 370 𝑐. The air removed has a temperature of 360 𝑐. If the total
air infilteration from all sources together is 5 kg / hr. Determine the volume
of air handled by the air pump per hour. What would be the corresponding
value of air handled if a combined air and condensate pump was employed?
Assume uniform pressure in the condenser.
A. a) 648.26 m3/hr b) 1271 m3/hr

4. Example Problem: The air entering a steam condenser with steam is

estimated at 6 kg per hour. The temperature at inlet to the air cooler section
is 300c and at the outlet 260c. The vacuum in the shell is sensibly constant
throughout and is 72.1 cm Hg, when the barometer reads 75.8 cm. Find
a) The mass of steam condensed per hour in the cooling section
b) The mass of moisture contained in the air and
c) The volume of air entering cooling section per hour.
d) Percentage reduction in air pump capacity because of air cooler.
A. a) 15.11 kg/hr b) 𝟖 kg/hr c) 𝟑𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒉𝒓 d) 56.8%

5. Example Problem: A steam turbine uses 50 x 103 kg of steam per hour.

The exhaust steam with dryness fraction 0.9 enters into the condenser fitted
with a pump which a pump which extracts air and water. When the
barometer reads 76 cm of Hg, vacuum of air pump suction is 72 cm of Hg
and temperature is 320c. The air leakage is estimated as 500 kg/hr. calculate:
(i) Net capacity of air pump in 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛.
(ii) Quantity of water circulated per minute if the temperature rise is
limited to 150C.
A. i) 1292m3/min ii) 27160 kg/min

Day 40
1. Write a brief note on cooling towers used in steam power plants.
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A. Cooling Towers: Cooling towers are used in many applications in

engineering. The main applications are in power plants and refrigeration
plants. Its function is to cool the hot water from the condenser by exposing
it to the atmospheric air, so that the cold water may be used again for
circulation. Cooling towers are used in steam power plants where there is a
limited supply of cooling water. The hot water falls down in radial sprays
from a height and the atmospheric air enters from the base of the tower.
The partial evaporation of water takes place which reduces the temperature
of circulating water. This cooled water is collected in the pond at the base of
the tower and pumped into the condenser.
Types of cooling towers
The cooling towers may be classified as follows:
I. According to the type of draught:
(a) Natural draught towers
(b) Forced draught cooling towers
(c) Induced drought cooling towers
a) Natural draught:

Fig.1: Natural Draught

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In natural draught cooling tower, the circulation of air is produced by the

pressure difference of air created by a chimney or by the available natural
air velocity.
b) Forced Draught Cooling Tower:

Fig.2: Forced Draught Cooling Tower

In this type, the circulation of air is produced by means of fans placed at the
base of the tower.
c) Induced draught cooling towers:

Fig.3: Induced Draught Cooling Towers

In this type, the circulation of air is provided by means of fans placed at the
top of the tower.
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Homework
1. Explain in brief about the cooling towers used in steam power
plants
2. List out different types of cooling towers and explain with a neat
sketch forced draught cooling towers.

Raghu Engineering College Dept.of MECH Thermal Engineering -1 Unit - 4