RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE ENGINEERING

MAR 815: ADVANCED MARINE ENGINES & POWER

PLANTS

CONTENTS:
MODULE 1

SECTION 1 - Simulation of diesel engines

SECTION 2 - Diesel Engines Combustion Models

SECTION 3 - Diesel Engine Performance

SECTION 4 - Marine Oil Pollution Clean-up

SECTION 5 - Prediction of the Movement of Oil Spills

& Contingency Plan
 SECTION 1

SIMULATION OF DIESEL ENGINE

INTRODUCTION

The main reasons of simulation/modelling of internal combustion engines are as follows:

1. To predict engine performance without having to conduct test.
2. To analyse the parameters that can affect the performance of the engine
3. To deduce the performance of parameters that are difficult to measure
It is obviously an advantage if engine performance can be predicted without going to the
trouble of first building an engine then instrument, test it and finally analyse the results.
Modelling and simulation lead to a saving of both time and money. Unfortunately the
processes that occur in internal combustion engine are so complex that most of the processes
cannot be modelled from first principle. Consider a turbocharged diesel engine, for which it
might be necessary to model the following:
1. The turbocharger compressor & exhaust gas turbine
2. The turbocharger intercooler
3. Unsteady –flow effects in the induction system
4. Flow through the inlet valve
5. Air motion within the cylinder
6. Dynamics of the injection system
7. Fuel jet interaction with the trapped air to form a spray
8. Combustion(including the effect of the ignition delay and the turbulent combustion
and possibly including the modelling of the gaseous and particulate emissions)
9. Noise generated mechanically and by combustion
10. Heat flow within the combustion chamber and to the cooling media
11. Turbine performance

1.1 Simulation of the Turbocharger

Figure 1.1: A turbocharger with radial compressor and axial turbine

Turbocharging is a method of supercharging an internal combustion engine. The objective of
turbocharging is to increase the pressure in the inlet manifold in order to trap a greater mass
of fresh air in the cylinder when the inlet valve is closed as well as the fuel and hence the
power output. This is partially offset by any increase in temperature but enables more fuel to
be burnt and power output to rise, In this method, the exhaust gas energy which is otherwise
wasted is utilized to drive a turbine which in turn drives a compressor and thus increases the
density (hence mass) of the charge air delivered into the engine. The unit, turbocharger is
self-contained and comprises gas turbine and compressor fitted on a common shaft.
Turbocharging system will affect the engine through three parameters only. The boost
pressure and temperature in the inlet manifold and the pressure in the exhaust manifold. A
typical turbocharger is shown in Figure 1.1.
In the figure the exhaust gases from the engine are directed to the turbine casing (1),
and expand in the nozzle ring (2). The gases impart energy to the blades which are fixed to
the turbine rotor (3) and then pass via the outlet casing of the unit (4) along an exhaust pipe to
the atmosphere directly or through exhaust gas boiler. Charge air required by the engine is
drawn through a suction pipe and filter (5) to the compressor (6). It then flows through the
diffusers (7) and finally leaves the turbocharger via the scroll of the compressor (8). There is
no mechanical linkage between a turbocharger and the engine except the inlet and the exhaust
ducting for compressed air and exhaust gases respectively.
The performance of the modern turbocharged large marine diesel engine is critically
dependent upon the performance of the turbocharger. It influences to a very significant
extent, engine power output, specific fuel consumption, thermal loading and the ability of the
engine to burn low grade of fuel successfully. Since the process of turbocharging requires an
increase in the air density, the temperature will also increase. Thus, charge coolers are
normally fitted between compressor outlet and the inlet ports or valves of the engine. The
reduction of the air temperature will increase the pressure as well as the density

1.1.1 Performance of a Turbocharger

Figure 1.2 Schematic of turbocharging systems

The work output from or input to a turbomachine with single inlet and exhaust port as shown
in Figure 1.2 can be derived from the first law of thermodynamics. Expressing the steady
state flow energy equation as

Q  W = m
 {(h2 + KE2 + PE2 ) - (h1 + KE1 + PE1)} (1.1)
Where:
Q = heat transfer rate (positive to the system)
W = work transfer rate (negative by the system)
m = mass flow rate
h = specific enthalpy
KE = specific kinetic energy
PE = specific potential energy.

Suffixes 1, 2 are inlet and exhaust ports respectively.

Denoting the stagnation enthalpy- ho (stagnation enthalpy is the total heat capacity when
brought to rest) as

ho = h + KE (1.2)

and neglecting changes in potential energy and heat transfer since these terms are small,
equation 3.1 becomes
- W = m (h02 - h01) (1.3)

Both air and exhaust gases are considered as perfect gases, hence they obey the equation of
state for a unit mass

Pv = RT (1.4)
Where
P, v, R, and T denote absolute pressure, specific volume, gas constant and temperature
respectively. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure cp for a perfect gas is given by

cp = dh/dT (1.5)

hence equation 1.3 becomes

- W = mcp(T02 - T01) (1.6)

= m .cp. T01 [(T02/T01) - 1] (1.7)

Where the suffix 0 denotes stagnation (or total) temperature; The temperature of a gas if
brought to rest relative to the free stream temperature, T of a gas moving at velocity, v and is
expressed as

T0 = T + v2/2cp (1.8)
Efficiency of a Turbocharger

The derivation of the efficiency of a turbocharger requires the determination of the

efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine

Compressor Isentropic Efficiency

Figure 1.2 h-s diagram for a compressor

One definition of the efficiency of a compressor is the work required for ideal adiabatic
compression divided by the actual work required to achieve the same pressure ratio.
The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is thus given by:

c-is = isentropic enthalpy drop (work) (1.9)

actual enthalpy drop (work)

h02 s  h01
= (1.10)
h02  h01
and
 T02s 
  1
T02s  T01  T01 
= = (1.11)
T02  T01  T02 
 1
 T01 

For isentropic compression, pressure and temperature are related by the expression
   1
P02 T 
  02s 
P01  T01 
or (1.12)
(  1) / 
T02s P 
  02 
T01  P01 
Hence equation 1.11 can be rearranged as

 c is 
P02 P01  1   1
(1.13)
T02 T01   1
Transposing equation 1.13 gives

T02 P P 
 1 02 01
 1 
1
(1.14)
T01  is

T02
Therefore substituting  1 in equation 1.7 gives
T01

-Ẇc 
 ma . c p a . T01 P02 P01 
 1 

 1 / c is (1.15)
Where ma is mass of air and cpa is specific heat capacity at constant pressure of air.
The negative sign results purely from the thermodynamic sign convention of work done by
the system being considered positive while work done on the system is negative.

Turbine Isentropic Efficiency

Figure 1.3: h-s Diagram for a turbine

The isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as the actual work output dived by that
obtained from the reversible (isentropic) expansion between the same two pressures as in
Figure 1.3
t-is = Actual enthalpy drop (work) (1.16)
Isentropic enthalpy drop (work)

h03  h04
= (1.17)
h03  h04S

T03  T04
= (1.18)
T03  T04S

Where subscript 3 and 4 represents turbine inlet and outlet respectively,

For isentropic expansion, pressure and temperature are related by
    1
P03 T 
  03 
P04  T04  (1.19)

Hence equation 1.18 becomes

T03  T04 T03  T04


ηt-is =
T03 1  T04s T03  
T03 1  P04 P03 
 1 / 
 (1.20)

1  T04 T03 
= (1.21)
1  P04 P03 
 1 / 

1  T04/ T03   1  P04 / P03 

 1/ 
. t is (1.22)

Similarly the turbine power Ẇt is expressed as

Ẇt = mg . cpg. (T03 - T04) (1.23)

= mg . cpg. T03 (1 - T04/T03) (1.24)

Substituting equation (1.22) into equation (1.24)

Then the turbine power is

 1 
  P4  
Ẇt  mg .t is . c pg . T03 1     (1.25)
  P03  

Where
mg and cpg are mass and specific heat capacity of exhaust gas respectively it is assume
that air = gas,
Clearly no use can be made of the kinetic energy leaving a turbocharger turbine; it goes
to waste through the exhaust pipe. Hence a more relevant isentropic efficiency should
be based on the static exit temperature (T4) and pressure (P4). Hence in equations (1.25) –
(1.27) PO4 becomes P4

At equilibrium when
Ẇc = m Ẇt
Ẇ
We have
( 1) / 
   P4  
  m t is mg c pg T03 1     (1.26)
  P03  
Equation 1.21 can be written as
  m   C   T  P P   1 /   1
 m  t is  c is   a   pa   01  02 01
  (1.27)
 m g   C pa   T03  1  P4 P03 
  1 / 

The term  m t is cis is called the overall turbocharger efficiency tc

m
 tc   a    
  C pg   T01  P02 P01   1 /   1  (1.28)
  C   T  1  P P   1 / 
 mg   pa   03  4 03

The boost pressure ratio can be estimated from the equation:

  1 /    1 / 
 P02  C pg T03   P4  
   1   c is t is  m . . 1     (1.29)
 P01  C pa T01   P03  

1.3 Performance Characteristics of Compressors.
It is conventional but not universal to plot compressor characteristics in terms of pressure
ratio against mass flow parameters ṁ√(TO1/PO1) for lines of constant speed parameter (N√(TO1)
as in figure 1.4. In addition contours of constant isentropic efficiency are superimposed. The
important features of centrifugal and axial compressors characteristics are similar.

Figure 1.4 A typical compressor characteristics

The turbocharger compressor characteristic map shown in Figure 1.4 is given by plotting a
P02 m T01 N
graph of vs showing lines of constant speed and efficiency is .
P01 P01 T01

The mass flow rate of air is expressed as:

ma   a . Va (1.31)
  a . Vs . N . K . S .
The performance characteristics of a centrifugal compressor are limited by surge or choking.
For turbocharging the widest stable operating range is of paramount importance. The
mechanism of surge and choking are subjects of continued research.
The high efficiency and stable operating zone falls at the middle of the map and it is
bounded by surge line on the left which is low mass flow zone and on the right of the map is
the low efficiency and high rotational speed (high mass flow) zone. It also shows constant
efficiency lines which run parallel with the surge line. A compressor must not be operated in
the region of low flow rate where surge prevails. The surge line drawn by the turbocharger
manufacturer is only a guide and in practice surge can be induced by other factors.

Surge

This is an oscillation of the total gas flow in the compressor and the delivery system. During
the surge cycle, the gas flows up and down its pressure-mass flow characteristics. It is
generally accepted that surge is caused by the shape of the compressor characteristics in
relation to the system characteristics. If the slope of the system characteristics is greater than
the positive slope of the compressor characteristics, the flow is still inherently stable at least
for compressible flow.

Choking

When gas flow reaches sonic velocity at some cross section in the flow passages, the stage
chokes. If the relevant section is in a stationary component, e. g the diffuser, the stage will
not handle greater mass flow if either the speed is raised or the back pressure is reduced.
When choking occurs in a rotating channel e.g. the inducer, the stage will handle a grater
flow only if its rotational speed is increased. Familiarity with these phenomena is necessary
as it helps to identify the factors which limit the performance of a compressor.
The area of high rotational speed and low efficiency is as a result of choking of the limiting
flow area in the compressor. Extra mass of air can only be achieved by increasing rotational
speed which must be limited by stress constraint. If the diffuser chokes rather than the rotor,
then compressor speed eventually rises substantially with little increase in airflow.

Performance Characteristics of Turbines

`
Figure 1.5 Axial flow turbine characteristics Figure 1.6 Radial flow turbine characteristics
An axial flow turbine characteristics based on the same pressure ratio against the mass flow
parameters is shown in Figure 1.5. The most evidence figure is the way that the lines of
constant speed parameters (N/√𝑇03 ) converge to a single line of almost constant mass flow
parameter. This mass flow limit is caused by the gas reaching sonic velocity in the turbine
stator nozzle blades or inlet casing. This choked flow will remain constant (unless the inlet
temperature increases) regardless of the rotational speed of the turbine. In the case of the
radial flow turbine, due to the centrifugal field created by the rotor, there is a noticeable
spread of the constant speed parameters for choked flow conditions shown in Figure 1.6
Since the operational area of the turbine occupies such a restricted area on the pressure
ratio/mass flow parameter map, it becomes simpler to present efficiency on a separate
diagram; it is conventional to plot efficiency against velocity ratio (blade speed ratio). This
id the blade speed (at mean height ) in the case of axial flow turbine or the wheel tip speed in
the case of the radial flow turbine, divided by the velocity equivalent of the isentropic
enthalpy drop across the turbine stage.

1.4 Turbocharger Intercooler

The temperature and pressure of fresh air become higher after compression by the
compressor. If the intercooler inlet temperature is equal to the outlet temperature of the
compressor and the intercooler outlet temperature is equal to the temperature of the intake
manifold, the intercooler can be modelled using the heat exchanger efficiency as:

𝑇𝑖𝑚 = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 (1 − 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 ) + 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1.32)

Where: Tim and Tcoolant are temperatures of intake manifold and coolant respectively, and
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 is the intercooler efficiency. The pressure drop in the intercooler is so small that this it
is assumed that the intercooler inlet pressure is equal to outlet pressure.
Examples

3.1 A six-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine of bore 75 mm and stroke 100 mm, has a
brake power output of 110 kW at 3500 rev/min. The volumetric efficiency is 80% at
this operating condition referred to ambient conditions of 1.013 bar and 20 o C and cp
= 1.005. The engine is now fitted with a mechanically driven supercharger which
version has an isentropic efficiency of 0.7 and a pressure ratio of 1.6. The
supercharged version has a volumetric efficiency of 100% referred to the
supercharger delivery pressure and temperature. If indicated brake mean effective
pressure is 0.25 bar during supercharging, calculate
(a) the indicated power and
(b) the net increase in brake power to be expected from the supercharged engine.

Take the mechanical efficiency of the engine as 80% in both cases and the mechanical
efficiency of the drive from the engine to supercharger as 95%

Solution

The power Wi per unit volume flow rate of air induced is to be the same for both
supercharged and naturally aspirated cases, hence
For the naturally aspirated case: Wi = 110/.8 = 137.5 kW
 And the induced volume of air, Va = 0.8Vs m3/min
Wi
Therefore the ratio = 137.5/ 0.8Vs
Va
For the supercharged case

Ẇi = PiLANK
 
 0.25  100    0.75  0.1  3500 / 60  6 
2 1
4  2
= 192.5 Kw
P
Since Pv = mRT and  
RT
The mass flow rate of air is expressed as:
ma   a . Va
  a . Vs. N . K . S . v
The volume induced at ambient state is
 
Va    0.752  0.1  3500 / 60  6   1
1
4  2
= 7.7 m3/sec
Hence
7.7  1.013 10 5
ma = = 9.275 kg/min
287  293
The power input to supercharger is:

-Ẇc 
 m . c p . T01 P02 P01 
 1 
 1 /is
Considering the mechanical efficiency from the drive to the supercharger

- Ẇc  9.275 / 60 x . 1.005.x 293 1.6
0.285

 1 / 0.7  0.95

- Ẇc  45.5x0.1439 / 0.7  0.95 = 9.849kW

Therefore, net power developed = 192.5/.8 – 9.849 = 182.65 kW

i.e. Net increase in power = 182.65 – 110 = 72.65 kW

3.2 An eight-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine of 229 mm bore, 304 mm stroke, and
compression ratio 14:1 has an output power of 375 kW at 750rev/min. The volumetric
efficiency is 78 %, the mechanical efficiency is 90%, and the air-fuel ratio is 25: 1. If
the indicated mean effective pressure for the pumping loop is 0.345 bar, calculate the
indicated mean effective pressure for the working loop.
The engine is now fitted with an exhaust driven turbo-blower which delivers air to
the cylinders at 1.43 bar. The compression ratio is reduced to 13:1 and the measured
volumetric efficiency is 102%. It can be assumed that the exhaust pressure remains
constant and equal to 1.013 bar, and that the indicated mean effective pressure of the
loop is directly proportional to the mass of air induced. Calculate the brake power
which can be expected if the speed and mechanical efficiency remain constant.
Compare the specific fuel consumption for the two cases, if the air-fuel ratio for the
turbocharged engine is 26.8:1. The ambient condition of the air is 1.013 bar and 15oC.
Solution
For the naturally aspirated engine:
375  100  2  60  4
Pb  = 5.99 bar
0.229 2  0.304  750  8  10 5

Pi (net) = 5.99/0.9 = 6.656 bar, Pi (gross) = 6.656 + 0.345 = 7 bar

For turbocharged engine
ma turboch arg ed  102
  1.308
ma nat.aspirated  78
Pi for the power loop = 1.308 x 6.656 = 8.706 bar
Pi for pumping loop = 1.43 - 1.013 = 0.417 bar
Therefore, Pi (net) = 8.706 - 0.417 , and, Pb = 0.9 x 9.123 = 8.211 bar

8.211  375
Then brake power (bp) =  514 kW
5.99
The un-supercharged:
The mass flow rate of air is = 1.013 10  0.78    0.229  0.304  8  375
5 2
= 35.91 kg/min
4  287  288

Hence the mass flow rate of fuel is = 35.91/25

= 1.436 kg/min
i.e specific fuel consumption = 1.436 x 60/375 = 0.23 kg/kW h
For the supercharged case
Mass flow rate of air = 35.91 x 1.308 =46.97 kg/min
And mass flow rate of fuel = 46.97/26.8= 1.753

Hence, Specific fuel consumption = 1.753 x 60/514 = 0.205 kg/kW h

Problems
3.1 A diesel engine is to be fitted with an exhaust driven turbocharger having a single
sided, single radial flow compressor capable of maintaining a manifold stagnation
pressure of 3 bar with ambient condition of 1.016 bar, 200 C when supplying air at the
rate of 10 kg/sec and engine speed of 300 rev/min. The overall stagnation isentropic
efficiency being 76% and the axial velocity of the air at the impeller inlet is to be 150
m/ses with the radial component of the air velocity at the impeller outlet being 0.95 of
this figure.
Calculate:
(a) The power required to drive the compressor,
(b) The impeller outside diameter,
(c) The area of the inlet annulus (or eye) of the impeller,
(d) The axial depth of the impeller channel at the periphery.
Take power input factor  = 1.04 and slip factor  = 0.9
For air  = 1.4 R = 0.287 kJ/kg K cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
Assume
(i) Negligible resistance to the air in the compressor intake,
(ii) No pre-whirl of air entering the impeller,
(iii) The losses are equally divided between the impeller and diffuser.
1.3 Inlet & Exhaust Manifold

The intake and exhaust manifold have the same modelling assumption and method,
Neglecting the effects of heat transfer in the intake manifold and assuming the mass flow in
the intake manifold is kept constant, the temperature of the intake manifold Tim is not
changed. According to the first law of thermodynamics and the ideal gas law, the pressure of
the intake manifold can be modelled as follows:
𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚 𝑅𝑎
𝑝 = (𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 − 𝑚̇𝑎 ) (1.33)
𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑚 𝑉𝑖𝑚

Where: Vim is the intake manifold volume, 𝑚̇𝑎 the air mass flow into the cylinder, and Ra
ideal gas constant.
1.4 Air Mass into the Cylinder
The air mass flow into cylinder .ma can be modelled using volumetric efficiency, given by:
𝐷 𝑒 𝑖𝑚 𝑉 𝑛 𝑝
𝑚𝑎 = 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 (𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑚 ) 120𝑅𝑇 (1.34)
𝑖𝑚

Where:
VD is the engine displacement volume, ne is the engine speed, and 𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 is the volumetric
efficiency which is a tuning parameter that can be modelled as follows:

𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 √𝑝𝑖𝑚 + 𝑐2 √𝑛𝑒 (1.35)

The amount of fuel metered by the injection valve is proportional to the square root of the
pressure over the valve and the opening time. The fuel injector is opened once each cycle, so
the fuel delivery per cycle per cylinder, mcyc can be modelled as follows:

𝑚𝑐𝑦𝑐 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑓 (𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑡0 ) (1.36)

In which Cf is a tuning parameter including the influence of pressure and other factors, tinj is
the injection duration, t0 is depended by the opening and closing times of the injector valve.
The fuel mass flow is given by:
10−6
̇ 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑐𝑦𝑐 𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙 (1.37)
120

In which ncyl is the number of cylinders and 𝑛𝑒 engine speed.

 SECTION 2

DIESEL ENGINES COMBUSTION MODELS

2.1 The two zone model

The present two zone model of a direct injection (DI) diesel engine divides the cylinder
contents into a non-burning zone of air and another homogeneous zone in which fuel is
continuously supplied from the injector and burned with entrained air from the air zone. The
growth of the fuel spray zone, which comprises a number of fuel-air conical jets equal to the
injector nozzle holes, is carefully modelled by incorporating jet mixing, thus determining the
amount of oxygen available for combustion. The mass, energy and state equations are applied
in each of the two zones to yield local temperatures and cylinder pressure histories.

Figure 2.1 (a) Fuel Injection Figure 2.1(b) Flame propagation

Showing Zone 1 and Zone 2

The model includes only the processes occurring during the closed cycle when all valves are
closed. It incorporates the main processes taking place in the cylinder i.e. the in-cylinder air
motion, fuel spray development and mixing spray impingement on the walls, turbulent heat
transfer and the chemistry of combustion. The evaporation of droplets and the fuel ignition
delay are implicitly taken into account through the combustion of sub-model. The main
calculation procedure is based on the integration of the first law of thermodynamics and the
perfect gas state equation combined with the various sub-model for each zone separately.
During compression, only one zone (of pure air) exists. Then the first law of
thermodynamics for a closed system is applied together with the perfect gas state equation as

dQ = dE + pdV (2.1)
𝝆.V = m(Rmol Mch)T (2.2)

Where dQ = is the heat loss to the chamber wall, mch the charge molecular weight and V the
instantaneous cylinder volume given by

V = Vcl + (𝜋𝐷 2 /4)r[1 + 𝜆−1 − cosφ − ( 𝜆−2 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 φ)1/2 ] (2.3)

Where Vcl is the cylinder clearance volume and λ the crank radius to piston rod length ratio.
During combustion and expansion depending on the number of injection nozzle holes, an
equal number of sprays constitute the entire burning zone. In this case apart from the perfect
gas state equation, the first law of thermodynamic for an open system is applied for each
zone. For the surrounding air zone, which only loses mass of air to the burning zone, the first
law is written as
dQ = dE + pdV + hadma (2.4)

While for the burning zone, which gain mass of air from the air zone and also an enthalpy
flow from the fuel ready to be burned in the time step the first law becomes

dQ = dE + pdV – hadma − hfdmf (2.5)

The concentration of the various constituents in the exhaust gases are calculated by adopting
a chemical equilibrium scheme for the C–H–O system of the a given number of species
considered, together with chemical rate equations for the calculation of nitric oxide (NO).

2.2 Multi – zone combustion model

The semi-empirical model is used for calculating the rate of combustion. The fuel is injected
in liquid form as nearly conical jets into the engine cylinder, forming the burning zone.
However, before it can be burned, it must first be heated, evaporated and mixed with a
sufficient quantity of air entrained from the air zone via a diffusion process. These two
physical processes are referred to collectively as preparation. This prepared fuel is then under
the control of a chemical process and may be burned (reacted) at a rate governed by a
chemical kinetics equation.

Figure 2.2 Fuel droplets in phase-divided spray mixing model

A quasi-dimensional combustion model of diesel engine is the spray mixing model as shown
in Figure 2.2 Currently, various spray mixing models have been proposed and the
representative models among them are the fuel droplets evaporation model, the transient
gaseous flow model and the two-phase flow evaporation model In the fuel droplets
evaporation model, Combustion is assumed to be controlled by evaporation rate. Therefore,
atomization process as well as evaporation process of fuel droplets is taken into account.
Since the spray is divided into a large number of zones as shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4, the
evaporation rate of fuel droplets have to be calculated in each time step, the calculation with
the fuel droplets evaporation model is time consuming.
Figure 2. 3 Stages of fuel spray atomisation/mixing and combustion

Figure 2.4 Multi-zone concepts of spray and surrounding air

Figure 2.5 Spray mixing model

 Experimental results had shown that the fuel injected into combustion chamber
experienced two phases: the fuel droplets and the gaseous fuel–air mixture. The fuel droplets
only exist around the nozzle. With the evaporation of the fuel droplets and the diffusion of
spray, the fuel droplets become gaseous in short time and the fuel–air mixture is formed.
Based on this experimental phenomenon, a phase-divided spray mixing model is developed
in this work. In the model, the fuel in combustion zones is in liquid phase during break-up
period and turns to gaseous phase after break-up time. The air begins to entrain into the
combustion zones after break-up time and the two-dimensional flow is simplified as a one-
dimensional flow. The following basic assumptions are included in the phase-divided spray
mixing model:
In the two-phase flow evaporation model, the evaporation of the fuel droplets is
considered while the movement between the fuel droplets and entrained air is neglected. It is
assumed the fuel injected from the nozzle at each calculation time step becomes
approximated iso-concentration after some time. With the above assumption, the iso-
concentration line is substituted by the iso-chrone line and the two-dimensional flow is
simplified into a one-dimensional flow. But the model is still complex for fuel droplets
evaporation computation although the spray mixing process has been simplified.

Air zone

Combustion zone

Figure 2.6 Combustion and air zones in the combustion chamber

(1) The combustion chamber is divided into an air zone A and many combustion zones Bi
which are made up of the fuel injected into combustion chamber, the fresh air entrained into
the zone and the burning products at each calculation time step. The number of combustion
zones equals the number of time step during fuel injection period.

(2) During break-up period, the injected fuel atomizes and evaporates. No fresh air is
entrained into combustion zones in this period, and air entrainment is assumed to start after
break-up time. The fuel–air mixture becomes iso-concentration after break-up time, and the
two-dimensional flow is simplified as a one-dimensional flow.

(3) The amount of air entrained into the combustion zone is calculated based on the fuel
momentum when it is injected and the momentum remains the same during mixing process.

(4) Fuel mixes with entrained air according to the stoichiometric fuel–air ratio in combustion
zones, and partial burning is neglected here.
2.4 Air entrainment calculation
The amount of air entrainment is calculated in accordance with the momentum conservation
principle as follows
𝑚𝑓 𝑢𝑜𝑖 = (𝑚𝑓𝑖 + 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑢𝑗 (2.1)

Where :
2.(𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑗 −𝑝𝑎 )
𝑢𝑜𝑖 = 0.39√ (2.1)
𝜌1

𝑢𝑗 = 0.584. 𝑢𝑐𝑗

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖(𝑗−1) + ∆𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑗

When combustion starts in a mixing zone, there is a reduction of the air entrainment quantity
in the model. The air entrained into a burning mixing zone is given by

∆𝑚′𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑐𝑎 . ∆𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑗 (2.2)

2.5 Fuel Burnt Rate

The rate of burning of the injected fuel can be estimated as

𝐾 𝑃′02 𝐸𝑎
𝐹𝐵𝑅 = 𝑁 𝑥 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) ∫(𝐹𝑃𝑅 − 𝐹𝐵𝑅)𝑑𝜃 (2.3)
√𝑇 𝑇

Considering the changes of pressure and temperature in combustion zone, the following
condition is specified
𝜏 1
𝑡𝑖𝑔 = ∫0 1 𝜏 𝑑𝜑 (2.5)
When tit ≥ 1, the spray mixture is ignited.

2.6 Heat transfer calculation

The heat transfer quantity of one combustion zone is proportional to the product of zonal
mass quantity and its temperature:
𝑑𝑄𝑤𝑘 𝑚𝑘 𝑇𝑘 𝑑𝑄𝑤
= ∑
(2.6)
𝑑𝜑 𝑚 𝑇 +𝑚 𝑇 𝑑𝜑 𝐵𝑖 𝐵𝑖 𝐴 𝐴

Where k = Bi = A

2.7 Thermodynamics calculation

In the quasi-dimensional combustion model of diesel engine, the cylinder pressure

distribution is assumed homogeneous and the properties within each combustion zone are
considered uniform. The following equations are solved iteratively to get the pressure,
temperature and mass quantity for each zone.
Fuel mixing zone

𝑑(𝑚𝐵𝑖 𝑢𝐵𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑄𝑤𝐵𝑖 𝑑𝑄𝑚𝑓𝐵𝑖 𝑑𝑉𝐵𝑖 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝐵𝑖

= + −𝑝 + ℎ𝑎 (2.7)
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑
 𝑑𝑚𝐵𝑖 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝐵𝑖
= (2.8)
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑

𝑃𝑉𝐵𝑖 = 𝑚𝐵𝑖 𝑅𝐵𝑖 𝑇𝐵𝑖 (2.9)

Air zone
𝑑(𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 ) 𝑑𝑄𝑤𝐴 𝑑𝑉𝐴 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝐴
= −𝑝 − ℎ𝑎 (2.10)
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑

𝑑𝑚𝐴 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝐵𝑖
= −∑ (2.11)
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜑

𝑃𝑉𝐴 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑅𝐴 𝑇𝐴 (2.12)

Instantaneous cylinder pressure is calculated with the volume conservation of the total
combustion chamber:

∑ 𝑉𝐵𝑖 + 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉 (2.13)

When there is a difference between the cylinder volume and the sum volume of the
combustion zones and air zone, the cylinder pressure is adjusted to eliminate the difference
until the error is less than a limit. Then the performance parameters of cylinder temperature,
volume of combustion zone are obtained. The mean temperature in cylinder is estimated
using the following equation:
∑ 𝑚 𝑐 𝑇 +𝑚 𝑐 𝑇
𝑇 = ∑𝐵𝑖𝑚 𝑣𝐵𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑖+𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝑣𝐴 𝐴 (2.14)
𝐵𝑖 𝑣𝐵𝑖 𝐴 𝑣𝐴

2.8 Analysis of rate of Reaction

Figure 2.7(a) Stages of combusion Figure 2.7 (b) Effect of varying the amount
of fuel injected on PƟ diagram
Figure 2.8 Cylinder pressure records and energy conversion rate for diesel fuel and diesel
emulsion with 10% water at 1500rev/min for a single cylinder engine

Typical “heat release” or rates of reaction diagram is shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.7. The two
diagrams were obtained using diesel fuel and diesel 10% water emulsion in a single cylinder
direct injection diesel engine. There are six significant stages in the reaction are as follows:
1. Start of Injection
2. Pressure drop immediately prior to the first combustion peak. This drop which
reduces the magnitude below zero is due to the lowering of the cylinder temperature
by the initial vaporization and is followed by a subsequent rapid increase caused by
exothermic reaction
3. Start of combustion-ignition. The first peak of the rate of reaction diagram represents
the combustion of the prepared air-fuel vapour mixture. It is evident in the figure that
combustion commences before top dead centre. The period between the start of
injection and the start of combustion (start of the first peak) is referred to as the
“ignition delay”. The total ignition delay consist of two parts:
a. Physical delay
b. Chemical delay
4. Second peak. This represents the continuing combustion of the fuel injected (and
mixed with air) during and after the premixed combustion (i.e the process represented
by the first peak)
5. End of fuel injection
6. Tail of combustion. This stage begins after the complete injection of the quantity of
fuel and completes the combustion of the remaining air-fuel mixture. It is represented
by the fall after the second peak

2. 9 Ignition delay period calculation

The ignition delay period is expressed by HARDENBERG model according to the operating
characteristics of simulation object

618840 1 1 21.2 0.63

𝜏(0 𝐶𝐴) = (0.36 + 0.22𝐶𝑚 ). 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ 𝐶𝑁+25 (𝑅𝑇 − 17190) (𝑝−12.4) ] (2.4)
One of the most significant information obtained from the rate of reaction diagram is the
ignition delay for the particular fuel under the prevailing condition. In practice is defined as
the time between the start of injection(point 1 in Figure 2.4) and the first rise in pressure
caused by combustion, that is the first deviation from the polytropic compression. During this
period preparation processes take place which is divided into the following categories:

a. Physical processes (atomization of liquid spray, vaporization of droplets and mixing

with air until a mixture capable of ignition at individual points is formed)
b. Chemical process (preliminary reaction in the ignition mixture, temperature rise and
finally self-ignition).

These processes may be partly overlap in time and take place in all the zones. The time of
ignition and therefore the ignition delay is determined by the mixture zone in which the
mixture preparation has been initially completed. The longer the ignition delay time, the
larger the premixed charge ready for combustion and the larger the rate of increase in
pressure and resultant peak pressure. The Ignition delay is influenced by many factors such as
the fuel property, operating condition, droplet size and swirl.
 SECTION 3

DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANC

3.1 Diesel Engine Type for Propulsion Service
3.1.1 Medium speed Diesel Engine

Figure 3.1 Performance diagram of a medium speed caterpillar diesel engine

There are many reasons for selection of a specific propulsion system for a particular ship,
including the size of the ship, its power relative to its draft, how many propellers are fitted,
special manoeuvrability requirements, special operating profiles and others.
When connected to the propeller through an electric drive system there is about a 10
percent loss in power delivered to the propeller. Considering these losses in power
transmission means that for the same propeller power, medium speed diesel engines must
develop about 2 percent more power in the geared design, and about 11 percent more in the
electric drive design. This increase in required power coupled with the higher SFOC for
medium-speed diesel engines may result in increased fuel consumption over the low-speed
diesel for the same power at design condition and propeller rpm.
There are many reasons for selection of a specific propulsion system for a particular
ship, including the size of the ship, its power relative to its draft, how many propellers are
fitted, special manoeuvrability requirements, special operating profiles and others. Where
fuel efficiency is the primary goal low-speed diesel engines would be the first choice since
they have the lowest specific fuel oil consumption (sfoc) of the diesel engine choices. For
low-speed diesel engines, fuel efficiency can reach up to 55 per cent in the current state of
technology. This means more than half the energy content of the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy by the low-speed diesel engine and can be directly transmitted to the
propeller
The main engine will run economically if the engine is well maintained and is run at
the rated economic rating where the Specific Fuel Oil Consumption is the least. An engine is
said to be performing well or well-maintained if it can be safely run at the rated RPM and
load. For example if an engine is having a continuous service rating of 15000 BHP at 104
RPM but cannot reach the rated RPM and is developing 15000 BHP prematurely at 98 RPM,
there is a loss of ship’s speed and a subsequent speed claim. It also tells that there is a
problem, the ship cannot give speed, it is over consuming fuel and that the engine is over
loaded. It points to either hull fouling, damaged propeller or faulty prime mover etc. In such
cases the careful study of the sea trial data, engine shop trial data and the performance curves
will help to determine the cause of the problem. For trouble shooting first the main engine
performance must be taken on a good weather day when the engine load is steady. The main
engine must be run to its rated power. Thereafter the data found must be superimposed on the
performance curves
Diesel combustion is characterized by lean overall A/F ratio. The lowest average A/F
ratio is often found at peak torque conditions. To avoid excessive smoke formation, A/F ratio
at peak torque is usually maintained above 25:1, well above the stoichiometric (chemically
correct) equivalence ratio. In turbocharged diesel engines the A/F ratio at idle may exceed
160:1. Therefore, excess air present in the cylinder after the fuel has combusted continues to
mix with burning and already burned gases throughout the combustion and expansion
processes. At the opening of the exhaust valve, excess air along with the combustion products
are exhausted, which explains the oxidizing nature of diesel exhaust. Although combustion
occurs after vaporized fuel mixes with air, forms a locally rich but combustible mixture, and
the proper ignition temperature is reached, the overall A/F ratio is lean. In other words, the
majority of the air inducted into the cylinder of a diesel engine is compressed and heated, but
never engages in the combustion process.
3.2 Low speed Diesel Engine

Diesel engine for propulsion of commercial oceangoing ships is primarily low-speed diesel
engines (RPM less than 400 and crosshead type construction) and medium-speed diesel
engines (RPM 400 to 1,400 and trunk piston construction). Smaller ships, tugs, ferries and
high-speed craft can have high-speed diesel engines (RPM over 1,400). Auxiliary engines
used to drive generators for the ship’s electrical power are most often medium-speed engines.
Where fuel efficiency is the primary goal low-speed diesel engines would be the first choice
since they have the lowest specific fuel oil consumption (sfoc) of the diesel engine choices.
For low-speed diesel engines, fuel efficiency can reach up to 55 percent in the current state of
technology. This means more than half the energy content of the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy by the low-speed diesel engine and can be directly transmitted to the
propeller. Medium-speed diesel engines have slightly higher SFOC, which means that their
efficiency is slightly lower, usually about 3 to 4 percent lower at similar power levels.
Medium-speed engines must be connected to the propeller through a speed reducing
transmission system – either a reduction gear or an electric drive system. When connected to
the propeller through a gearbox there is about a 2 percent loss in power delivered to the
propeller
During the test bed or shop trial the performance curves of the engine are plotted. The
performance curves are the graphs of different parameters on x-axis plotted against engine
power or load on the y-axis. These different plotted curves are as follows:

Figure 3.2 Performance curves obtained from engine test bed

 Engine RPM vs. Load: This curve helps in ascertaining whether main engine is
overloaded or not. A higher power generated at a lower RPM indicates an over loaded
main engine.
 Mean effective pressure vs. Load: Mean effective pressure is used to calculate power
hence these two values should co-relate. In case they don’t then there may be some error
in calculation or instrumentation.
 Maximum pressure vs. Load: This curve helps in knowing the condition of fuel injection
equipment, injection timing and the compression in the cylinder etc.
 Compression pressure vs. Load: This curve indicates the condition of the parts
maintaining compression like piston, piston rings and exhaust valves.
 Scavenge air pressure vs. Load: It indicates the condition of the turbocharger and
associated equipment.
 Exhaust gas temperature in receiver vs. Load: It indicates the enthalpy of the exhaust
gas prior to entry in turbocharger. This value compared with the value after the
turbocharger gives the temperature drop across the turbocharger, is an indicator of
turbocharger efficiency.
 Exhaust gas temperature after exhaust valve vs. Load: This curve sheds light on the
combustion, fuel injection, timing and compression etc. A higher temperature may be
caused due to after burning.
 Exhaust gas temperature after turbocharger vs. Load: This curve is very useful as it
indicates the enthalpy captured from the exhaust by the turbocharger and hence its
condition. In case the receiver temperature is within range but the outlet temperature is
higher it may indicate fouling of the turbocharger and hence the associated lower scavenge
air pressure and high exhaust gas temperature.
 Total excess air ratio vs. Load: This curve is scarcely used by ship staff and is useful for
design engineers. This curve sheds light on scavenging and the turbocharger capacity and
condition. It shows that as the power increases the excess air decreases due to
consumption.
 Specific fuel oil consumption vs. Load: This curve helps to counter check whether the
engine is consuming fuel oil correctly as per the load.

There may be other parameters listed as per manufacturer. A typical performance curve for a
slow speed two stroke marine diesel engine is given below.

.
Figure 3.3 Sea trial data superimposed to the test bed performance curve
From the above diagram the following points are inferred:

 At 75% MCR the RPM attained is lower that the sea trial.
 The average maximum cylinder pressure P max is lower than the sea trial.
 The compression pressure P comp is almost same as sea trial confirming that the running
gear like piston, piston rings and exhaust valves are ok.
 The scavenge pressure is almost normal suggesting that the turbocharger is in satisfactory
condition and the enthalpy of the exhaust gas is higher than normal for this RPM.
 Exhaust temperatures are all increased suggesting abnormal combustion, after burning or
change of timing. It may also indicate faulty fuel injection equipment.

The above example will help to understand the use of performance curves for a ship’s
engineer. After the main engine performance has been taken and plotted on the original
performance curves from the sea trial data, the problem can be found out and SFOC restored
to normal values. In this way at any stage during the life time of the ship, we can understand
why she is not performing based on plotting her parameters on the performance curves.

3.3 Effects of Operating Conditions on Engine Combustion

The combustion rate in diesel engines, as well as the rate of pressure rise, depends greatly on
the design of the combustion chamber and injection system. In practice, the design of these
elements varies widely and it is therefore more difficult to generalize trends in the type of
engine. The following effects are for general guidance.

Injection Timing
Optimum timing of the combustion process is essential in diesel engine operation. In practice,
to attain the maximum indicated mean effective pressure and maximum efficiency, the
injection timing should be adjusted to give peak pressure at about 150 after TDC.
Early or late injection gives a very high rate of pressure rise resulting in a long delay period.
The optimum injection of fuel is usually obtained at a point before TDC and few degrees
after which is followed by combustion period and power stroke.

Engine Speed
Factors such as volumetric efficiency and spray characteristics can change with engine speed.
In most cases, however, increasing engine speed has caused higher rate of pressure rise and
higher maximum pressure and this has caused difficulties in high-speed diesel engine
development. To prevent the delay angle becoming too great, fuels of high ignition quality
and reduced ignition delay are specified for high-speed engines.

Fuel-Air Ratio
No low limit on the overall AFR seems to be imposed by combustion characteristics, because
burning occurs in small elements at local fuel-air ratios within the usual combustion range..
A limit on the maximum AFR, however, is set by incomplete combustion accompanied by a
smoky exhaust; referred to as the smoke limit. This arises from an appreciable fraction of the
injected fuel that fails to find the necessary oxygen for combustion and passes out of the
cylinder as exhaust gas and unburned fuel. This is due to poor mixing and air utilisation in the
combustion chamber. One of the best measures of the quality of a diesel combustion system
is the AFR at which smoke becomes pronounced.
3.4 Engine efficiency improvements

The efficiency of diesel and gas engines ranges between 42-52%, depending on the engine
type. The peaking efficiency of 52% for the best engines is one of the highest efficiency
ratings among existing prime movers. The improvement in efficiency is becoming more
challenging as the emission requirements are getting increasingly stringent. One key success
factor in this field has been the development of integrated engine functionalities that enable
low emissions and high engine efficiency. The air and fuel admissions can be controlled by
an automated system that provides optimal combustion under all operative conditions. This
contributes to engine efficiency directly and positively.

3.5 Economical Fuel Consumption

Fuel consumption in diesel engines

Fig.3. 4 SFOC for generating set and low speed engine

Medium-speed diesel engines have slightly higher SFOC, which means that their efficiency is
slightly lower, usually about 3 to 4 per cent lower at similar power levels. Medium-speed
engines must be connected to the propeller through a speed reducing transmission system –
either a reduction gear or an electric drive system. When connected to the propeller through a
gearbox there is about a 2 per cent loss in power delivered to the propeller.

3.6 Diesel Engine Energy Efficiency Enhancements

With the high cost of fuel and the regulatory efforts to reduce harmful emissions it is
important that the engines operate in as efficient manner as practically as possible. Enhanced
efficiency can be achieved through new equipment and systems or by improved operating
procedures. In order to monitor how efficiently the engines are operating, and to see the
effects of changes in operating procedures, it is necessary to have the right equipment
installed to monitor both power output and fuel consumption. This analysis is focused on
propulsion and auxiliary power systems driven by diesel engines, since this is the most
common solution employed on ships.
3.7 Diesel Engine Type for Electric Power Generation

Electric power may be developed aboard ship by a generator attached to the main propulsion
engine or by generators driven by independent diesel engines. Whether or not the ship has a
main engine-driven generator, it will still require additional generators that are normally
driven by medium-speed or in some cases high-speed, diesel engines. Generators for AC
power are driven at a constant speed that is found by dividing 7,200 (for 60 Hz) or 6,000 (for
50 Hz) by the number of poles (only an even number of poles are used). The larger the
number of poles, results in slower generator RPM and higher costs.
Fuel efficiency of high-speed diesels is lower than medium-speed diesels, which is the
reason medium-speed diesel is preferred where practical. Large auxiliary engines driving
generators for electric drive ships would typically operate at 514.3 rpm (14 poles/60Hz) or
500 rpm (12 poles/50 Hz). Diesel engines providing power for ship service generators would
typically have speeds between 720 and 1,000 rpm, depending on the AC frequency selected

3.8 Electronic fuel Injection System

3.8.1 Unit Pump Controlled by Solenoid Valve

Figure 3.5: Unit pump system controlled by solenoid valve

With the advent of reliable microprocessors and computer controls, it is now possible to
electronically control the fuel injection timing, fuel injection quantity and, on low-speed
diesel engines, exhaust valve timing. This changes the traditional camshaft-driven fuel
injection pumps and valve hydraulic pumps to high pressure common mains or rails with
solenoid valves that are opened and closed by the electronic control system. The key to the
functioning of the electronically controlled engine is the servo hydraulic system which
powers exhaust valve operation and the fuel injection pumps.
The use of solenoid valve enhances time-oriented control of fuel quantity. To produce
minimum fuel injection quantity, extremely short shift period and accuracy can be achieved
to ensure good engine speed control. Actuation of the individual solenoid valves, engine
speed control and fuel injection limitation, are effected by a microprocessor-controlled engine
control unit. Optimal adjustment and individual cylinder fuel injection calibration and
injection timing are thus possible with the injection period being specified and realized for
each injection phase. Individual cylinder cut-out control is performed by the electronic
control unit.
With cam-controlled injection systems, the injection pressure is dependent on the pump
speed and the amount of fuel injected. For engines with high BMEPs in the lower speed and
low load ranges, this characteristic is disadvantageous to the automation process as the
injection pressure drops rapidly. Adjusting the injection timing also influences the in-system
pressure build-up, e.g. if timing is advanced, the solenoid valve closes earlier, fuel
compression starts at a lower speed thus leading to lower injection pressures which in turn is
detrimental to mixture preparation. Thus to achieve higher injection pressures extremely
steep cam configurations are required. Hence while the solenoid valve-controlled system has
a number of advantages, it retains some of the disadvantages of the conventional system.

3.8.2 Common Rail Injection System (CRIS)

Figure 3.6: Common rail injection systems for a 16V engine

Actuation of the individual solenoid valves, engine speed control and fuel injection
limitation, are effected by a microprocessor-controlled engine control unit-Figure 1.8,Optimal
adjustment and individual cylinder fuel injection calibration and injection timing are thus
possible with the injection period being specified and realized for each injection phase. Each
cylinder cut-out control is done by the electronic control unit
With the CRIS – Figure 3.6 for a 16-cylinder, Vee engine, the high pressure pump
delivers fuel to the rail which is common to all cylinders. Each injector is actuated in
sequence by the ECU as a function of the crank angle. The injector opens when energized
and closes when de-energized. The amount of fuel injected per cycle is determined by the
time differential and the in-system pressure. The actual in-system pressure is transmitted to
the control unit via a pressure sensor and the rail pressure is regulated by the ECU via the
actuator in the fuel supply to the high pressure pump.
With this system the injector incorporates several functions. The nozzle needle is
relieved by a solenoid value and thus opened by the fuel pressure. The amount of fuel
injected during the ignition delay period is regulated by the nozzle opening speed. After the
control valve is de-energised and additionally hydraulic valve is activated which ensures
rapid closure of the nozzle needle and, therefore, minimum smoke index. With this servo-
assisted injector, the opening and closing characteristics can be adjusted individually.
The rail system is required to supply all injectors with fuel at an identical pressure and its
design is based on criteria such as minimum fuel injection quantity deviations between
cylinders, faster pressure build-up after start and minimum pressure loss from the rail to the
nozzle sac. With the common rail injection system the ECU determines the engine speed and
calculates the amount of fuel to be injected, based on the difference between actual and pre-
set engine speed. The individual injectors are energised as a function of crankshaft angle and
firing order. Control of the common rail in-system pressure is also by the ECU. The
advantage inherent to the solenoid valve-controlled injection system, as regards speed control
due to the improved actuator dynamic, can be applied to same extent as common rail system.
In the common rail fuel injection, the complete system is permanently subjected to
extremely high pressure and its regulation is very effective. In the event of the failure of a
single injector the engine is protected in that the injector is cut-off from the fuel supply by the
fuel stop valve and no fuel can enter the combustion chamber. The engine can, however, still
be operated at reduced power

Figure 3.7: Reduction of SFOC due to electronic engine control

Fig. 2.3 shows a comparison of SFOC between a conventional engine (camshaft control of
injection) and an electronically controlled engine, also referred to as a common rail engine
since the fuel is supplied to the injectors from a high-pressure common rail (pipe) along the
side of the engine. The enhanced fuel efficiency at low and medium loads is due to better
control over the injection and exhaust valve timing.
Electronically controlled engines can meet the MARPOL Annex VI Tier II NOx
requirements with greater ease. It should be noted that methods that reduce SFOC by
increasing compression and temperatures in the cylinder will increase NOx levels, so
conventional Tier II compliant engines have a higher SFOC to achieve the required weighted
NOx levels across the power spectrum. With electronic control it is possible to reduce NOx at
lower power levels, making it possible to achieve lower overall SFOC while still remaining
within the weighted NOx levels required for Tier II compliance. This is the primary reason
that lower overall SFOC can be achieved for Tier II electronically controlled engines.
3.9 Sequential turbocharging

For electronically controlled engines special exhaust gas and turbocharger control equipment
can be installed on some low-speed diesel engines that will reduce SFOC at low to medium
loads. This can be important for ships that will be operating consistently at less than full
speed to achieve lower fuel consumption or to suit service requirements. To achieve this
reduction requires special turbochargers. The research and development of two-stage
turbocharging is another important part of aiming to achieve goals in environmentally sound
solutions of engine fuel efficiency development.

Figure 3.8: sequential turbocharging

The system can be tuned for partial load operation (65 to 85 percent MCR) or low load
operation (about 50 to 65 percent MCR).SFOC reductions of 2 to 4 g/kWh are possible.
Action taken to lower SFOC will normally result in higher NOx (higher cylinder pressures
and temperatures lower SFOC, but raise NOx) so Tier II NOx requirements limit possible
SFOC reductions. . The overall SFOC decrease available from the use of the special
turbocharging optimization methods is about 3 percent at low to medium loads.

3.9.1 The options for turbocharger optimization at partial and low loads are as
follows:
(a) Exhaust Gas Bypass (EGB) and Recirculation (EGR)

Engine tuning works with the principle to optimize the turbocharging system on lower engine
loads. With the EGB system a smaller MAN turbocharger is used to have higher efficiencies
at lower engine loads. To enable operation in high engine loads the turbocharger needs to be
saved of over speeding and therefore some exhaust gas will be bypassed beyond the
turbocharger.
Figure 3.9: Schematic diagram for exhaust gas Bypass

(b) Variable Turbocharger-Area (VTA for MAN)

VTA technology enables the quantity of charge air to be more precisely matched to the
quantity of fuel injected, encouraging reduced specific fuel consumption, and emissions,
along with improved dynamic behaviour of the engine turbocharger system.

Figure 3.10: Turbocharger VTA Geometry: Image courtesy of MAN Diesel & Turbo

Basically, a nozzle ring equipped with adjustable vanes replaces the fixed vane ring used in
standard turbochargers, making it possible to increase or decrease the pressure level in the
engine by changing the pitch of the guide vanes. Figure 3.10 shows the main components.
Changing the pitch of the vanes regulates the pressure of the exhaust gases coming to bear
on the turbine. When the blow-through area is reduced in size by the variable vane geometry,
the speed of the inlet flow to the turbine is increased, which in turn increases the turbocharger
speed, leading to an increase of the compressor-side charge pressure. With the development
of VTA technology ("Variable Turbine Area"), MAN Diesel & Turbo has set new standards
in boosting the efficiency of turbochargers.
 Figure 3.11: Effect of Variable Turbocharger-Area (VTA) MAN B& W on SFOC

The volume of charge air can be precisely matched to the quantity of injected fuel at all
points in an engine‘s load and speed range. The result is reduced specific fuel oil
consumption, reduced emissions HC and CO2 and improved engine response. VTA can be
applied with low load or part load optimization. Fuel Savings up to 5g/kWh can be achieved..

Figure 3.11: Effect of Variable Turbocharger-Area (VTA) MAN B& W on SFOC

in relation to EEDI

3.10 Marine Diesel Engine & Turbocharger Matching

For an engine to be turbocharged, the flow characteristics of the compressor and the turbine
of the turbocharger are chosen such that the turbocharger is not mismatched to the engine
over the whole operating range. Efficiency, good compressor and turbine aerodynamic
performance and low inertia of rotating components are some of the factors that would
enhance the turbocharger matching.
3.10.1 Turbocharger - Engine Matching

In the overall matching sequence of the turbocharger and the engine, the matching of the
components is examined. The turbo-charging system will affect the engine through the boost
pressure, temperature in the inlet manifold, back pressure and temperature level in the
exhaust manifold. The effect of back pressure will depend if the engine is a four or two-
stroke cycle type. In practice, the charge air and exhaust gas flows are unsteady but in
calculation for the matching a steady flow will be assumed. The dimension of a turbocharger
will be determined by the air demand of the engine which is a function of cylinders volume,
rotational speed, charge air density, pressure differential between intake and exhaust
manifolds during valve overlap and volumetric efficiency.

3.10.2 Engine-Compressor Matching

Figure 3.12 gives a matching point for the compressor and the turbine. Clearly if the
matching for all the points on the compressor characteristics covered by the engine was to be
observed, the above procedure would have to be repeated several times. The resulting values
of exhaust flow rates, pressure and temperature give the matching points between the engine
and the turbine. The radial flow compressor and axial flow turbine which are mounted on a
common shaft rotate at a common speed. Since turbochargers are designed to operate under
steady flow conditions, the basic principle in design aspect would be to match the impeller of
the compressor to the turbine wheel and allow the turbine to operate at its peak efficiency.

Figure 3.12: Superimposition of engine running lines on compressor map:

propeller law, two-stroke engine.

The match between compressor and the engine is usually obtained graphically by plotting a
calculated mass flow rate of the engine charge air against boost pressure ratio for various
values of engine speed and load by superimposing the engine operational line on the
compressor map supplied by the manufacturers. The air flow characteristic will depend on
the following factors:
(a) Four or two stroke engine
(b) If the engine is direct or geared drive
(c) Fixed or controllable pitch propeller
(d) Constant or variable speed/load
(e) After cooled or non-after cooled charge air.
 For a two-stroke engine using fixed pitch propeller, a pulse turbocharged uniflow
scavenged engine is ideal for matching. The power required by the propeller will mainly be
governed by the propeller law and if the engine is matched at the rated speed, the operational
line will fall around the middle of the compressors map in a similar manner to the four-stroke
cycle engine. The air flow characteristics will be affected by valve timing for scavenge period
and valve overlap. Generally for two-stroke engine, only pulse turbocharged uniflow
scavenged type, operate without a scavenge pump in addition to the turbocharger over the
complete operating range required. This class includes the very large opposed piston and
valve fitted in cylinder cover.
To ensure that the engine does not stall at low load and speed, a scavenge pump must
supply sufficient air to raise the inlet manifold pressure above that of the exhaust. If the
turbocharger compressor proceeds the scavenge pump, then the air flow characteristics
obtained from the compressor map at low speeds will be highly dependent on the capacity of
the scavenge pump. Hence a range of air flow requirement curve for the engine would be
plotted on the compressor map. At low speeds the air flow will depend principally on the
scavenge pump speed but at higher speeds, the influence of the compressor will significantly
affect air flow by increasing the charge density at entry to engine inlet manifold.

3.10.3 Fixed or Controllable Pitch Propeller

The required power/speed characteristics of the marine engine are governed by the
performance of the propeller, and will therefore depend on whether a fixed or variable pitch
propeller is used.

The characteristics of the fixed pitch propeller are such that the power requirement the power
output increases with the cube of the rotational speed of the engine (the well knows propeller
law) which is expressed as:

Ẇc  N 3 or BMEP  N 2 (3.44)

Hence boost pressure will increase with engine speed as well as with load. The flow
characteristic of the turbine which Figure 3.16 shows is such that the expansion ratio
increases with air flow as hence engine speed. The torque developed by the turbine is a
function of expansion ratio and To3 if turbine efficiency is constant, since

. C pg .  t . m g
Tq 
W
2N
 1  P1 P3 
g  1 / g
 T
03

2N
(3.45)

This will give rise to an increase in torque and boost pressure with engine speed. For a
four-stroke cycle engine, the turbine will be matched to produce maximum engine power
output within the thermal and mechanical stress limits. During the matching specific fuel
consumption, exhaust temperatures and emissions will be carefully monitored.
 The Four- stroke Engine with Fixed Pitch propeller

Figure 3.11 Compressor match for a four-stroke engine with fixed pitch propeller

Figure 3.11 illustrates a typical operating line on the compressor characteristic for fixed pitch
propeller operation of a four-stroke engine. Two important facts are clear . Firstly if the
turbocharger is correctly matched, the compressor is working in an area of reasonably high
efficiency at all engine speeds and loads. If highly rated, the surge margin will be governed
by the mid-speed performance due to operarion away from surge line. When matching at full
speed the turbine will be matched to produce maximum engine power output subject to
thermal and mechanical limits.

Four- stroke engine with variable pitch propeller

Figure 3.12: Propeller law power curves with a variable pitch propeller
 Figure 3.13: Compressor matching with a variable pitch propeller

A much broader power/speed requirement is obtained from a variable pitch propeller. At

each pitch setting, the propeller law will apply and hence the characteristic will be an
envelope of propeller law curves. Figure 3.12 shows how the power curve of the engine will
cut across an 'extreme pitch' curve if the propeller is matched to require full engine power at
its rated speed at optimum pitch. Lines 1-2 and 5 - 4 denote minimum and maximum engine
speeds. When plotting the resultant operating regime on the compressor map as shown in
Figure 3.13, it can be seen that it is the 'extreme pitch' curve that determines the surge
margin, not the maximum speed point (4). The engine can still be matched for optimum
performance at full speed, but the compressor will have to be chosen to allow line 2-3 to be
well clear of surge. This may result in a small penalty in performance at point 4.
 SECTION 4

MARINE OIL POLLUTION CLEAN-UP

4.1 Introduction

The general aspects of some recent major oil spills; of these spills, only four have shown
extensive spill of much of the areas’ marine life. Three of these, West Falmouth, the Tampico
Maru incident off Baja California, and the Wake Island spill shared the common factor of a
large amount of product being discharged to a small, partially enclosed body of water.
The Torrey Canyon spill occurred in open waters. In most other spill studies, organism kill
was most common in the intertidal zone. Unfortunately, there have been numerous other
major oil spills in the last 30 years. One example is the March 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill
when the tanker ran aground on a reef, spilling 258,000 barrels (37,000 tons) of crude oil into
Alaska’s Prince William Sound. Much information is available concerning the biological
effects of this large spill.

Potential Oil Spills from submarine pipeline

The design and installation of modern submarine pipeline facilities for marine terminals
include a number of safety features to prevent oil leakage. In addition, extensive provisions
are made to minimize the volume of oil released in the event of a leak, including:

 Additional steel wall thickness on product transfer lines.

 Cathodic protection.
 Somastic coatings (or coal tar wrap).
 Concrete weight coating over somastic coatings to increase stability and provide negative
buoyancy for empty lines.
 Burial of lines in surf zone.
 Pressure safety valves.
 Submarine hoses of strength several times the operating pressures.

Even when these precautions are taken, there is still the possibility of damage to the
submarine hoses by improper handling, or to the pipeline by man-caused events (dropped
material, i.e., anchor or chain, of sufficient weight to cut lines) or natural occurrences. The
speed of the curtailment of oil released to the sea is dependent upon the rapidity with which
the ship’s or shore pumps are stopped, the vacuum pumps started, and the valves closed. The
rate at which petroleum products or crude oil could be released would vary depending upon
the extent of the pipeline incident.
The magnitude of a spill could range from a few gallons (resulting from a minor leak in
the pipeline system) to many barrels (resulting from a major pipeline fracture). The quantity
released would also depend upon pipeline operating conditions at the time of the
incident, i.e., pumps on line or on standby. The potential spillage magnitude would also vary
with the location of the pipeline incident. In submarine installations, the sea water (being of
higher specific gravity than fuel oil) would seal off the oil in the sector of pipeline above
(upslope) the leak. In the sector of the line below (downslope) the leak, water would slowly
enter the pipe, displacing the crude oil or product. Potential spills volumes for offshore spills
are categorized by the National Oil Spill Contingency Plan as follows:
Minor Spill - discharge of oil less than 10,000 gals (238 bbl*);

Moderate Spill - discharge of oil of 10,000 to 100,000 gals (238 to 2,380 bbl); and
 Major Spill - discharge of oil of more than 100,000 gals (2,380 bbl).
Based on 42 gal/bbl
Pipelines are by far the most common method of transporting crude oil and petroleum
products in the United States. The possibility of a crude oil and/or petroleum product spillage
could occur at any point along submarine pipelines.

FPSO operation

Worst environmental disasters: the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico
BP has spent more than $14 billion on cleanup activities and 70 million personnel hours in
response to the catastrophic oil spill that occurred on April 20th, 2010, after an explosion on
the Deepwater Horizon oil rig killed 11 workers and created a fireball able to be seen 35
miles away. The fire could not be extinguished, resulting in the rig sinking two days later,
creating the largest oil spill in American history.

The leaking well on the sea floor spewed an estimated 172 million gallons of crude into the
Gulf, fouling beaches, killing wildlife and shutting vast areas to commercial fishing. After
several failed attempts, BP finally capped the well on July 15, 2010, halting the flow of oil
after more than 85 days. In its announcement today, BP stated that in 2010, at the peak of its
cleanup effort, more than 48,000 people were involved.

Operational activity has also ended on 4,272 of the 4,376 shoreline miles that were in the area
of response. However, maintenance activities continue on 84 shoreline miles in Louisiana,
with another 20 miles in Louisiana pending approval or final monitoring or inspection.
"There's still some areas in Louisiana that we're responding to, because there's still some oil
material there that hasn't been cleared," said Jason Ryan, BP press officer, to CBSNews.com.

Pollution from Tanker Operations

Tankers can contribute to oil pollution of the marine environment through five principal
sources:

 Cargo tank cleaning operations;

 Discharges from bilge pumping;
 Hull leakage;
 Spills during cargo handling operations; and
 Vessel casualties.

There are three principal causes of unintentional discharges of oil during tanker-terminal
operations, namely

 Mechanical failures,
 Design failures, or
 Human error.

Incident reports of spills during tanker-terminal operations show that human error is the pre-
dominant cause and is the most difficult to remedy. Mechanical failures include cargo
transfer hose bursts, and piping, fittings, or flange failures, either on shore or on the tankers.
Mechanical failure could also be due to an inherent design fault including the incompatibility
of a tanker with a given marine terminal, i.e., improper manifold connections, inadequate
mooring facilities, and shore side loading pumps with excess pumping capacity. Oil spills
that occur during the loading or unloading of crude oil or petroleum products are more often
associated with leaky connections, failure to drain cargo hoses, improper mooring, improper
valve or manifold alignment, or overfill during loading operations.

4.2 Fate of marine oil spills

Despite the introduction of tonnes of oil into the world’s ocean there is no evidence that of a
build-up of oil residues in the sea. This is a good indication that the marine environment is
able to assimilate oil spills. Oil spill into the sea undergoes a number of physical and
chemical changes, some of which lead to its disappearance from the sea surface whilst others
cause it to persist. The time taken depends primarily upon the physical and chemical
characteristics of the oil, as well as the quantity involved, the prevailing climatic and sea
conditions and whether the oil remains at sea or is washed ashore

4.2.1 Weathering Processes

The physical and chemical changes which spilled oil undergo are sometimes collectively
known as weathering. The various processes are shown schematically in Fig 4.1. A
knowledge of these processes and how they interact to alter the nature and composition of the
oil with time is valuable in preparing and implementing contingency plans for oil spill
response. On occasions it may prove unnecessary to mount a clean-up response if it can be
confidently predicted that the oil will drift away from vulnerable resources or dissipate
naturally before reaching them. Often, however, an active response will be necessary, aimed
either at accelerating the natural processes through the use of dispersants or limiting
spreading by containment.
Figure 4.1 Fate of spilt oil including the main weathering processes

(a) Spreading

Spreading is one of the most significant processes during the early stages of a spill. The main
driving force behind the initial spreading of the oil is its weight. A large instantaneous spill
will therefore spread more rapidly than a slow discharge. This gravity-assisted spreading is
quickly replaced by surface tension effects. During these early stages, the oil spreads as a
coherent slick and the rate is also influenced by the viscosity of the oil. High viscosity oils
spread only slowly and those spilled at temperatures below their pour point hardly spread at
all. After a few hours the slick begins to break up and form narrow bands or ‘windrows’
parallel to the wind direction. At this stage the fluidity of the oil becomes less important since
further spreading is primarily due to turbulence at the sea surface. Variations in spreading
rate are due to differences in the prevailing hydrographical conditions such as currents, tidal
streams and wind speeds. Some 12 hours after a spill, the oil can be scattered within an area
of up to 5 square kilometres thus limiting the possibility of effective clean-up of oil at sea. It
should be appreciated that, except in the case of small spills of low viscosity oils, spreading is
not uniform and large variations of oil thickness occur within the slick.

(b) Evaporation
Figure 4.2 Method of evaporation

The rate and extent of evaporation is determined primarily by the volatility of the oil. The
greater the proportion of components with low boiling points, the grater the evaporation. The
initial spreading rate of the oil also affects evaporation since the larger the surface area, the
faster the light components will evaporate. Rough seas, high wind speeds and warm
temperatures will further increase the rate of evaporation. In broad terms, those oil
components with a boiling point below 2000C will evaporate within a period of 24 hours in
temperature conditions.
Spills of refined products, such as kerosene and gasoline, may evaporate completely within
a few hours and light crudes can lose up to 40% the first day, heavy crudes and fuel oils
undergo little, if any, evaporation. Any residue of an oil remaining after evaporation will
have an increased density and viscosity which affects further weathering processes as well as
the choice of clean-up techniques.
When extremely volatile oils are spilled in confined areas, there may be a risk of fire and
explosion. The flammability of oil has often led to the idea of burning slicks on the sea
surface. Although it is often possible to ignite slicks, particularly of fresh oil, it is difficult to
maintain combustion even when wicking agents are employed due to the thinness of the oil
layer and the cooling effect of the water underneath.

(c) Dispersion

Waves and turbulence at the sea surface act on the slick to produce oil droplets with a range
of sizes. Small droplets remain in suspension while the larger ones rise back to the surface,
behind the advancing slick, where they may either coalesce with other droplets to reform a
slick, or spread out in a very thin film. Droplets small enough to remain in suspension
become mixed into the water column and the increased surface area presented by this
dispersed oil can enhance other processes such as biodegradation and sedimentation.
The rate of natural dispersion is largely dependent upon the nature of the oil and the sea
state, proceeding most quickly in the presence of breaking waves. Slick thickness, which is
related to the amount spilled and the degree of spreading, is an important factor in the area
rate of dispersion since smaller droplets are produced from thin films.
Oils which remain fluid can spread unhindered by other weathering processes may
disperse completely in moderate sea conditions within a few days. Conversely, viscous oils or
those which form stable water-in-oil emulsions tend to form lenses on the water surface, and
will show little tendency to disperse. Such oils can persist for several weeks.
 (d) Emulsification

Many oils tend to absorb water to form water-in-oil emulsions which can increase the volume
of pollutant by a factor of between three and four. Such emulsions are often extremely
viscous and so the other processes which would dissipate the oil are retarded. This is the main
reason for the persistence of light and medium crude oils on the sea surface. In moderate to
rough sea conditions of asphaltenes. Oils with asphaltene contents greater than 0.5% tend to
form stable emulsions, often referred to as “chocolate mousse”, whilst those containing less
are likely to disperse. Emulsions may separate out into oil and water again if heated by
sunlight under calm conditions or when stranded on shorelines.
The rate at which emulsification takes place is primarily a function of sea state although
viscous oils tends to absorb water more slowly. In wind strengths greater than about Beaufort
Force 3, some low viscosity oils can incorporate between 60% and 80% water by volume
within 2-3 hours. In contrast, very viscous oils may take 10 hours or more to absorb 10%
water under the same conditions and even after several days the water content seldom
exceeds 40%.
Oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsifications do form and considerable quantities of oil
may be bound up in this manner. In general, the lighter fractions will go into an oil-in-water
emulsification more easily than heavier fractions but vigorous agitation and/or solvent--
emulsifier mixtures are usually required. As the hydrocarbon molecular weight increases, the
emulsions become water-in-oil. These water-in-oil emulsions tend to form naturally and
easily, especially with some wind and wave agitation. They are quite stable.
For a given class of hydrocarbons, dissolution (solubility) in water decreases with
increasing molecular weight (carbon number). For the various classes of hydrocarbons,
solubility increases in the following order: alkanes, cycloalkanes, olefins, and aromatics, with
corresponding solubility as shown below.
Sea water solubility are approximately 70 percent of those cited for fresh water.
Hydrocarbon solutions in sea water are only temporary because dissolved hydrocarbons
volatilize and evaporate rather rapidly. Because there is no discernible reservoir of
hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, with the exception of methane, the equilibrium favours the
transfer of hydrocarbons from the liquid phase (sea water) to the gas phase (air), particularly
under turbulent conditions of wind, current, and wave action. Even under the best conditions,
relatively little oil is dispersed by dissolution when compared to the amounts dispersed by
evaporation, emulsification and physical dispersion.
Absorption of water usually results in black oil changing colour to brown, orange or
yellow. As the emulsion develops, the movement of the oil in the waves causes droplets of
water taken up in the oil to become smaller and smaller making the emulsion progressively
more viscous. As the amount of water absorbed increase, the density of the emulsion
approaches that of sea water.

(e) Dissolution
Figure 4.3 Weathering process - Dissolution

The rate and extent to which oil dissolves upon its composition, extent of spreading, water
temperature, turbulence as well as degree of dispersion depends upon the oil type. The heavy
components of crude oil are virtually insoluble in sea water whereas light compounds,
particularly aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and toluene, are slightly soluble.
However, these components are also the most volatile and so are lost rapidly by evaporation,
typically 10-100 times faster than by dissolution. Concentrations of dissolved hydrocarbons
thus rarely exceed one part per million and dissolution does not make a significant
contribution to the removal of oil from the sea surface.

(f) Oxidation

Hydrocarbon molecules react with oxygen and either breakdown into soluble products or
combine to form persistent tars. Many of these reactions are promoted by sunlight and
although they occur throughout the lifetime of a slick, the effect on the overall dissipation is
minor in relation to other weathering processes. Under strong sunlight, thin films break down
at rates of no more than 0.1% per day. Oxidation of thick layers of high viscosity oils or
water-in-oil emulsions is more likely to lead to their persistence than to their degradation.
This is due to the formation of higher molecular weight compounds which form an outer
protective skin. For example, the tarry deposits which sometimes strand on shorelines as tar
balls usually consist of a solid outer crust combine with sediment particles surrounding a
softer, less weathered interior.

(g) Sedimentation

Some heavy residual oils have specific gravities greater than 1 and so will sink in fresh or
brackish water. However, very few crude oils are sufficiently dense, or weather to such an
extent that the residues alone will sink in water. Sinking is usually brought about by adhesion
o particles of sediment or organic matter to the oil. Some heavy crudes, such as those produce
in Venezuela, as well as most heavy fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsions have specific gravity
of sea water (about 1.025). temperature can also be expected to affect the behaviour of
neutrally buoyant oil. Over a 100C temperature range the density of sea water will only
change by 0.25% whereas oil density changes by 0.5%. Oil which barely floats during the
day may therefore submerge as the temperature falls at night due to its greater relative
increase in density but may resurface later in warmer water.
Shallow waters are often laden with suspended solids providing favourable conditions for
sedimentation. It is less likely in the open sea, but zooplankton may inadvertently take in
particles of oil during feeding which become incorporated into faecal pellets which fall to the
seabed.
Oil stranded on sandy shorelines often becomes mixed with sediments and if this mixture
is subsequently washed off the beach it may sink. On exposed sand beaches, heavy
contamination may lead to accumulation of large amounts of sediment in the oil, forming
dense tar mats. Seasonal cycles of sediment build-up and erosion may cause oil layers to be
successively buried and uncovered. Sheltered shorelines tend to be made up of fine grained
sediments and if oil becomes incorporated in these, it is likely to remain therefore
considerable time.

(h) Biodegradation

Sea water contains a range of marine bacteria, moulds and yeasts which can utilize oil as a
source of carbon and energy. Such micro-organisms are widely distributed in the sea although
they tend to be more abundant in chronically polluted waters, such as those which receive
industrial discharges and untreated sewage. The main factors affecting the rate of
biodegradation are temperature and the availability of oxygen and nutrients, principally
compounds of nitrogen and phosphorous. Each type of micro-organism tends to degrade a
specific group of hydrocarbons and whilst a range of bacteria exists which between them are
capable of degrading most of the wide variety of compounds in crude oil, some components
are resistant to attack. Although the micro-organisms are not always present in sufficient
numbers in the open sea, with the right conditions they multiply rapidly until the process
becomes limited by nutrient or oxygen deficiency.
Because the micro-organisms live in seawater, biodegradation can only take place at an
oil/water interface. Oil stranded on shorelines above high water mark will therefore break
down extremely slowly and may persist for many years. At sea, the creation of oil droplets,
either through natural or chemical dispersion, increases the interfacial area available for
biological activity and so enhances degradation. The variety of factors influencing
biodegradation makes it difficult to predict the rate of oil removal. In temperate waters daily
rates of between 0.001 and 0.03 grams per tonne of sea water have been reported but may
reach 0.5 – 60 grams per tone of sea water in areas chronically polluted by oil. Once oils
become incorporated into sediments, however, degradation rates are very much reduced due
to a lack of oxygen and nutrients.

4.3 Oil spill clean-up methods

Since exploration of oil from oceanic resources has become a must and oil spill end up
occurring accidentally, as a result, it becomes important to employ various oil spill clean-up
methods
Leave the oil alone!!: Some scientists argue that oil spills should be left to disperse naturally.
Oil spills are dispersed by natural physical processes in high-energy environments – where
strong winds, currents and wave action help to break up the oil. However, oil that reaches
low-energy environments gets buried in sediments and may persist for several years.
 Dispersants and booms and skimmers are the most frequently used methods to clean up
ocean oil spills. All methods have advantages and disadvantages. The effectiveness depends
on the situation – the amount and type of oil, the ocean currents and tides and the weather.
Some methods can be harmful to the environment. Oil clean-up agencies have to make
decisions about the safety of chemicals used in water – such as the dispersant Corexit 9500
There are different methodologies that can be adopted for the purpose of cleaning up oil
spills. Some of the few important and commonly used methods can be explained as follows

4.3.1 Use of Dispersants

Dispersants are used to break up the oil and speed its natural biodegradation. Dispersants act
by reducing the surface tension that stops oil and water from mixing. Small droplets of oil are
then formed, which helps promote rapid dilution of the oil by water movements. The
formation of droplets also increases the oil surface area, thus increasing the exposure to
natural evaporation and bacterial action. Dispersants are most effective when used within an
hour or two of the initial spill. However, they are not appropriate for all oils and all locations.
Successful dispersion of oil through the water column can affect marine organisms like deep-
water corals and sea grass. It can also cause oil to be temporarily accumulated by sub-tidal
seafood. Decisions on whether or not to use dispersants to combat an oil spill must be made
in each individual case. The decision will take into account the time since the spill, weather
conditions, the particular environment involved, and the type of oil that has been spilt.
Breaking the oil at sea into oil droplets allows them to be dispersed into the underlying
sea by wave action. It is hoped that naturally occurring bacteria would then consume the
droplets and the dispersant would rapidly biodegrade. When the oil spill cannot be contained,
the only options available require speeding up the natural breakdown of oil components. The
first method for doing this is adding dispersal agents. These are chemicals that allow the oil
to chemically bond with water. This prevents the slick from traveling over the water and
increases the surface area of each oil molecule. One of the major problems with dispersants is
the creation of tar balls. As the oil combines with water, it also congeals around sand and
other particles in the water. This results in large tar balls floating at the surface of the water.
They can be scooped up by skimmers, but often eventually find their way back to shore.

4.3.2 Oil Dispersants

Dispersants are usually applied to oil on water by spraying from surface vehicles or by
applying from small fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters.
Figure 4.4: C-130 Hercules dropping an oil-dispersant into the Gulf of Mexico following the
Deepwater Horizon disaster

Problems with dispersant

International scientists argue that, although modern dispersants are less toxic than ones in the
past, dispersants help to spread oil more widely into the environment. Dispersants do help to
stop large amounts of oil fouling beaches and coating surface-dwelling animals, but animals
on the seafloor will experience more pollution. Oil droplets reaching the seafloor tend to be
the same size as food particles for filter-feeding organisms. Environmental scientists say it’s a
poor trade-off – just trading one species for another.
Many environmental scientists are also concerned about the inherent toxicity of
dispersants. Some argue that dispersants themselves can be toxic – some at least as toxic as
dishwashing liquid and could be more harmful to the environment than the oil itself. There is
potential for dispersants to bioaccumulation in seafood. The general consensus, however, is
that there is a dearth of studies about the impacts of dispersants, so long-term effects are
really unknown.
Dispersants are clearly not the best choice available from an environmental perspective.
They introduce oil compounds into the natural environment where they can be absorbed by
the aquatic life in the area and enter the food chain. Oil treated with dispersants has been
found to be more harmful to coral reefs and sea grass than the crude oil itself. In addition, the
chemicals themselves are extremely dangerous to work with.

4.2.4 Biological Agents

The best way how to clean oil spills is with biological agents that break down the oil into
fatty acids and carbon dioxide. This process is usually reserved for areas where oil has
reached shore, but it has recently been used in river systems in test cases. Phosphorus and
nitrogen based fertilizers are dropped into the area to promote the growth of microorganisms
that break down the sand bound oil.
Introduce biological agents to the spill to hasten biodegradation. Most of the components
of oil washed up along a shoreline can be broken down by bacteria and other microorganisms
into harmless substances such as fatty acids and carbon dioxide. This action is called
biodegradation. The natural process can be speeded up by the addition of fertilizing nutrients
like nitrogen and phosphorous, which stimulate growth of the microorganisms concerned.
However the effectiveness of this technique depends on factors such as whether the ground
treated has sand or pebbles and whether the fertilizer is water soluble or applied in pellet or
liquid form. The biggest factor in how to clean up an oil spill is where it has happened. Some
oil spills, if they happen far out to sea, are left to naturally decompose in the environment.

The treatments follow this general rule:

 Outside of 200 nautical miles, no treatment is used.

 Between 200 nautical miles and shore, booms may be use.
 Outside of 10 nautical miles from shore, dispersants are used.
 Biological agents are used on shorelines that have been affected.

These are general rules and can be changed based on the type of oil that has been spilled, the
weather conditions near the spill and prevailing ocean currents. No two spills are the same, so
each one is evaluated on its own merit.

4.3.4 Booms and skimmers

Besides chemical dispersants, there are other key methods for cleaning up ocean oil spills.
Oil booms are a very popular method of controlling oil spills. There are various kinds of oil
booms that have been designed for various areas where the oil spillage might occur, leading
to a quite thorough oil spill clean-up.
Booms are floating, physical barriers to oil. Boom types vary from inflatable neoprene
tubes to solid, some are made of plastic, metal, or other materials but buoyant material. Most
rise up about a meter above the water line. Some are designed to sit flush on tidal flats while
others are applicable to deeper water and have skirts which hang down about a meter below
the waterline. Skilled teams deploy booms using mooring systems, such as anchors and land
lines. They commonly place boom:
 Across a narrow entrance to the ocean, such as a stream outlet or small inlet, to close
off that entrance so that oil can't pass through into marshland or other sensitive habitat.
 In places where the boom can deflect oil away from sensitive locations, such as
shellfish beds or beaches used by piping plovers as nesting habitat.
 Around a sensitive site, to prevent oil from reaching it.

Figure 4.5: Some boom design

There are three main types of boom. Hard boom is like a floating piece of plastic that has a
cylindrical float at the top and is weighted at the bottom so that it has a "skirt" under the
water. If the currents or winds are not too strong, booms can also be used to make the oil go
in a different direction (this is called "deflection booming"). Sorbent boom looks like a long
sausage made out of a material that absorbs oil. If you were to take the inside of a disposable
diaper out and roll it into strips, it would act much like a sorbent boom. Sorbent booms don't
have the "skirt" that hard booms have, so they can't contain oil for very long. Fire boom is not
used very much. It looks like metal plates with a floating metal cylinder at the top and thin
metal plates that make the "skirt" in the water. This type of boom is made to contain oil long
enough that it can be lit on fire and burned up.
The oil in this spill is contained by a boom while a skimming barge sucks up the mess.
Booms and skimmers: Booms contain the oil so that skimmers can collect it. Booms are
floating barriers placed around the oil or whatever is leaking the oil. Skimmers can be
boats, vacuum machines, sponges or oil-absorbent ropes that skim spilled oil from the water’s
surface within the booms.

Fence Type Oil Boom

Fence-type boom consists of a flexible skirt, flat flotation for spill containment and recovery
operation in relatively protected waters and calm waters. Boom can be deployed from barges,
boats, docks, trailers or a person wading and has universal aluminium lightweight tool free
connection which interconnects with other booms. Fence boom offers the smallest storage
volume of solid float boom types and can be stored on pallets in containers,

Features:
 Made of the high strength fabric coated with the bright orange/yellow PVC, having
high resistance to oil, seawater corrosion and UV radiation.
 Deal for operations in ports, harbours, inland and coastal where a quick response is
required.
 Corrosion resistant ASTM style marine grade aluminium connectors.

Oil spill containment boom: Boom failure method: Boom Fail

There are five basic types of operational boom failure:

 Entrainment
 Drainage
 Splash over
 Submergence
 Planning

While oil spill containment booms are very successful in collecting oil on water for recovery,
their effectiveness is limited in certain applications. These failures will occur while all of the
boom components are intact and functioning together. A structural failure is separate from an
operational failure.
 Figure 4.6 Oil entrainment

Entrainment occurs at current velocities between 0.7 and 1.0 knots. Oil droplets escape under
the boom due to the head wave upstream of the boom and turbulence at the downstream side
of the head wave. The amount of oil lost depends on the thickness of the oil in the head wave.
Acme recommends that a secondary (“backup”) boom be deployed to collect any oil droplets
that may escape under the oil spill containment boom.

Figure 4.7 Oil drainage failure

Drainage failure is the rarest failure of the five. Drainage typically occurs when small oil spill
containment boom is used and too much oil causes the soil to flow down the face of the boom
and exit on the other side. Similar to entrainment, drainage failure involves leakage from
large pools of oil that are collected by the oil spill containment boom. In order to prevent
drainage failures, deploy skimmers in the large areas of oil or place sorbent mats on the
upstream side of the oil spill containment booms. These steps will allow for the large pools of
oil to be removed prior to drainage failure.
Splash over may occur in choppy water when the wave height is greater than the
freeboard of the oil spill containment boom. Splash over often times occurs when the wave
length to height ratio is less than 10:1. Acme recommends that a secondary (“backup”) boom
be deployed to collect any oil droplets that may escape over the oil spill containment boom.

Figure 4.8 Oil splash over

Submergence may occur when a boom is deployed or anchored in a fast current or is being
towed at a high velocity. Submergence is not common as entrainment failure usually occurs
prior to the speed needed for submergence.

Figure 4.9 Planning Failure

Planning failure is a common failure when strong wind and current are present in opposite
directions. This failure is most likely to occur when the oil spill containment boom has
inadequate ballasting or when internal tension member is near or above the waterline.

Figure 4.10 Flexible booms becoming more like J-shape

Oil spill containment boom performance depends on the angle between the boom and the
current. The boom angle allows for the velocity of the current to be reduced perpendicular to
the boom. Often times a flexible boom will become more like a J-shape when the angle with
the direction of flow becomes small. The portion of the boom that is curving across the
direction of flow will be the part of the oil spill containment boom in which is the likeliest to
fail. This portion of the boom should be maintained and checked in the event of increased
current or wind.

Using Sorbents

Sorbents mean sponges that are placed on the surface of the spillage affected area. These
sorbents suck and absorb the oil from the surface of the water leading to an oil spill clean-up.

Burning In-situ

In situ burning: Freshly spilled oil is ignited while it is still floating on the water before it
reaches the coast. In simple terms, this means burning of the oil on the site where the spillage
has occurred. The burning has to be done quite promptly before the oil spill can spread to a
larger area. But the most important disadvantage of such an on-site burning is that the exhaust
that is released contains toxic particles that can cause damage to the oceanic air in addition to
the marine life-forms..

4.4 Oil Containment and Skimming

No two oil spills are the same because of the variation in oil types, locations, and weather
conditions involved. However, broadly speaking, there are four main methods of response.
Contain the spill with booms and collect it from the water surface using skimmer equipment.
Spilt oil floats on water and initially forms a slick that is a few millimetres thick

Figure 4.11 Skimming of oil spill using two vessels and the third vessel used for
containment

Skimming

As the name suggests, skimming involves the removal of the oil spillage with the help of
tools and equipment from the surface of the water. The most important aspect to be noted that
only lighter oils can be separated and removed from the water in this method of cleaning up
oil spills. This is because the density of oil will tend to be lighter than the density of water

Skimmers are boats and other devices that can remove oil from the sea surface before it
reaches sensitive areas along a coastline. In the photo below, oil is being skimmed from the
sea surface by a vessel. Sometimes, two boats will tow a collection boom, allowing oil to
concentrate within the boom, where it is then picked up by a skimmer.
Skimmers float across the top of the slick contained within the boom and suck or scoop the
oil into storage tanks on nearby vessels or on the shore. However, booms and skimmers are
less effective when deployed in high winds and high seas
Using Manual labour

People in the coastal areas and beaches can help to accelerate the oil spill clean-up operation
by using simple tools like spades, bamboo and shovels, removing and isolating the area
affected by oil

4.5 Impact of oil on marine habitats

The impact of oil spills on marine life is one of the greatest concern of the affected
community. Marine species like plankton which form the base of marine food web and
include the eggs and young stages of fish, shellfish and many other underwater animals are
very sensitive to oil contaminated water. Fishpond and cage systems are normally used for
aquaculture (fish, prawns or crab farming) in the Niger Delta. If oil enters the ponds and
cages serious damage can occur to species depending on shallow water and mangrove for
breeding.
The mangrove swamps and trees in the Niger Delta are among the most productive
ecosystem sustaining the ecological integrity and productivity of coastal waters and are more
important breeding and nursery ground for many commercially exploited fish and shellfish.
The network of roots and trapped segments create productive habitats for fish, shrimps, crabs,
oysters, snails, mussels and other animals living directly or indirectly on the nutrient from
fallen mangrove leaves. The trees commonly die when affected by oily water resulting in the
loss of the habitats for a greater diversity of fish invertebrates and other seafood. Salt marshes
are oil traps because the mash grasses can absorb and hold oil. Oiled mangrove and the
mashes are difficult to clean and in any case cleaning cannot save the trees when oil has
entered the sediment and damaged the root system.
 SECTION 5

PREDICTION OF THE MOVEMENT OF OIL

SPILLS

&
CONTINGENCY PLAN
5.1 Oil in Water Monitoring Buoy

Oil in Water Monitoring Buoy is a cheap, quick and easy way to ensure constant and
immediate data collection when other systems are out of action or where an environmental
situation requires monitoring.
The buoy is designed to alert users to unexpected rises in hydrocarbon levels, or changes
in other water quality parameters. Its size and weight make it ideal for one person to handle in
the field, and its single point mooring makes for easy deployment and recovery.
Manufactured from machined foam and finished with a durable rubberised coating, the Oil in
Water Monitoring Buoy is built with a central structure designed to safely accommodate a
submersible hydrocarbon sensor integrated into a multi-parameter unit, while providing
protection from collision damage.
Figure 5.1 is a buoy designed for deployments of up to 24 months. This Oil in
Water Monitoring Buoy carries two 5W solar panels with battery backup, and a
GPRS enabled data logger. Weighing 25 kg and having a total length of 2.0 m, this buoy is
easy for just one person to handle and deploy.

Figure 5.1: Oil in Water Monitoring Buoy

Parameters Affecting Oil Spill Movement

The movements, and other characteristics, of a spill of petroleum hydrocarbons lost on water
are controlled by weather conditions (wind, temperature, and rainfall), ocean conditions (tides
and currents), and physical parameters of the materials which could be spilled. The important
physical parameters of the various petroleum hydrocarbons include the following:

 Specific gravity (or density);

 Evaporation rate;
 Boiling range;
 Viscosity;
 Pour point;
 Emulsification ability; and
 Water solubility.
Some of these factors are related. For example, the evaporation rate is dependent on weather
conditions (especially wind) and the boiling range of the material. Similarly, the spread rate
depends on weather, viscosity, and the pour point. Emulsification is a very complex
parameter since both oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions can be involved and wind and
wave conditions are usually controlling. The solubility of most of the materials is very
limited (below 0.01 g/100g).

5.2 Oil Spill and Ocean Current tracking buoy

Fast wave’s new Voyager oil spill and ocean current tracking buoy provides near real-time
ocean surface current velocity and sea surface temperature data from anywhere in the
world's oceans.

Figure 5.2 Spill Satellite Tracker Buoys.

Features
 Web connection for automatic data harvesting
 GPRS/GSM Telemetry
 Data can be transmitted to mobile devices, vessels, or remote users
 Can be equipped with a range of turbidity and/or dissolved oxygen sensors to suit
specifications

As part of the oil spill contingency planning it is recommended that a set of GP S “trackers”
is available on the rig during operations. The trackers are to be thrown overboard at fixed
intervals in the event of a significant hydrocarbon spill. They are designed to follow surface
currents and communicate back direction and extent of the spill. The GPS drifters are tagged
and can be mapped in the storm Geo portal mapping location and velocity of the spill is a
powerful tool for allowing recovery operations; the best chance of success in both day and
night operations.

5.3 Prediction of the Movement of Oil Spills

The fate of an oil spill in the marine environment depends on the spreading motion of the oil
and the translation of the slick by the winds and currents in the surface waters. Both of these
mechanisms are understood well enough that oil spill movement predictions can be made,
providing adequate input data are available.
The transport of oil in an oceanic environment depends upon a number of variables.
After spreading to its maximum radius, the translation of an oil slick in most near-shore
waters will be dominated by wind forces and tidal currents. The direction of the oil slick
movement, as influenced by the wind, should be taken as that of the wind. The speed of the
wind-driven component of the slick movement is generally considered to be about 3 per cent
of the wind speed. Oil slick translation is thus calculated as the vector sum of the tidal
currents and the wind stress on the slick. In addition to the translation of the surface slick, one
must consider the possibility of the oil aging and mixing vertically with the water column.
This requires knowledge of the properties of the oil in question. For example, crude oil in a
slick can lose its volatile fraction by evaporation in a matter of hours causing a shift in oil
density toward that of sea water.

5.4 Environmental Impact of an Offshore Oil Spill

The impact of an oil spill will depend upon the volume of the spill, duration, type of
petroleum product, and physical factors such as wind, wave, and current conditions under
which the spill occurs. The fate of oil in an oil spill depends on a complex interaction
between the several arbitrarily defined categories plus a host of other less well-defined
variables. Some of the lighter fractions of oil will evaporate very rapidly (evaporation), others
are sensitive to sunlight and oxidize to innocuous or inert compounds (photo-oxidation), and
still other fractions will either dissolve (dissolution), emulsify (emulsification), or adsorb to
sediment particles (sedimentation), depending on their physical properties. The physical fate
or dispersion of oil can occur by several methods: littoral deposition, physical removal,
dissolution, flushing, elution, sedimentation, microbial oxidation, organic uptake. In an oil
spill, the relative importance of each of the categories in the fate of an oil spill is influenced
by several physical and chemical parameters and other events, including:

 Type of petroleum product (Bunker “C”, diesel fuel, naphtha, gasoline, crude oil,
etc.);
 Volume of spill;
 Distance from shore;
 Sea and weather conditions (air and water temperature, wind direction and speed,
wave height, etc.);
 Oceanographic conditions (currents, tide, salinity, etc.);
 Shoreline and bottom topography (sand or rock beaches, relief, degree of exposure to
surf, etc.);
 Season of year, especially with reference to biological activities such as breeding,
migration patterns, feeding habits, etc.; and
 Clean-up and restoration procedures..

Composition of Petroleum

In order to consider the properties/behaviour of oil in aqueous environments, it is necessary

to know the composition of the oil. Crude oil, and several heavy fuel oil fractions, are a
complex mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon molecules, encompassing a wide
range of molecular weights.
Crude oils and most of their distillation products are extremely complex mixtures of
organic chemicals with hydrocarbons being the most numerous and abundant (comprising
more than 75 per cent of most crude and fuel oils). Over 200 hydrocarbons, 90
sulphur-containing organic compounds, and 33 nitrogen-containing organic compounds are
present in crude oils. In addition, there are porphyries, sulphur, trace metals, and residues
called asphalts in many crude oils. Crude oils and most crude oil products contain a series of
n-alkanes with chain lengths of carbon atoms numbering between 1 and 60. The ratio of
abundance of odd chain lengths to even chain lengths is approximately 1.0. On the other
hand, diesel fuel and other light “cutting” stocks are comprised primarily of components
which evaporate rapidly. In general, the more toxic fractions are those which evaporate
fastest, leaving a less toxic, more viscous, and denser residue in the surface slick.

5.5 Effects of Oil on Marine Water Quality

The most obvious effect on water quality associated with an oil spill would be the physical
presence of floating oil slicks which would deter boaters, bathers, divers, and others from
using the affected area. Also, oil coming ashore would be aesthetically objectionable and
would interfere with shoreline recreational activities such as picnicking, sunbathing,
beachcombing, clam digging, and surf fishing. Depending on the specific oil material,
dissolved hydrocarbon concentrations in the water column also could significantly increase,
especially for a material containing large amounts of soluble components

5.6 Dispersion of Oil in the Marine Environment

With typical on-shore winds and currents, those fractions of oil, especially of crude and fuel
oil, which are not weathered or lost (evaporation, emulsification, dissolution, sedimentation,
or organic uptake while on the water surface or in the water column), are deposited in the
littoral or intertidal zone (littoral deposition) by waves and/or receding tides. Diesel fuel and
other light fractions evaporate rapidly from rocky beaches, but may penetrate several inches
into sand beaches and remain there. They will work their way back to the surface over a long
period of time, or work their way through the sand to come out in the shallow sub littoral
zone. Crude oil and other heavy fractions are deposited on the beaches in the form of
“asphalt” or tar. On rock beaches, this asphalt coats the rocks, weathers, and becomes a
semi-permanent substratum. On sand beaches, the asphalt may mix with and become buried
under several inches of sand to form a subsurface “pavement” layer. This situation was
observed in both the Torrey Canyon and Santa Barbara spills. In both cases the “pavement”
layer was exposed and covered several times during winter months.

5.7 Effects of Oil on Marine Ecosystems

The effect of petroleum products ranging from gasoline to crude oil on one or more
components of marine ecosystems has been the topic of numerous symposia, scientific
papers, formal and informal lectures, and newspaper articles. Ecological effects are presently
receiving close attention by industrial and academic groups under the auspices of the
American Petroleum Institute (API), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and other
industrial, private, state, and Federal agencies. A review of the literature and interviews with
these several sources indicate that three kinds of effects (and the resultant biotic responses)
exist. These effects are arbitrarily divided into three categories.
 1. 1st Order Effects
These include the direct effect of petroleum products on the biota. These effects may be
toxic physically (such as suffocation), or physiologically (such as internal disturbances
following ingestion). All of these may result in immediate mortality, torpidity, or poor
health. These are generally short-term effects which usually affect all species to some
degree and show up within hours or days.
2. 2nd Order effects
These include changes in populations of each species with respect to size-frequencies’
and age structure, productivity, standing crop, reproductive abilities, etc. These are
generally intermediate-terms effects which show up in weeks, months, and for some
long-lived species, years.
3. 3rd Order Effects
These include changes at the community or ecosystem level with respect to relationships
within or between trophic levels, species composition and/or abundance, and other
aspects of community dynamics. These changes are often the result of subtle, sub-lethal
effects which may not show up for months or years.
First order effects have been documented in some detail in several instances. Second and
third order effects are generally less well documented, except for a few large spills such
as Torrey Canyon, Tampico Maru, West Falmouth, and Santa Barbara. Even in these cases,
the data interpretation may be open to criticism.
Clearly, there are significant impacts on the marine environment from most oil spills.
This impact may vary from an aesthetic problem of several days’ duration resulting from
visible oil slicks and beaches contaminated with oil, to a severe kill of marine organisms and
water fowl, and severe disruption of commercial and recreational activities. Long-term
effects might occur for several years before ecosystem recovery. The spill may even bring
about a permanent change in the ecosystem as evidenced by new and different species of
flora and fauna becoming dominant in terms of space or ecological importance.
The severity of both short-term and long-term effects is predicated on certain conditions. The
following generally increase the severity of an oil spill:

1. A massive oil spill relative to the size of the receiving and affected area.
2. A spill of primarily refined oil.
3. The spill being confined naturally or artificially to a limited area of relatively shallow
water for a prolonged period.
4. Presence of sea bird and/or mammal rookeries in the affected area.
5. Absence of oil-oxidizing bacteria in the marine environment.
6. Presence of pollutants, such as industrial and municipal wastes in affected area.
7. The application of detergents and/or dispersants as part of the cleaning action.

Biological Effects Spills

Oil spillage can have a serious economic impact on coastal activities and those who exploits
the resources of the sea. In most cases, such damage is temporary and is caused primarily by
the physical properties of oil creating nuisance and hazardous condition. The impact on
marine life is compounded with toxicity and tainting effect resulting from the chemical
composition of oil, as well as by the diversity and variability of biological systems and their
sensitivity to oil pollution.
Impact of Oil on Coastal Activities

Recreational Activities

Contamination of coastal amenity area is a common feature of many oil spills leading to
public disquiet and interference with recreational activities such as bathing, boating, angling
and diving. Hotel and restaurant owners who gain their livelihood from the tourist trade can
also be affected, Because of their visual impact, persistent oils and their residues cause the
most nuisance and concern, with the greatest effect likely to be just before or during the main
tourist season. The disturbance to coastal area and tourist pursuit from a single oil spill is
comparatively short-lived and any effect on tourism is largely a question of restoring public
confidence once clean-up is completed.

Industry

Industries that rely on a continuous supply of clean sea water for their normal operation can
be adversely affected by oil spill. Power stations, in particular are often situated located close
to the coast in order to have access to the very large quantities of the water required for
cooling purpose. If substantial quantities of oil are drawn through intakes, contamination of
the condenser tubes may result, requiring a reduction in output or total shutdown whilst
cleaning is carried out. Similarly, the normal operation of desalination plants maybe disrupted
by oil, causing water supply problems for consumers
Shipyards with slipways and dry-docks for construction and repair works maybe affected
by oil spills causing damage unpainted or newly painted surfaces and creating hazardous
working conditions. Interference with shipping may result from oil spill and clean-up
operations, particularly when they take place at harbour and port approaches. The installation
of booms or closure of lock gates to contain oil may cause delays. Direct contamination of
jetties as well as mooring lines and ships’ hulls is a common occurrence
Other routine harbour activities such as ferry services and lock operation can be disrupted,
particularly after a spill of crude oil, gasoline or other flammable materials. Welding and the
use of spark –generating machinery may have to be suspended as long as fire hazard persist.
In this way even small spills in a busy port can have considerable repercussions.

Biological Effect of Oil

The effect of oil on marine life can be considered as being caused by either its physical nature
(physical contamination and smothering) or by the chemical component of the oil (toxic effect and
accumulation leading to tainting) Marine life may also be affected by clean-up or indirectly through
physical damage to the habitat in which they live. Populations of plants and animals in the sea are
subject to considerable natural fluctuation in number brought about, for example, by changes
in climatic and hydrographical conditions and the availability of food. Thus the specie
composition and age structure of the various population within a particular marine habitat are
far from constant but instead are in a state dynamic balance . In view of this it is usually
extremely difficult to assess the effect of an oil spill and to distinguish changes caused by the
oil from those due to natural viability.
Impact of Oil on Specific Marine Habitats

The following summarises the impact that oil can have on selected marine habitats. Within
each habitat a wide range of environmental conditions prevail and often there is no clear
division between one habitat and the other.

Open waters and Seabed

Plankton is a term applied to floating animals and animals carried passively by water current
in the upper layers of the sea. They form the base of the marine food web and include the egg
and young stages of fish, shell fish and many bottom-living animals. Their sensitivity to oil
pollution has been demonstrated experimentally. In the open sea, the rapid dilution of
naturally dispersed oil and its soluble components, as well as the high natural mortality and
patchy, irregular distribution of plankton, makes significant effect unlikely.

Plankton

Large swimming animals such as squid, fish, turtles, whales and dolphins are highly mobile
and rarely affected in offshore waters even in major oil spills. In coastal areas some marine
mammals, such as seals, reptiles and turtles may be particularly vulnerable to adverse effect
from oil contamination because of their need to surface to breathe and to leave the water to
breed.

Shorelines

Shorelines, more than any other part of the marine environment, are exposed to the effects of
floating oil. The impact may be particularly great where large areas of rock, sand and mud are
covered at low tide. Whilst intertidal animals and plants are able to withstand short term
exposure to adverse conditions, there may be killed by toxic oil components or physically
smothered by viscous and weathered oils and emulsions. Animals may also be narcotised by
the oil such that they become detached from rock surfaces or emerge from burrows.
In tropical regions, mangrove forests are widely distributed and replace salt marshes on
sheltered coasts and in estuaries. Mangrove trees have complex breathing roots above the
surface of the organically rich and oxygen depleted muds in which they live. The network of
roots and trapped sediments create productive habitats for fish, shrimps, crabs, oyster, snails,
mussels and other living directly or indirectly on the nutrients from fallen mangrove leaves .
Mangrove forest also provides shelter for the young stages for the commercially important
fish and prawns. Fishing in the creek and drainage channels and collection of shellfish from
among the prop roots sustain village communities often living at subsistence level . The wood
is also used for burning building and tanning.

Corals
Reef buildings are found off most typical coastlines and island , in shallow warm waters of
suitable salinity and clarity The living coral grows on the remains of dead coral colonies
which forms overhang, crevices and other irregularities and reef flat, a lagoon is a low energy
environment usually with a sand bottom and sea grass bed, protected by the outer reef. If the
living coral is destroyed the reef itself may be subject wave erosion
Impact of Oil on Fisheries Mariculture

Oil spill can directly damage the boat and gear used for catching or cultivating marine
species. Floating equipment and fixed traps extending above the sea surface are more likely
to become contaminated by floating oil whereas submerged nets , pots ,lines, and bottom
trawls are usually well protected , provided they are not lifted through any oily sea surface .
However, they may sometimes be affected by sunken oil.
Reduced catches of fish, shellfish and other marine organism are occasionally reported
after an oil spill. Most often this is due to a reduction in fishing effort although on rare
occasion moralities can be caused by physical contamination or close contact with freshly
spilled oil in shallow waters with poor water exchange. It is sometimes suggested that fish
and shellfish stocks will be depleted for a number of years after a spill as a result of damage
to egg and larvae. However, experience from major oil spill has shown that the possibility of
such long-term effects is remote because the normal over production of eggs provides a
reservoir to compensate for any localised losses.
Cultivated stocks, such as caged fish are more at risk from an oil spill. Natural avoidance
mechanism may be prevented, and the oiling of cultivation equipment may provide a source
for prolonged contamination of the organism. Cultured sea weeds particularly vulnerable
tidal areas where it may become contaminated with oil at low tide.

5.7 Spreading and movement of crude oil spills

The horizontal spreading and movement of crude oil spills over sea will occur even in
complete absence of wind, waves or water current. The movement is caused by the force of
gravity and the surface tension of water which is generally greater than that of the floating
oil. As the movement continues, the oil will natural spread into thinner layers while the force
of gravity now has a decreased role in accelerating the spreading process. Further spreading
does not depend on the thickness of the oil film, but on the differences between the oil and
the water surface tension forces such as waves, wind or water current in sheltered areas.
The rate of natural dispersion is largely dependent on the characteristics of the oil, wind,
current and tidal movement of the river. Oil that remains fluid can spread unhindered by
weathering process and may disperse completely in moderate state of the river. The time
taken would depend on the physical and chemical characteristics of the oil as well as the
quantity involved, the prevailing weather and the river condition.

Response to oil spill

In considering a response strategy, a distinction is frequently made between non persistent oil
such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel which tend to disperse rapidly from the sea or river
surface and persistent oils (crude oil and refined residual oil) which in contrast disperse more
slowly and require a clean-up operation
Local oil spill clean-up technique

Oil spill clean-up is a complex and evolving technology which developing countries have to
grapple with. There are many situations and environmental conditions that necessitate
different approaches. Clean-up models and techniques in quite sheltered waters and at open
sea are at various advanced stages of development. However, new techniques continually
emerge with proven advantages and additional knowledge. The proposed method which is
considered specifically for the delta in this paper has its own unique merit. For faster
response the use of out-board speed boat having low draught will be ideal in such difficult
terrain. These boats have the advantage of plying in low tide and can gt into the creeks with
ease. Normal clean-up procedure would involve containment, skimming, recovery,
transportation, disposal, and other logistics including the use of skilled labour.

Constraints
 Purpose built booms and barriers are not readily available in Nigeria.
 Deployment of containment and recovery equipment are difficult in the terrain.
 Existence of shallow water and mud flats.
 The frequent demand of communities to be involved in oil clean-up contract.
 Prevention of clean-up operation by communities so that the oil can spread to a wider
area to attract higher compensation.

With the above constraints, it may be difficult to consider the use of conventional clean-up
technique which requires the use of commercially available booms and tug boats. Improvised
floating booms can be successfully mad from bamboo which area readily available in the
Niger Delta area. Out-board engine boats can be used as towing equipment for the booms.
The bamboo booms, apart from being towed can also be used to block off narrow creeks or
estuaries to prevent the engines of oil.

5.8 Contingency plan

A contingency plan entails the use of effective strategy and operational plan. The formulation
and the implementation of the plan will be responsibility of the oil company that caused the
spill. The first step in the plan is to identify the cause, size and type of oil and the risk. The
probable fate of the oil should be analysed in relation to the type of oil and the prevailing
weather conditions.
 Figure 5.3: Oil spill Contingency Plan

The movement of the slick can be predicted from knowledge of the strength and direction of
tides, currents and wind. Priorities for protection must be determined since in a major spill it
is unlikely that all the resources at risk can be successfully protected. In such consideration
the economic and environmental value of the communities will have to be assessed. The
manpower required to deploy the equipment and undertake clean-up will need to be
estimated. The sources of back-up labour from the community, the probable cost of disposal
and site should be considered in the operational plan.

Response organization

Central coordinating body of the oil company concerned will be accorded the overall
responsibility. A central communication centre will be instituted to serve as the focal point
throughout the operation and all information on the spill and logistic support will be
channelled through it to the press, government agency, chiefs of the community and the
company’s head office. Adequate logistic support is most essential element in contingency
plan to ensure that the clean-up operation runs smoothly without interference from the
community. Arrangement for providing food, clothing, shelter and medical support must be
considered not only for the clean-up party but to the community affected also.

5.9 Operational plan

The operational plan may be headed by an on scene coordinator who may be supported by
supervisors and operators. A simple operational plan may adopt the following procedure as
illustrated in Figure 5.3.
 Mobilization of the necessary equipment and manpower.
 Deployment of the equipment to the site of the spill.
 Placement of booms at pre-designated sites to protect key resources.
 Organizing sufficient logistic support.
 Use of helicopters as may be necessary to maintain overall surveillance of spill and
personnel.
 Frequent communication with all key personnel to ensure that no one is held hostage.
 Selection of the most suitable disposal site depending on the nature of the oil.
 Adequate information brief for the press and the public.

According to the excellent newsletter of the International Tanker Owners Pollution

Federation (ITOW) both the number of oil spills and the quantity spilled has gone down
significantly over the last 10 years. This is great progress, although all oil spills do damage,
and even further reductions are needed.

Role of Double Hulls in Reducing or Preventing Oil Spills from Tankers

Figure 5.4 Double bottom and hull tanker

A double bottom and hull tanker is a ship designed to carry oil in bulk in which the cargo
spaces are protected from the environment by a double hull consisting of a double side and
double bottom. These spaces, which may be filled with ballast, extend for the full length of
the cargo carrying area, and a typical form of construction for a double hull tanker is shown
in Figures 5.4. The effectiveness of double hull tankers in reducing the risk of pollution was
heavily debated during the development of both OPA 90 and the MARPOL double hull
amendments. The basic rationale used to support double hull requirements at both the federal
and international level is that double hulls reduce the risk of oil spills that occur during a low
energy grounding or collision. Because most accidents occurring in or near ports typically
involve lower vessel speeds, and because the risk of grounding or collision is typically
highest in port areas, double hull tanker designs offer a reasonable option for reducing oil
spill risks from tankers under these circumstances. As the international tanker fleet transitions
to double hulls, more examples become available of the potential for double hulls to reduce
or even prevent oil spills under certain scenarios. There have been a number of incidents
where a double hull tanker’s outer hull has been breached, but pollution has been avoided by
the containment afforded by the intact inner hull.

Tankers in U S Territorial Waters

Among the measures put in place is a congressionally mandated requirement that by 2015 all
tankers in U.S. waters should have what's known as a double hull. On these ships, the oil is
carried in a watertight inner hull. If breach occurs on the outer hull the inners hull will
prevent the oil from leaking. The international shipping community adopted the standard.

Ship Escort system

Requirements for the use of dedicated escort tugs are a common element of shipping safety
regimes. The Ship Escort Response Vessel System (SERVS) in Prince William Sound has
been operating for over 20 years in Alaska. It serves four main purposes:

 Monitor conditions along the tanker route;

 Alert the tanker of potential risks or dangers;
 Assist a disabled tanker as quickly as possible; and
 Initiate oil spill containment and recovery operations right away in the event that an
incident occurs.

While the system is first and foremost a prevention tool, it also enhances initial oil spill
response capability, which could mitigate adverse impacts in the event of a spill.
Two escort tugs accompany each laden oil tanker along the entire 90-mile transit from the
Valdez Marine Terminal until they reach the mouth of Prince William Sound, and a sentinel
tug remains on station until the tanker is at least 17 nautical miles offshore. Sentinel escorts
also accompany ballasted (un-laden) oil tankers along their transits to the Valdez Marine
Terminal. Lessons learned include:
  Evaluating the capacity of escort vessels (tugs) in areas where tanker escorts are
required and considering whether enhancements to the number, type, or capacity of
tugs would enhance safety.
 Evaluating whether tug escorts would enhance tanker safety in regions where escorts
are not presently required.
 Evaluating regulatory and oversight mechanisms that compel tanker escorts and consider whether
mandates are required (vs. voluntary compliance) to achieve risk reduction benefits.
 Compiling and analyzing data on escort tug activities (e.g. rescues or saves, and other assistance
rendered).

Port state control

Port state control is the process by which coastal states exercise their authority to ensure that
foreign-flagged vessels visiting their ports comply with international requirements related to
ship construction and maintenance, equipment, manning, and operations. This verification
typically takes place through inspections. Such systems are in place in most commercial ports
worldwide.
Aerial surveillance is integral to both oil spill prevention and response.
Canada’s National Aerial Surveillance Program (NASP provides an example of a world-
leading oil spill prevention system by utilizing aerial over-flight patrols to detect and deter
pollution from ships travelling in Canadian waters. NASP provides aerial lookout to identify
ship-source spills, while also monitoring marine traffic and sea ice. The constant possibility
for an overhead scan is intended to deter polluters and quickly identify and respond to a spill,
while also providing evidence for post-incident legal action.

Other factors

Other factors that have made oil tankers safer include improved communications
technologies - GPS and cell phones, for example, better navigational charts and enhanced
weather forecasting.