PHYSICS 71 - REVIEWER

FIRST LE

1.1) UNITS, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, AND VECTORS

Physical Quantities are measured using SI Units (International System of Units or more
commonly known as the Metric System)

SI Units: SI Prefixes:
• length (meter) • giga (109)
• mass (kilogram) • mega (106)
• time (second) • kilo (103)
• electric current (ampere) • hecto (102)
• thermodynamic temperature • deca (101)
(kelvin) • unit (100)
• amount of substance (mole) • deci (10-1)
• luminous intensity (candela) • centi (10-2)
• milli (10-3)
• micro (10-6)
• nano (10-9)

1.2) VECTORS

Scalar Quantity: a quantity that is described by a number and its unit

Example: Temperature (T), mass (M), density ()
Vector: a quantity that has both magnitude and direction
Example: Force (𝐹⃗ ), displacement (𝑥⃗), velocity (𝑣⃗)
Example: 78m, +30 from +𝑥-axis
39cm, South-East
25km, 15 West of North
Component Form
Vector is represented by unit vectors
• 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂
○ 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are components of vector 𝐴⃗
• |𝐴⃗| = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦

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 ○ The magnitude of the resultant vector after adding the x and y components
of each vector together
𝐴𝑦
• Direction: 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐴 )
𝑥
Magnitude-Direction to Component Form
𝐴𝑥 = |𝐴⃗|cos(𝜃)
𝐴𝑦 = |𝐴⃗|sin(𝜃)
𝐴⃗ = |𝐴⃗| cos(𝜃 ) 𝑖̂ + |𝐴⃗| sin(𝜃 ) 𝑗̂

Assuming 𝜃 is measured from +𝑥-axis

Vector Addition
Method 1: Graphical, Parallelogram Method

Method 2: Analytical, Using Component Representation

𝐴⃗ = 2.0𝑖̂ + 3.0𝑗̂
⃗⃗ = 4.0𝑖̂ − 4.0𝑗̂
𝐵
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 6.0𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −2.0𝑖̂ + 7.0𝑗̂

3D Vectors
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂

|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧

1.3) MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Displacement: ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥: displacement [m]

𝑥2 : final position
𝑥1 : initial position
Time: ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡: time [s]
𝑡2 : final time
𝑡1 : initial time
Average Velocity: 𝑣av−𝑥 : average velocity over a [m/s]
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 given amount of time
𝑣av−𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

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 Instantaneous Velocity: The velocity at a specific [m/s]
∆𝑥 𝑑 instant of time or specific
lim = 𝑥(𝑡)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 point along the path
Average Acceleration: Describes the rate of change [m/s2]
𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 ∆𝑣 of velocity with time
𝑎av−𝑥 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
Instantaneous Acceleration: The acceleration at a specific [m/s2]
Δ𝑣 𝑑 instant of time or specific
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)
∆𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 point along the path

Kinematic Equations
• Only used when acceleration is constant (note: when velocity is constant,
acceleration is zero)
1
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑂𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
2 𝑣0𝑥 +𝑣𝑥
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ( 2
)𝑡

Wherein ax = acceleration
vx = final velocity x = final position
v0x = initial velocity x0 = initial position
t = time
Free Fall
Horizontal displacement (x) can be substituted for vertical displacement (y) and making
acceleration = 9.8 m/s2 (gravity)
1
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣𝑂𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡
2 𝑣0𝑦 +𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + ( )𝑡
2

(g = acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/s2)

1.4) MOTION IN TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONS

Position Vector: 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
• Magnitude: 𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑦
• Direction: 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑥)
𝑟⃗ −𝑟⃗ Δ𝑟⃗
Average Velocity Vector: 𝑣⃗av = 𝑡2 −𝑡1 =
2 1 Δt
Δ𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
Instantaneous Velocity Vector: 𝑣⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• If we let 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ , the components can be written as:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
○ 𝑣𝑥 = ,𝑣 = , and 𝑣𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
• 𝑣⃗ = = 𝑑𝑡 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡

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 • Magnitude: 𝑣 = |𝑣⃗ | = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
𝑣𝑦
• Direction: 𝛼 = tan−1 (𝑣 )
𝑥
Acceleration
• Components in terms of Velocity:
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
○ 𝑎𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑦 = , 𝑎𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
• 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Parallel and Perpendicular Components of 𝑎⃗

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗∥ + 𝑎⃗⊥
• 𝑎⃗∥ : acceleration vector parallel to the particle’s path
• 𝑎⃗⊥ : acceleration vector perpendicular to the particle’s path

Projectile Motion
Projectile: Any body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined
entirely by effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance (e.g. batted baseball,
thrown football, bullet shot from a rifle)
Trajectory: The path followed by a projectile

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 Horizontal Motion 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 v0x = initial velocity (x-component)
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑂𝑥 𝑡 vx = final velocity (x-component)
x0 = initial position
x = final position
t = time
Vertical Motion 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 v0y = initial velocity (y-component)
1 vy = final velocity (y-component)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣𝑂𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 y0 = initial position
2
y = final position
t = time
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

The x and y components are independent of each other.

Assuming that the particle starts from origin (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (0, 0):
𝑥 = (𝑣0 cos𝛼0 )𝑡
1
𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin𝛼0 )𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos𝛼0
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin𝛼0 − 𝑔𝑡
2 2 𝑣𝑜𝑦
𝑣0 = √𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑣0𝑦 𝛼0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑣 )
𝑜𝑥

1.5) NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Force: push or pull; an interaction between two bodies or between a body and its
environment
• Vector quantity: 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂
• Unit: Newton [N] = [kg m/s2]
Types of Forces
• Contact force • Tension force
• Normal force • Long-range force
• Friction force

Principle of Superposition: Any number of forces applied to a point on a body have the
same effect as a single force equal to the vector sum of the forces. Hence, any force can be
replaced by its components vectors acting at the same point.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 + 𝐹⃗3 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝐹⃗
• Magnitude of 𝑅 = |𝑅⃗⃗| = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2
𝑅𝑦
• Direction (for 2D): 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑅 )
𝑥

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Mass (m): mass characterizes the inertial properties of a body
Weight (w): weight is a force exerted on body by the pull of the earth
Relationship of Mass and Weight: given an object of mass m on earth g = 9.80 [m/s2]
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
The force that makes the body accelerates downward it its weight. In general, 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗.

Newton’s First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia

Every object in a state of uniform motion will remain in that
state of motion unless an external force acts on it.
• A body acted on by no net force moves with constant
velocity (which may be zero) and zero acceleration
• Zero net force is equivalent to no force at all

When a body is either at rest or moving with a constant

velocity, we say that the body is in equilibrium.
∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0
• Each component must also be:
○ ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
○ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
Relative Position, Velocity, and Acceleration:
Observers on different frames of reference that move at
constant velocity relative to each other will measure the
same acceleration for a moving particle.

𝑟⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟⃗𝑃𝐵 + 𝑟⃗𝐵𝐴

𝑣⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝑃𝐵 + 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴
𝑎⃗𝑃𝐴 = 𝑎⃗𝑃𝐵

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

If a net external force acts on a body, the body accelerates.
• The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force
Force equals mass times acceleration: ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
• Components are given by: ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 , ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

If body A exerts a force on Body B (an “action), then body B exerts a force on body A (a
“reaction”). These two forces have the same magnitude but are opposite in direction.
𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹⃗𝐵𝐴

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(Recall: Forces)
• Force is an interaction between two bodies or between a body and its environment
→ Forces come in pairs!
• Force is a vector quantity: 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂
• Experiments show that whenever two bodies interact, the two forces that they exert
on each other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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 SECOND LE

2.1) WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY

Work (W): measure of energy transfer that occurs when an

object is moved over a distance by an external force at least part
of which is applied in the direction of the displacement
• Work is done if force is exerted on a body while the body
moves from one place to another
• Unit: Joule [ J ]
* Do not confuse the variable w (weight) and W (work)

Work done by a Constant Force over a displacement:

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗ = |𝐹⃗ ||𝑠⃗|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
• F: external force (magnitude)
• s: displacement (magnitude)
• 𝜃: angle between the direction of force and the direction of the displacement

Work and Kinetic Energy Theorem

Kinetic Energy (K): a quantity related to a body’s speed
1
• 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 ; m: mass, v: velocity
• Total work is related to changes in the speed of the body

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Work and Kinetic Energy:
𝛥𝐾 = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐾2 − 𝐾1 = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
1 1
𝑚𝑣1 2 − 𝑚𝑣22 = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
2 2

If a particle undergoes displacement:

• 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 > 0 - speeds up
• 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 < 0 - slows down
• 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0 - same speed

Work done by Gravity (𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 )

𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = −𝑚𝑔(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
• mg: mass times acceleration due to gravity → force due to gravity → weight
• (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ): displacement (s)
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗ = 𝑚𝑔𝑠 cos 𝜃

Spring Force (Fs): 𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘s⃗ (Hooke’s Law)

• Where:
○ k: spring constant
○ 𝑠⃗: displacement vector
• Work done by a Spring:
1 1
𝑊𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑓2
2 2

• Work done by a Spring on an object when there is Friction:

𝐾2 − 𝐾1 = 𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Positive, Negative, and Zero Work

Positive

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 Negative

Zero

• Work done by a General Variable Force

○ Equal to the area under the curve F(x)
𝑥2
○ 𝑊 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 Δ𝑥i 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = ∫𝑥1 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
○ Where:
▪ 𝑥2 : final position
▪ 𝑥1 : initial position

• Power (P) - the time rate of doing work

𝛥𝑊 𝛥𝑠
○ Average Power: 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝛥𝑡
= 𝐹 𝛥𝑡 = 𝐹𝑣
○ Unit: Watt = J/s

2.2) POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• Gravitational Potential Energy
𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦

m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, y = height/position

• Work done by Gravitational Force
𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣,1 − 𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣,2
𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = −𝛥𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣

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• Conservation of Mechanical Energy (E)
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1 1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦 + 𝑘x 2
2 2
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑖2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖 + 𝑘xi2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓 + 𝑘xf2
2 2 2 2

• Work done by other forces (Wother)

○ Typically non-conservative forces such as friction
○ 𝐾1 + 𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 , 1 + 𝑈𝑒𝑙,1 + 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾2 + 𝑈𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 , 2 + 𝑈𝑒𝑙,2

2.3) MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, AND COLLISIONS

• Center of mass: the center of mass (CoM) of a system of particles is the point that
moves as though (1) all of the system’s mass were concentrated there and (2) all
external forces were applied there
○ The motion of the center of mass of any system of particles is governed by
Newton’s second law, which is: 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚
1
○ Center of mass: 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑀 ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 )
𝑝⃗ +𝑝⃗
○ Velocity of the center of mass: 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1𝑖 +𝑚2𝑖
1 2

• Linear momentum (𝑝⃗): The product of mass and velocity of a particle or system of
particles
○ Single particle: 𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
○ Systems of particles: 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑀𝑣⃗
▪ (capital P and M denote a system as compared to a particle)
○ The greater the mass m and speed v of a particle, the greater is its magnitude
of momentum mv
• Impulse (J): the product of the net force and the time interval of contact
○ 𝐽 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑡
○ Impulse-momentum theorem: 𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖 = Δ𝑝⃗ = 𝐽⃗
▪ The change in momentum of a particle during a time interval equals
the impulse of the net force that acts on the particle during that
interval
• Conservation of Linear Momentum: If the vector sum of the external forces on a
system is zero, the total momentum of the system is constant.
○ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, therefore P = constant
○ If no net external force acts on a system of particles, the total linear
momentum P of the system cannot change: 𝑃⃗⃗𝑖 = 𝑃⃗⃗𝑓

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Collisions
Inelastic collision: Kinetic energy is not conserved
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓

Completely Inelastic Collision: 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 stick together

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑉

Elastic Collision: Kinetic energy is conserved

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓

• Momentum is conserved for both types of collision if the system is closed and
isolated

Conservation of Linear Momentum (CoLM):

𝑝⃗1𝑖 + 𝑝⃗2𝑖 = 𝑝⃗1𝑓 + 𝑝⃗2𝑓
Conservation of Mechanical Energy:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
2 2 2 2

2.4) ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

Rigid body
• a continuous system of particles of which the relative distances between the
particles do not change in time
• does not change shape through time
• consider particles collectively

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Rotational Kinematics
Recall: A radian is a measure of angle for which
the arclength is equal to the radius of the circle.

• If θ is an angle subtended by an arc of

length s, then s = θr

Angular Displacement ()

• the change in angle after a body rotates
about a fixed axis
• Δ𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖
*SI Unit: Radians [rad]
*Δ𝜃 is positive [negative] when the motion is
counterclockwise [clockwise].

Angular Velocity (𝜔)

• a measure of how fast and in what direction the object is rotating about an axis.
(a) the average angular velocity is (b) The instantaneous angular velocity
𝜃2 − 𝜃1 Δ𝜃 is
𝜔ave = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡 Δ𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
*Units: [rad/s], [rev/s], [rpm], [rph]
*At any instant, every part of a rotating rigid body has the same angular velocity
*Angular velocity is a vector whose direction is specified by the right hand rule:

Angular Acceleration (𝛼)

• a vector quantity which measures the change in speed
(a) the average angular acceleration is (b) The instantaneous angular
𝜔2 − 𝜔1 Δ𝜔 Δ𝜔 𝑑𝜔
acceleration is 𝛼 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 Δ𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
𝛼ave = = Δ𝑡→0
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡
*Units: [rad/s ], [rev/s ]
2 2

*At any instant, every part of a rotating rigid body has the same angular acceleration

Page 13 of 33
Constant Angular Acceleration
(a) Angular velocity as a function of (c) Angular velocity as a function of
time angular position
𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡 𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )

(b) Angular position as a function of (d) Average angular velocity

time Δ𝜃 𝜔 + 𝜔0
=
1 2 Δ𝑡 2
𝜃 = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
2
*Similar to the kinematic equations
* Quantities x, v, and a have been replaced by 𝜃, 𝜔, and 𝛼 respectively

Linear And Angular Quantities

• converting translational motion into rotational motion and vice versa.
• non-slip conditions
(a) 𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔

(b) 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑅𝛼

R = radius
Kinetic Energy Of A Rigid Body
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
1 1 1
𝐾 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔𝑖2 = (∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 ) 𝜔2
2 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑟𝑖 = perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the ith particle or mass
where moment of inertia I is equal to:
𝑁

𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝑖=1
Thus, the kinetic energy of a rigid body with moment of inertia 𝐼 that is rotating about a
fixed axis with angular velocity 𝜔 is
1
𝐾 = 𝐼𝜔2
2

Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

• work done on a rigid body equals the change in its both translational and rotational
kinetic energy:
1 1 1 1
𝑊 = Δ𝐾 = [ 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 + 𝐼𝜔𝑓2 ] − [ 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 + 𝐼𝜔𝑖2 ]
2 2 2 2
*Translational velocity is the velocity of the center of mass.
*Rotational velocity is the velocity of other particles relative to the center of mass.

Page 14 of 33
Moment of Inertia
• The moment of inertia (MOI) is the measure of inertia of a rigid body.

Consider a rigid body composed of 𝑁 particles, each with mass 𝑚𝑖, located at 𝑟𝑖 from the
axis of rotation. Then, the moment of inertia 𝐼 is given by 𝐼 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
2

𝑟𝑖 = perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the ith particle or mass

*MOI depends on the geometry and location and orientation of the axis of rotation
*SI Unit: [kg•m2]
*MOI is additive

Parallel-Axis Theorem
• the moment of inertia of a body that rotates
about an axis parallel to the axis of rotation
of the center of mass
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼com + 𝑀𝑑 2

where 𝑀 is the total mass of the body and 𝑑 is the

perpendicular distance between 𝑃 and COM
(center of mass).

Page 15 of 33
 2.5) DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION
Recall:
Scalar/dot product: results in a scalar quantity (a single number)
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵cos𝜃
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
Cross product: results in a vector perpendicular to both and (right-hand rule)
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
|𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| = 𝐴𝐵sin𝜃 (magnitude of cross product)

Unit Vector Cycle

CW: CCW:

Torque (τ)
• a twisting or turning force acting on a body about a given rotation axis caused by a
force .
• SI Unit: Newton-meter (Nm)

Magnitude of torque
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹⊥ = 𝑟⊥𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
where r = magnitude of position vector 𝑟⃗ relative to the axis, which describes the point
where 𝐹⃗ is exerted and;
𝐹⊥ = component of 𝐹⃗ perpendicular to 𝑟⃗
Page 16 of 33
 • 𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴 (from 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹⊥)
• 𝑣cm = 𝜔𝑟

Rolling smoothly (without slipping):

1 1
• A smoothly rolling wheel has kinetic energy: 𝐾 = 2 𝐼cm 𝜔2 + 2 𝑀𝑣cm
2

• If the wheel is being accelerated by still rolls smoothly then 𝑎 cm = 𝛼𝑅

• If the wheel rolls smoothly down a ramp of angle 𝜃 then the acceleration of the
center of mass is
𝑔sin𝜃
𝑎cm,x = −
𝐼
1 + cm2
MR

Angular Momentum (𝑙⃗)

The angular momentum of a particle of mass m with linear momentum 𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ with
respect to the rotation axis is
𝑙⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ or 𝑙⃗ = 𝑚(𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗)
The direction of 𝑙⃗ is determined via right hand rule and its magnitude is given by
𝑙 = 𝑟𝑚𝑣sin𝜙
where 𝜙 is the angle between 𝑟⃗ and 𝑝⃗

Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form

• For a single particle, Newton’s second law can be written in terms of momentum,
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗net = 𝑚𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
Page 17 of 33
 • Rotational dynamics
𝑑𝑙⃗
𝜏⃗net = 𝐼𝛼⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

I = angular momentum
𝛼⃗ = angular acceleration

Conservation of Angular Momentum:

𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓

Page 18 of 33
 THIRD LE

3.1) EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

Equilibrium: When the forces upon an object are balanced, the object is in EQUILIBRIUM.

We say an object is in equilibrium if

1. The linear momentum 𝑃⃗⃗ of its center of mass is constant.
2. Its angular momentum 𝐿⃗⃗ about its center of mass, or about any other point, is also
constant.
Examples: a book resting on a table, a hockey puck sliding with constant velocity across a
frictionless surface, the rotating blades of a ceiling fan at constant angular velocity

Requirements of equilibrium:
1) Net force is zero: 2) Net torque is zero:
∑ 𝐹⃗𝑖 = 0 ∑ 𝜏⃗𝑖 = 0
𝑖 𝑖
Additionally, for static equilibrium:
𝑣⃗ = 0
𝜔⃗⃗ = 0
Note: Free-body diagrams are integral in solving questions related to equilibrium

Center of Gravity: the point where an object's weight is concentrated

Elasticity: deformations of objects as they respond to forces that act on them

• Stress: strength of forces causing deformation
o Tensile: associated with stretching
o Compressive: associated with compression
o Bulk: volume stress; uniform pressure on all sides
o Shear: coplanar with the cross section
• Strain: deformation caused by stress

* Unit for stress: N/m2 = Pa (“pascal”)

𝐹⊥ = external force perpendicular to the area

𝐹∥ = external force parallel to the area
A = area

Page 19 of 33
 𝐹⊥
𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐴
Δ𝑙
𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝑙0
Tensile
Young’s Modulus:
tensile stress
𝒀=
tensile strain

𝐹⊥
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐴
Δ𝑙
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝑙0
Compressive
Young’s Modulus:
tensile stress
𝒀=
tensile strain

𝐁𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = Δ𝑝

Δ𝑉
𝐁𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
Bulk 𝑉0

Bulk Modulus:
bulk stress
𝑩=
bulk strain

Page 20 of 33
 𝐹∥
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝐴
𝑥
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
ℎ

Shear Modulus:
shear stress
𝑺=
Shear shear strain

3.2) FLUID MECHANICS

• Fluid statics: the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium

• Fluid dynamics: study of fluids in motion
• Fluid: any substance that can flow and change the shape of the volume that it
occupies (Liquid and Gas)
• Density (⍴) : constant; SI: 1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑚
⍴=
𝑣
• Specific Gravity (S.G.): ratio of a material’s density to the density of water at 4.0℃
(1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ); it has nothing to do with gravity and has no unit.
⍴
𝑆. 𝐺. =
⍴𝑜
Pressure in a Fluid
[Note the difference between rho (ρ) and p.]
• Pressure: normal force per unit area; SI: 1 Pa = 1 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑑𝐹
𝑝=
𝑑𝐴
𝐹⟂
𝑝=
𝐴
• Atmospheric pressure: pressure of the earth’s atmosphere
𝑝0 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎
• Pressure difference: as depth increases (denoted as y), pressure also increases
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = −⍴𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

Page 21 of 33
 • Pascal’s Law: pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel
𝐹1 𝐹2
𝑝= =
𝐴1 𝐴2
• Gauge Pressure: excess pressure above atmospheric pressure (𝑃0 )
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝 − 𝑝0
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = ⍴𝑔ℎ
• Absolute Pressure: total pressure
𝑝 = 𝑝0 + ⍴𝑔ℎ
p = absolute pressure, p0 = atmospheric pressure, h = height/depth

• Pressure of the liquid is same at any given depth below the surface regardless of the
shape of the container

Buoyancy
• Archimedes’s Principle: when a body is completely or partially immersed in a
fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body. It is also known as the buoyant force (FB).
𝐹𝐵 = ⍴𝑉𝑔; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ⍴ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
o Density of object > density of fluid → SINK
o Density of object < density of fluid → FLOAT
o Density of object = density of fluid → nothing will happen

Fluid Flow
• Ideal Fluid: incompressible and has no internal friction (viscosity); laminar flow
(steady flow)
• Continuity equation: larger area, slower velocity; example: hose
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑉
o Volume flow rate is the product of area and velocity; hence, = 𝐴𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
o Mass flow rate = ⍴ 𝑑𝑡

Bernoulli’s Equation
• Relates pressure, flow speed, and height for flow of an ideal, incompressible fluid
• When a fluid flows through a tube with varying cross section, its speed must change
○ Net work done:
𝑑𝑊 = (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝑑𝑉
○ Change in Kinetic Energy:
1
𝑑𝐾 = ⍴𝑑𝑉(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
2
Page 22 of 33
 ○ Change in Potential Energy
𝑑𝑈 = ⍴𝑑𝑉𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
○ Work-energy theorem - higher velocity, lower pressure
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝐾 + 𝑑𝑈
○ Bernoulli’s Equation
1 1
𝑃1 + ⍴𝑉12 + ⍴𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃2 + ⍴𝑉22 + ⍴𝑔𝑦2
2 2

3.3) GRAVITATION
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Any particle in the universe attracts any other particle with
a gravitational force whose magnitude is
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝑔 =
𝑟2
𝐺 = 6.67408 × 1011 [N ⋅ m2 /kg] (gravitational constant) 𝑟 = separation of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2
• Gravitational forces obey the principle of superposition
• The weight (w) of a body is the total gravitational force exerted on the body by all
other bodies in the universe
(𝑚𝐸 𝑚)
𝑤 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺
𝑅𝐸2
𝑅𝐸 = 6.37 × 106 [m] (radius of earth) 𝑚𝐸 = 5.97 × 1024

Acceleration due to gravity (g):

𝐺𝑚𝐸
𝑔=
𝑅𝐸2

Escape Speed (v): The minimum initial speed that will cause a projectile to move upward
forever
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√
𝑅
M, R = mass, radius of the planet (that the projectile escapes from)

• Closed orbits: trajectories that are ellipses, segments of ellipse, or circular

• Open orbits: projectile that never return to the starting point (e.g. parabolic,
hyperbolic orbit)

Orbital Speed: The speed of a mass in orbit

𝐺𝑚𝐸
𝑣=√
𝑟

Page 23 of 33
Period for one revolution: the time which a body rotates once on its axis
3
2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑇=
√𝐺𝑚𝐸

Kepler’s Laws
• First Law: The Law of Orbits
○ All planets move in elliptical orbits, with
the Sun at one focus
○ a is the semimajor axis, e is the
eccentricity, ea is the distance of either
focus
○ Perihelion (nearest), aphelion (farthest)

• Second Law: The Law of Areas

○ A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in the plane of
the planet’s orbit in equal time intervals
• Third Law: The Law of Periods
2
4𝜋 2 3
𝑇 =( )𝑟
𝐺𝑀

3.4) PERIODIC MOTION

Has stable equilibrium position due to restoring force; repetitive.
• Amplitude (A): maximum magnitude of displacement from equilibrium; one cycle:
-A to -A; SI unit: meter
• Period (T): time to complete one cycle; SI unit: seconds
• Frequency (f): number of cycles in a unit of time; it is always positive; SI unit: 1 Hz
= 1𝑠 −1
1
𝑓=
𝑇
• Angular frequency (𝝎) - 2π times the frequency
⍵ = 2𝜋𝑓
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Simplest form of oscillation
• Restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement
𝐹𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥
−𝑘
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥; 𝑎𝑥 = −⍵2 𝑥
𝑚

Page 24 of 33
 o In SHM, acceleration and displacement always have opposite signs;
acceleration is NOT constant
• Projection of uniform circular motion onto a diameter
𝑘
⍵=√
𝑚

1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
o In SHM, the period and frequency do not depend on the amplitude
• Displacement in SHM: sinusoidal function of time
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(⍵𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑣(𝑡) = −𝐴⍵𝑠𝑖𝑛(⍵𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑎(𝑡) = −𝐴⍵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(⍵𝑡 + 𝜙 )
• Velocity at any point:
𝑘 2
𝑣𝑥 = ±√ (𝐴 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑚

𝑘 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ 𝐴
𝑚
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⍵𝐴

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

• Applicable when no non-conservative force is present and the mass of the spring is
negligible
1
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑘𝐴2
2
1 2 1 2 1
𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2 2

Simple Pendulum
• Idealized model: restoring force is equal to the tangent component of the net force
• Tension: moves in an arc
• Point mass
−𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝐹(𝜃) = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝐿
𝑔
⍵=√
𝐿

Page 25 of 33
 1 𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝐿
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

Physical Pendulum
• Real pendulum that uses an extended body
𝜏𝑧 = −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝑑
⍵=√
𝐼

1 𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝐼

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝑑

Damped Oscillations
• Presence of dissipative forces in real world systems
• Additional force due to friction
• Damping: decrease in amplitude caused by dissipative forces
• Angular frequency of oscillation with damping:

𝑘 𝑏2
⍵′ = √ −
𝑚 4𝑚2
• Critically damped: no oscillation, returns to equilibrium position (mass in water)
𝑏 = 2√𝑘𝑚
• Overdamped: no oscillation, returns to equilibrium position slower than critical
damping (mass in thick oil)
𝑏 > 2√𝑘𝑚
• Underdamped: oscillates steadily with decreasing amplitude (mass in air)
𝑏 < 2√𝑘𝑚
- Resonance: the increase in amplitude of oscillation of a mechanical system

3.5) MECHANICAL WAVES

Mechanical wave: a disturbance that travels through some material or substance (the
medium)

Page 26 of 33
Types Of Mechanical Waves (based on the direction of displacement)

Transverse Wave: the displacements of the medium are perpendicular to the direction
that the wave travels along the medium
Longitudinal Wave: the displacements of the medium are parallel to the direction that the
wave travels along the medium

Wave speed: speed of disturbance or propagation, NOT the speed at which the particles in
the medium are displaced when disturbed by the wave

Periodic waves: disturbances that cause the particles in the medium to move harmonically
(Recall: Periodic Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion)
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥m cos(𝜔𝑡) ; 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥m sin(𝜔𝑡)

Wavefunction: description of a wave; y(x,t) (x refers to position, t refers to time)

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

where k = 2π/λ is the wave number; and

ω = 2π/T is the angular frequency

(Note that cosine here can be switched for sine, since a sinusoidal wave is just something
that exists in space, no numbers attached. We just use sine or cosine to describe its
harmonic characteristic.)

Substituting these to v = λf, we have ω = vk.

Note: manipulating the formulas for k and ω gives us

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜆 = 𝑘 (space) 𝑇 = 𝜔 (time)

Plotting the wavefunction:

Page 27 of 33
Movement of the wavefunction:
𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑥m cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Towards positive x-axis:
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔
𝑣=
𝑘

Towards negative x-axis:

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔
𝑣=−
𝑘

Wavefunction and its Derivatives

First derivative: velocity

𝜕𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑣𝑦 = = 𝜔𝐴sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡

Second derivative: acceleration

𝜕𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑎𝑦 = 2 = −𝜔2 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = −𝜔2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕 (𝑡 )

Maximum velocity and acceleration of a particle in a wave is when

sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 1 or cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 1

𝑣𝑦,max = 𝜔𝐴 𝑎𝑦,max = 𝜔2 𝐴

(Nondispersive) Wave Equation

𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
= ( )
𝜕2𝑥 𝑣2 𝜕2𝑡

Page 28 of 33
Speed of a Transverse Wave
𝐹
𝑣=√
𝜇
where F is the tension on the string and 𝝁 is the linear mass density of the string

Power for a Wave Motion

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑡) = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2𝐴2 sin2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2 𝐴2
1
𝑃ave = √𝜇𝐹𝜔2 𝐴2
2

Wave Intensity
𝐼1 𝑟12 = 𝐼2 𝑟22
(derived from inverse square law for intensity)

The farther from the source of the disturbance, the less intensity and the greater the area
that the power is spread over. Power remains constant no matter the distance from source.

Wave Interference
Principle of Superposition
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡)

• Overlapping waves algebraically add to produce a resultant wave.

• Overlapping waves do not alter each other’s travel along the medium.

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Boundary Conditions

Fixed end: hard reflection; incident wave and reflected wave are opposite each other
Free end: soft reflection; incident wave and reflected wave are the same

A wave travelling from less dense to more dense medium: no inversion with transmitted
pulse, no inversion with reflected pulse

A wave travelling from more dense to less dense medium: no inversion with transmitted
pulse, inversion with reflected pulse

Standing Waves

• Waves that do not appear to shift their pattern in any direction along the string
• Nodes: points at which the medium does not move (labeled N on diagram)
• Antinodes: points at which the amplitude of the wave is greatest (labeled A on
diagram)

• Consists of

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 o Incident wave traveling to the left
o Reflected wave traveling to the right

• Standing wave consists of the following wave

o Incident wave traveling to the left:

𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

o Reflected Wave traveling to the right:

𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)

o By principle of superposition
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝟐𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒌𝒙𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆
o Nodes: sin𝑘𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑘 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 ,… or 𝑥 = 0, 2 , 2 , 2 ,…
o The net mechanical energy transfer in standing wave is zero

Harmonics in Waves

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 FINALS

4) SOUND

• Sound Waves - mechanical wave of compression and rarefaction

Compression- region in a longitudinal wave where particles are closest together

Rarefaction- region in a longitudinal wave where particles are farthest apart

• Longitudinal Wave- disturbance parallel to direction of wave propagation

Speed of sound in air at 20°C - 343 m/s

Doppler Effect - apparent change in frequency due to the motion of the observer/receiver;
the greater the relative motion, the greater will the Doppler effect be
• phenomena is demonstrated by the siren of an ambulance, as the ambulance
approaches you, the sound becomes louder

𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓′ = 𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠

where
𝑓: actual frequency of the 𝑣: speed of sound waves
sound waves 𝑣0 : velocity of the
𝑓′: observed frequency observer

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 𝑣𝑠 : velocity of the source

Note:
as the observer approaches the source, vo is positive and vice versa
as the source approaches the observer, vs is negative and vice versa

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