Self-Demagnetixation

Buyer: in Magnetic
Recording 81

then the point at which the tape starts to approach its linearizingprocessinherentinacbiasrecordings.In
final value is not directly beneath the head gap. In fact, most cases experiments canbe thought of and run which
if the bias levelisincreased,itshouldbepossibleto will either strongly support or strongly discount each
shift the signal up the tape. Two channels werefirst one, Eldridge’s theorylo is just such an example, for his
recorded simultaneously on a single tape and their rela- model predicts modulation when PWM of the bias sig-
tive phases were noted. The bias level on one was then nal is used and this is not consistent with the experi-
increased,whichdidcausethesignaltoshiftalmost mental results.
linearly with the applied bias. This signal shift vs bias Theseexperimentsstronglysupportthetheory of
level is shown in Fig.6. This same reasoning would indi- Toomin and Wildfever, and Camras. This is important
cate that the high-frequency response should decrease as because it points out that the nonlinearities are due to
the bias level is increased. This has been observed by the inherent magnetic properties of the tape. For im-
Daniel9 and others. provement one must either look for a tape that has a
more linear transfer characteristic or change recording
CONCLUSION tactics, predistort the recording signal with a com-
New theories to illustrate ac bias should be carefully pensating nonlinearity to linearize the over-all transfer
scrutinized and should do more than just explain the characteristic.

D. Daniel, “The influence of some head and tape constants on D. F. Eldridge, “The mechanism of ac biased magnetic record-
the signal recorded on a magnetic tape,” PROC.IEEE, vol. 100, pt. ing,” IRE TRANS. ON AUDIO,vol. AU-9,pp. 155-158; Septembel-
111, pp. 168-175; May, 1953. October, 1961.

A Theoretical Treatment of SelfHDemagnetization

in Magnetic Recording*
R. G. BAYERt

Summary-A model for self-demagnetization is proposed which will tend to decrease the magnitude of the magnetiza-
states that the value of the field and magnetization at every point in tionforthatelementuntilanequilibriumstate c is
the material represent a point on a particular hysteresis loop of the
reached.Thisdecrease in magnetizationbythe field
material. This loop can either be a major or a minor loop of the
material. The particular loop ascribed to a point is determined by the produced by the magnetization is known as self-demag-
magnetization which existed at that point initially. This model has netization and the resulting equilibrium state may be
been applied to an ideal case of longitudinal recording. The results termed the self-demagnetized state.
are compared with the Kostyshyn model for self-demagnetization This phenomenon occurs in permanent magnets and
and with experimental data.
has been treated in that case in terms of dernagnetiza-
INTRODCCTION tion fact0r.l This factor is essentially the ratio of the
field tothemagnetizationwhichoccursintheequi-

T H E P H E N O M E N O N of self-demagnetization in
magnetic recording may be described in the fol-
lowing manner. In the write process a small ele-
ment of magnetic material will eventually go from an
librium state. It depends only on the geometry
magnet and has been determined exactly for ellipsoids
and approximately for bar and rods.2
of the

In
magneticrecording,
self-demagnetizationwas
initial state a (Fig. 1) to a state b as it moves to the
treated in terms of ademagnetizationfactorfirstby
vicinity of thewritehead, is writtenon,andmoves
Westn~ijze~ and later by K~styshyn.~ Westmijze con-
away from the vicinity of the head. After point b , the
magnetization of that element will be governed by the R. M . Bozorth, “Ferromagnetism,” D. Van Sostrand Company,
fields produced by the magnetization in the tape. These Inc., Princeton, N. J., p. 10; 1956.
Ibid., pp. 845-849.
fields will be opposite in sign to the magnetization, and W. K. Westmijze,“StudiesonMagneticRecording,” Philips
Res. Rept., vol. 8, pp. 245-269; 1953.
B. Kostvshvn. A harmonicanalvsis of saturationrecording
Received March 4, 1963. in a magnetkhedium,” 1961 IREI~TERNATIOSAL COXVENTION
General Products Division, IBM Corporation, Endicott, Y. RECORD, pt. 2 , pp. 112-127.

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82
siders only sine-wave magnetization, while Kostyshyn
considersanyperiodicfunctionwhichcouldbeex-
panded into a Fourier Series. IITestmijze concluded that
the use of a demagnetization factor was not entirely
satisfactory since the functional behavior with respect
to depth in the magnetic medium was not the same for
the field and the magnetization; consequently, the ratio
was not a constant. Kostl-shyn remedied this by consid-
ering an average demagnetization factor (average over
the thickness of the magnetic medium). However, inhis
workheutilized a superpositionprincipleindescrib-
ing an irreversible and nonlinear process.
T h e model presented here does not utilize either the
concept of a demagnetization factor or the concept of
superposition. In addition the problen~ of self-demag-
netization is treated in a nonlinear manner. This model
does,however,implytheassumptionthathysteresis
loops can be used to describe the behavior of small ele-
ments of magneticmaterial.Theassumptionappears
tobereasonable if theelementswhichneed to be
treated are larger than a domain. 111 this case then, the
hysteresisloopcanbethought of as representing the
average behavior of the element. The validity of' such
anassumption will bedeterminedbytheresultsob-
tained from the model.
T h e modelassumesthat a mag-neticmaterialpos-
sesses a family of hysteresis loops of the tl-pe indicated
in Fig. 2. These loops can be specified in terms of their
remanent magnetization M I (the magnetization occur-
ring at zerofield). Themajorloop is thesaturated
hysteresis loop, i.e., the remanent magnetization of the
major loop is equal to the remanent magnetization
the material M E . The minor loops are the unsaturated
loopsandtheirvalue of remanentmagnetization
smaller than M , ? , i.e., 1111 N , ? .
I n thisproposalthemodelstatesthat i l l t h t : self-
tiernagnetized state the value o f the field anti the tnag-
netizationoccurring i n ever?.element oi the material
mustrepresent a point on an appropriatehysteresis
loop of the t)-pe mentioned previously. The appropriate
loop for each element is t h a t loop whose remanent mag- pp, 1337-1338; August, 1961.
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IKEE
Fig. 1-Magnetic recording process.
Fig. 2---Family of hysteresis loops.
netization is equal to the magnetization which that ele-
ment possessed as it passed through state b.
According to the model, the general scheme for deter-
mining the
magnetization in the self-demagnetized
state is to assume a distribution with respect to space
coordinates for the magnetization occurring in state b
and to assume certain properties of the hysteresis loops
of the material. Under these two conditions,a magneti-
zation in the self-demagnetized state 31 is to be deter-
minedsuchthatthemagnetizationandthe field H
(which the magnetization produces) in each element of
themediumrepresentapointontheparticularloop
assigned to that element.
T h e model is not concerned with the specific means
bJ- which the magnetization batcan be determined from
the magnetization at a.This can be determined (Fig. 1)
by a theoryproposed by KU.; I t concernsitselfonly
with the transition from b to c.
T h e model is applied below to a longitudinal sl-stem
of recording to demonstrate the model and to investi-
gate the validity of the model.
FORMLX,~LTION
hIODI3, The procedure used in lormulatingthemodel is to
firstassumeanexpressionforthemajorandminor
h\.steresis loops in terms of the initial conditions. Ex-
pressionsarethenassumedfortheinitialandfinal
values o i the magnetization and the field i n the tape.
T h e expression for the initial values are fully specified
and those for the final values, i.e., the values in the self-
of demagnetized state, are only partially specific.In the
latter case only the dependency on the spatial coordi-
is natesare specified andcertainconstantsareleftun-
specified. \T'hen theseconstantsaredetermined,the
solution o f the problem willbe determined.
'I'he values o f these constants are determined b y sub-
stituting. the expression for the initial and final values of
T.C. Ku, "An analytical expression for the writc
process in magnetic recording," I'ROC.IRE (Correspondence), vol.
1963 Self-Demagnetization
Bayer: Recording
Magnetic 83

the magnetization and field into the expression for the M

hysteresis loops and solving the resulting expression for b
I: .a
these constants.
I t is assumedthattheportion of the M-H loops
occurring in the second and fourth quadrants may be
represented by rectangular hyperbolas of the following d 600
form.

In this equation M 1 is the remanent magnetization

of the loops, HI is the coercive force of the loops (the
value of the field a t zero magnetization), and M z is the -500
value of M a t H1/2. Fig. 3--Demagnetization portion of a hysteresis loop.
The approximation of hysteresis loops by rectangular
hyperbolas has been known and used for some til~~e.~,~
T h e tape7usedforobtainingtheexperimentaldata
obeys this relationship quite well (Fig. 3).
The parameters M I , El and M z are not independent
in a given material; any two can be given in terms of the
third. For the model discussed in this paper, i t is useful
to have H1 and M z expressed in terms of M1. For the
tapeused,theserelationshipsmaybeexpressedas
follows

where H, and M E arerespectivelythecoerciveforce

and the remanent magnetization of the major loop of
M2
the material.
Fig. 4- and HII as a Function of M R

where M' is the value of M z for the major loop. These

relationships were determined from experimental data;
agreement between these expressions and experimental
d a t a is shown in Fig. 4.
A magnetic media of infinite length and width and of
thickness is assumed. hlagnetization is assumed to be
periodic of wavelength All coordinates are normalized
with respect to hence the thickness of the medium in
normalizedcoordinates is d/h. Thecoordinatealong
the length of the media isx and along the thicknessis y ,
(x,0 ) is a point on the upper surface of the media and LOOP
(x, - d / h ) is a point on the lower surface. Fig. 5-Sheared loop.
Dependingontheirorigin,theself-demagnetizing
fields produced in such a system may be separated into ond may be taken into account by considering the ma-
two types. One type is the result of the change of mag- terial to be anisotropic. That is, the hysteresis loop in
netization in the media; the other is the result of the t h e y direction isa sheared hysteresis loop, while that in
poles which tend tobe produced on the upper and lower the x direction is an unsheared loop, or normal (Fig.5 ) .
boundaries of the media when any fields or magnetiza- For d/h<<l, this anisotropy is very great and the mag-
tion are present in the y direction. In this analysis the netization produced in the y direction by any fields in
first type will be considered. The effect due to the sec- thatdirectioncanbeignoredwhencomparedtothe
magnetization which would be produced by that same
Bozorth, op, cit., pp. 349-351.
7 3M109 Red Oxide Tape. field when applied in the y direction.

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84 IEEE TRANSACTIONS A CDIO :Vq-June, PARI/' I

For this reason the magnetization is assumed to be

purelylongitudinal.Inaddition,forsimplicity,no
dependency of y is considered in this study.
I t is assumed that M 1 , M 2 , and HI can be expressed
as follows

If (6) is placed in the following form,

HI sin 2 t n ~ (44
1-1

where a l , CY^, PI,Ps, P m ; 71,YZ, ymare

the first coefficients of a Fourier expansion of M I , M z ,
and H1 respectively. The and y's can be expressed
in terms of the C Y ' S . An exact form of this relationship where
will be given later. ml m ; ma m if m is odd;
I t is assumed that the magnetization and thefield in
the x direction in the self-demagnetized state can be m z m; m l if is even
expressed as follows and where
F(r, cyr)anbz PrYlan ff,Pnbl ffrPnYl,

and (7) is substituted, the following is arrived at upon

reduction

r=1.3 n=1,3 Z=1,3

where the a k ' s are the unknowns to be determined, and
the b,'s are a function of the ab's. This relationship will
1=1,3 n=1,3 :=2,4
also be given later.
According to theory,1 11and H must represent a point
on the loop specified by AIL, M 2 , and H I ;i.e., (1) must
be identically true for every valueof x and y.Substitut-
ing the expression for AIJ,A T 2 , etc. into (1) leads to the
following identity whose solution will yield the values
of the

r=2,4 n=1,3 k1.3

r=l n=l 1=1

sin 2rax sin 2 n m sin 21nx 0. (6)

It can be shown t h a t

vhere n is odd (ia) where

Lo(t)
(t-1)iz
2
k-O,1,2
do(!,
s ) cos 2TX,

and
- B e 1 ( n , coszr
1 even (5b) L&) cos 2 T X cos 2nx

where

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 Buyer: Self-Demagnetization
Recording
in Magnetic 85

The solution of this identity in (8) will,in general, Utilizing these conditions and standard separation of
yield a system of simultaneous equations involving the variable technique,* the following expressions result:
ak’s and the bl’s. The exact nature of these equations
with regard to the unknowns (ak’s) may be determined
by explicitly obtaining the bc’s as a function of the ah’s.
This is done by solving Maxwell’s equation for magnetic
media with magnetization given by (Sa) in free space.
In the case of magneto-statics, Maxwell’s Equations
reduce to the following: y20 (lja)
VXH=O
V B=O (lob)

where
B H+M.
Thesethreeexpressionsmaybecombinedtoyield
the following equation
V2H V(V M).
Nowthemagnetizationsinthethreeregions(in,
above, and below the tape) may be written as follows:

OIyL:
T h e component of the field in the tape is seen to be
M i ak sin 2knx, Iy 5 0 (12b) a function of y (15b). However, since the dependency is
k=l x not a strong one for an average value is satis-
factory for H.
and, consequently,

-a
V.M 2kaak cos 2knx, 5 5 0. (13b) This reduces to
k=! x
Substituting (13) into (11) and reducing, the follow- H sin 21ax,
ing pairs of equations are obtained: z=1

where
(144

(14a’)
Hence
v2H, (2ka)’uk sin 2kax 5 y 5 0. (14b)
k=l bc (18)
V2H, 0. (14b’)
If (18) is substituted into the expression for F ( r , n,
T h e fields must satisfy the following additional con- (8),F ( r , n, I ) isseen to be quadratic in the unknown
ditions ah’s. Hence the set equations obtained from the identity
given in (9) is a system of quadratic equations, the solu-
1) Periodic in x. tion of which will yield the values of the ak’s.
2) When M=O, H=O.
In the ideal case, is infinite and there are an infinite
3) V.B=V.(H+M)=O.
4) At 5 H=O.
5) At y and y B , and H , must be con- See for example, H. Margenau and G. Murphy, “The Mathe-
matics of Physics andChemistry,” D. VanNostrandCompany,
tinuous. Inc., Princeton, N. J.; 1953.

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number of quadraticequationsinvolvinganinfinite
number of unknowns. This case is not solved directly.
Instead, the existence of a solution for that case is indi-
cated bl- obtaining a series of solutionsfordifferent
values of nz and showing- t h a t the same solution occurs
for successive values of m.
S~LLTI~K
I t is convenient to assume at this point that the even
harmonictermsintheexpansion for AIl,X 2 , HI, dl,
and H are zero. This willbe true for a square wave,
trapezoidal or an?- other initial magnetization in which
each
half-q-cle is s)rmmetric about its In
such cases, therefore, m need o n l ~ be
. taken as odd. The
identity given in (11) then reduces to

555
r=1,3 n=1,3 1=1,3
o i alz in(20) (rn=1) is F ( r , 12, 2)I'7ZZL~(I)L~(~)L~(Z)
i l l ; in(21a) ( m = 3 ) , 0. (19)
i t is [ ( 2 p 1 - a 1 ) (2,!2:3-a3) ,41. If oneassumesthat
V\'hen 1, only one equation results from the reduc- Fourier coefficientsdecreasewithincreasingindices,
tion of the identity given in (19). I t is then the coefficient of i l l inthesecondexpressionis
improved over the first expression by inclusion of the
(2p1 al)Ala12 cr1,Blill)al a l P l y l 0. (20) second-order term, (2p3- 0 1 3 ) . This is likewise true for
IT\'hen 3, the follon-ing set results: the introduction of terms involving a3 into (20) which
becomes (ala) after the introduction.
In a like manner, equations which contain only terms
of one order,e.g., (21d), can be thoughtof as being more
approximatethanequationswhichcontainterms of
several orders, such as (2 lb).
These sets of equations were solved numerically for
the case in which -2.11 has a square wave shape, i.e., for

For such a case, the wave forms of H 1 and ATz are also
square, and the following relationships are true:

where the K ' s are functions of a l , a3, 71. and y3

(Table I ) . For higher values of m , similar sets of equa-
tionswouldbeobtained.For m = 5 , sevenquadratic
equationsinterms of the three unknowns, a], as,
would be obtained.
Anexamination of thesets of equationsobtained The values for AI' and H , ! weretakento
inthisfashionwouldshowthatas m increasesthe be, respectively-, 900 gauss, 740 gauss, and 280 oersteds.
number of equationsalsoincreases.Equationswhich These are the valuesfor the tape previously mentioned.
existed for a lower value of m reappear for higher values Sincetheequationsarequadratic,itwasfoundin
of m with the addition of new terms and with modified solving these equations numerically that more than one
constants.Thesemodifications of theequationswith solution could be found. In order to select the proper
increasing nz can be thought of as improving the ap- one, additional criteria were imposed which demanded
proximation to the case where rn isinfinite by inclu- that the correct solution bephq-sicallyallowable. T h e
sion of higher-order terms. For example, the coefficient criteria used are as follomrs:
1) The value of Jl and H at ever>- point in the tape
I t can be sh0n.n that if a functionf(x) is defined in the interval must occur in the second and fourth quadrants of
a n M-H plot.
2) 52 IIIn:
exists and iff(.) is symmetric about the point -A14 in the interval 3) The potential energy of a bit must be lower after
-X/Z<x<O andsymmetricaboutthepoint A/4 in theinterval self-demagnetizationhasoccurredthaninthe
O_<x_<h/Z,then f ( x ) can be expressed in terms of a Fourier series
containing only odd harmonic terms. initial state;i.e.,E z 5 E l .

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 Buyer: Self-Demagnetization
Recording
in Magnetic 87

T h e first condition expresses the fact that in the state TABLE I1

APPROXIMATIOSS
SUCCESSIVE FOR VARIOUS
VALUES OF d/h
ofself-demagnetizationthedirection of the field and
the magnetization are 180" out of phase. m=3 m=5
The second condition stems from the fact that the
uk's are Fourier coefficients and that the maximum ab-
solute value which the magnetization can have is M E 1 0.0050 1142 1128 362.6 1138 370.3
216.6
0.0125 1112 1108 344.7 1091 313.2 187.8
Consequently, 0.0250 1078 1072 316.6 1011 223.8 146.0
0.0500 1002 995.5 267.1 907.1 146.1 104.0

an 2 I I/%

L 1 , %
M sin2nsxdx 5 2 ME (23)
0.1250
0.2500
787.3
586.7
762.5
557.3
161.5
115.2

a2=381.7
746.4
582.4

CQ
131.5
129.6

299
79.2
73.2

Thethirdcondition is basedonthefactthatself-
demagnetization is anirreversible process.Using the
TABLE I11
definition for the potential energy of a permanent mag- VALUESOF al, a3,A N D BY
COMPUTED M E A N S OF THE
net given by Stratton,lo it can be shown that the energy KOSTYSHYN MODEL
of a bit before self-demagnetization, El is as follows:
a1 a3 a5
m
361
0.0050 1114 209
0.0125 186
0.0250 155
and after self-demagnetization, E2is as follows:
0.0500
0.1250
1310.2500 573
?f 115
85
76

k=l
TABLE IV
where K is a positive constant dependent on the thick- APPROXIMATIONS
SUCCESSIVE FOR VARIOUS
VALUES OF d/h
ness and width of the tape and the wavelength. Conse-
quently, 3) reduces to
0.0050 1008 269 115
0.0125 19
0.0250 13
k=l 0.0500 0
0.1250 450 0 0
The results of the solution obtained after applying
thiscriterionarelistedforvariousvalues ofd/X in
Table 11. For m 3, the solutions listed were obtained KO experimental data can be given to directly verify
from (21a) and (21b); for m = 5 , equations correspond- the result given in Table I1 since the initial magnetiza-
ingto(21a),(21b)and(21d).Thesesolutionsdonot tionsobtainedexperimentallyarenotsquarewaves.
satisfy all theremainingequationsexactly,butonly However, the experimental data in Table IV does give
approximately. This is tobeexpectedbecause of the general confirmationof the results in Table11, especially
varying degrees of approximation which the equations for the lower values of d/X and the lower coefficients.
pass. This is to be expected since the nonsquareness of the
However, i t is evident that the same solution occurs initial magnetization would tend to decrease the higher
for successive values of m. This repetition of the same coefficient more than the lower ones, and also to become
solution is taken as an indication that a solution exists more important at higher values of d / X ' s . The value
for the infinite case, ie., m = c o , and that the solutions giveninTables11, I11 and IV all indicate that self-
obtainedareapproximationstothesolutionwhich demagnetism become
important
for a1 aatb o u t
would be obtained in t h a t case. d / X = 0 . 0 5 ; for d/X=0.0125;and a6,d/X=0.005.
Results obtained with the Kostyshyn method (Table Table IV also indicates that there can be more impor-
111) comparedwiththeonesgiven in TableI1show t a n t loss mechanism occurring than self-demagnetiza-
general agreement. However, the model developed here tion.
showsaslightlygreatereffect.Forexample,inthe The results obtained from the calculations performed
Kostyshyn model a t d/X 0.0250, a1 has changed from indicate that there is a valueof d/X beyond which there
its initial value, 011, by 8.8 per cent; 013 by 22 per cent; will be no significant change in the ak's, as can be seen
and a6 by 32.3 per cent; in the data presented here by by the behavior of a3 and
12 per cent; by 41 per cent; and by 36 per cent, respec-
tively. CONCLUSION
As stated in the Introduction, the model proposed in
this paper differs substantially from the model proposed
J. A. Stratton, "Electromagnetic Theory," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, N. Y . , pp. 129-130; 1941. by Kostyshyn.IntheKostvshynmodelaboundary

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value problem is formed and is solved by means of a as seen in Table II,T.Here it can be seen t h a t
linearization and the useof a superposition principle, In there can be a more importantloss mechanism occurring
the model proposed here, a boundary value approach is in magnetic recording than self-demagnetization.
nottaken.Instead,amethod of undetermined coeffi- Eventhoughthe final equationsdevelopedinthis
cients, coupled with a phenomenological description of paper were for symmetrical magnetization, this method
the self-demagnetization,is used which avoids the linear- could be used to treat asymmetrical magnetizations by
ization and superposition which Kostyshyn employs in retainingtheeven-numberedterms.Theauthoralso
his solution. feels that this model could be applied to initial magnet-
For an initial square wave magnetization it was seen ization other than a series of oaes.
thatthenumericalvaluesindicatedbybothmodels As mentioned in the Introduction, the model employs
are very close. If the two models are composed for vari- the assumption that hysteresis loops can be applied to
ous trapezoidal-shaped initial magnetization, the results small elements of magnetic material. I t is felt that the
of a first-order approximation (i.e.,m 1) indicate that results obtained confirm this original assumption quite
there is good correspondence between the two models for well.
most values of However, for higher values of In conclusion, the author feels that the results ob-
there might be as much as 20 or 30 per cent difference. tained indicate the feasibility of the model proposed in
The results given in Table I1 indicate that self-demag- this paper.
netization does not significantly change the value of a,
from the value of an for values of smaller than ACI<NOVLEDG~IES’I’
approximately 0.05. However, it is known t h a t a change The author would like to thank F. Arnold of the I B M
in shape of the initial magnetization from a square can EndicottScientificComputationLaboratory forhis
substantially reduce the value of a n ,even for values of assistance in obtaining the numerical solution.

Some Techniques Toward Better

Stereophonic Perspective*

Summary-Improvementsinstereophonicsoundreproduction Paris and connected them to several hundred pairs of

areidentified withthosequalitieswhichcausetherecordedper- Bell Telephoneslocated attheElectricalExhibition
formancetorecallsimilarrealperformancesintheminds of the
listeners. This paper describes the results of research at CBS Labo-
Hall.Whenlisteningwithbothearstothetelephone
ratories toward improvements in recording of space perspective. Two pairs, the sound took ona special character of relief and
experiments are described: 1) On the use of back-to-back limaGon localization which a single telephone could not produce.
microphones for reproducing correctly the direction of reverberation This demonstration became among the most popular at-
and other space sounds. 2) On the design and use of a device called tractions at the Exhibition.] Crudeas these experiments
the stereophonic spreader and shifter to spread a monophonic sound
to cover any desired proportion of the stereophonic field, and then
may appear today, they show clearly the unconscious
to position it anywhere in the field, within or outside the limits of power of the art forms which in our minds recreate past
placement of theloudspeaker.Thesedevicesarecharacterized as experiences. The characterof sound, including intensity,
tools which may be used by the recording director to convey to the pitch, timbre, angle of arrival and the rate of change of
listener the desired artistic message. these qualities are a partof these experiences. In review-
IKTRODUCTION ing the advances of stereo sound, there is an unmistak-
able tendency toward improvement of thosequalities

T HE A R T OF T R A N S l I I S S I O N of directional
sound perception may be said to have begun in
1881 when Ader placed a number of carbon-rod
microphonesinthefootlights at the Grand Opera in
which identify the recorded performance with

are taking place on

a real per-
formance in the minds of the listeners. These advances
all fronts: in sound reception, re-
cording and reprodution. U’e touch lightly on a selected

Received November 20, 1962:revisedmanuscript.received

June 17, 1963. H. A. Frederick, T h e development of the microphone,”
CBS Laboratories, Stamford, Conn. Acozts. Am., vol. 3, pp. 8-9; July, 1931.

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