Internal combustion engines

I.C.E
Definition of engine: An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another
form.
However, while transforming, the efficiency of conversion plays an important role. Normally
most of engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called
"heat engines".

Heat engine

Internal combustion engine External combustion engine

Rotary reciprocating rockets Ramjet pulsejet Rotary reciprocating

Open cycle Gasoline Steam

gas turbine engine I.C. turbine
heat
Wankel Diesel Closed
engine engine cycle gas Steam
turbine engine
Jet engine Gas engine
air craft
Multi-fuel Stirling
engine engine

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 1

 Chapter 1
Introduction to I.C engines
Introduction:
 Internal combustion engines are defined as an engine in which the chemical energy of the
fuel is released inside the engine and used directly for mechanical work.
 External combustion engines differ from internal combustion engines in that the former
used a separate combustor to burn the fuel.
 Internal combustion engine or I.C.E. can deliver power in the range of (0.01 Kw) to (2*104
kW), depending on their displacement.
Required power for vehicular applications is (100 kW)
 The major applications of I.C. engines are in the vehicular section such as (automobiles
and trucks, rail road, aircraft, home use, stationary area).
 The wide spread of I.C. engines is resulted from its relatively low cost, favorable power to
weight ratio, high efficiency, and relatively simple and robust operating characteristics.

 The figure shows the reciprocating

piston-cylinder principle Used in I.C.
engines, where the piston oscillates
back and forth in a cylinder and
transmits power to a drive shaft
through a connecting rod and
crankshaft mechanism. Valves are
used to control the flow of gas into and
out of the engine

 The main difference between a modern day engine and one built 100 years ago are the
thermal efficiency and emissions level, I.C. engines research was aimed at improving
thermal efficiency and reducing noise and vibration, the thermal efficiency is increased
from 10% to 50% also emission control requirements are one of the major factors in the
design and operation of an I.C. engine.

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 2

 Engine cycles
There are two major cycles used in an internal combustion engine:
1- Otto cycle or spark ignition (SI) engine: a spark is needed to ignite the fuel-air mixture.
2- Diesel cycle or compression ignition (CI) engine: the fuel will auto-ignite when injected
into the combustion chamber.

The Otto and diesel cycles operate on either a four or two stroke cycle.
 The four-stroke Otto cycle has the following sequence of operations:
1. An intake stroke that draws in a combustible mixture of fuel and air past the throttle and
the intake valve into the cylinder.
2. A compression stroke with the valves closed which raises the temperature of the
mixture; a spark ignites the mixture towards the end of the compression stroke.
3. An expansion or power stroke resulting from combustion of the fuel-air mixture.
4. An exhaust stroke that pushes out the burned gases past the exhaust valve.

 The four-stroke diesel cycle has the following sequence of operations:

1. An intake stroke that draws in air passes the intake valve into the cylinder.
2. A compression stroke that raises the air temperature above the auto-ignition
temperature of the fuel, diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder near the end of the
compression stroke.
3. Evaporation, mixing, ignition, and combustion of the diesel fuel during the later stages
of the compression stroke and the first part of the expansion stroke.
4. An exhaust stroke that pushes out the burned gases past the exhaust valve.

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 3

*Two-stroke cycle
Two-stroke engines need only two strokes of the piston or one revolution to complete a cycle.
 There is power stroke in every revolution instead of every two revolution as a four-stroke
engine.
 Two-stroke engines are mechanically simpler than four-stroke engines, and have a higher
power to weight ratio.
 Scavenging: is the process in which the remaining exhaust gases will push out from the
cylinder by the incoming air.
 The process in which some of the air will go straight through the cylinder and out from the
exhaust port (with no action) called short circuiting.
 The port design and the shape of the piston top have great effects on the magnitude of the
problems in two-stroke engines.
 In the carbureted two-stroke engines, some of fuel-air mixture will short circuit and appear
in the exhaust, wasting fuel and increasing hydrocarbon emissions.

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 4

 Operation parameters:
Geometric parameters:
- bore (b) [0.5 m to 0.5 cm]
- connecting rod length (L)
- crank radius (a)
- stroke (s)
- crank angle (θ)
 when b = s, engine is called square engine.
 Top dead center (TDC) refers to the crank shaft being
in a position such that θ = 0o
 S = 2a
 The volume at (TDC) is minimum and called the
clearance volume 𝑉𝑐
 Bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the crankshaft
being in a position such that θ = 180o
 The volume is maximum at (BDC) is called V1
 S = 2a
 The volume at (TDC) is minimum and called the
clearance volume 𝑉𝑐

 The compression ratio (r) is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum volume.
𝑉𝑏𝑑𝑐 𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 +𝑉𝑐
𝑟= = = - - - (1)
𝑉𝑡𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑐

 The displacement volume (Vd) is the difference between the maximum and minimum
volume
For a single cylinder:
𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = (V1 – VC) = 𝑏2 𝑠 - - - (2)
4
𝜋
For multiple cylinders : 𝑉𝑠 = (V1 – VC) * 𝑛𝑐 = 𝑏2 𝑠 *nc
4

- Where 𝑛𝑐 is the number of cylinders

 Instantaneous volume:
𝜋
𝑉𝜃 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑦 - - - (3)
4

- Where y is the instantaneous stroke.

1
𝑦 = 𝑙 + 𝑎 − [(𝑙2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)2 + 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] - - - (4)
𝑦 =𝑙+𝑎−𝑘

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 5

 - Where [ 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + √𝑙2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃] from fig.

 Mean piston speed given by:

𝜐̅𝑝 = 2𝑁𝑆 [ranged (5 to 15 m/sec)] [revolution takes 0.002 sec]
-
Since the piston travels a distance twice the stroke per revolution, and N is the engine
speed expressed in revolution per minute of crankshaft.
 The instantaneous piston speed is

𝜐𝑝 (𝜃) 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [1 + 1 ]
̅𝑝
𝜐 2
𝑙 2 2
2
- - - (5)
[( ) −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]
𝑎

 From fig
𝑘 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + √𝑙2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 - - -(6)
𝑑𝑘
- 𝜐̅𝑝 = this leads to instantaneous piston speed.
𝑑𝑡
-
- From equal. 3 & 4
𝜋 2 1
𝑉𝜃 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑏 (𝑙 + 𝑎 − [(𝑙2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)2 + 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃])
4
Or
1
𝑉𝜃 1 𝑙 𝑙2 2 2
= 1 + (𝑟 − 1) [ + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) ] - - - (7)
𝑉𝑐 2 𝑎 𝑎2

- The above equation represents the instantaneous volume at any crank angle.
 Brake power (𝑤̇𝑏 ) is the rate at which work is done, or it's the power output of the engine.
 Engine torque (T) is a measure of the work done per unit rotation (radius) on the crank.
 Indicated power (𝑤̇𝑖 ) is the power or rate of work done by the gas.
 Friction cause the (𝑤̇𝑏 ) be less than (𝑤̇𝑖 )
 The brake power and torque are related by (𝑤̇𝑏 ) = 2πTN - - - (8)
Where the N is the revolution per minute
 The mean effective pressure (mep) is the work done per unit displacement volume (Vd).
 (imep) indicated mean effective pressure is the net work per unit displacement volume
done by the gas during compression and expansion strokes.
 (bmep) brake mean effective pressure is the external shaft work per unit volume done by
the engine.

4𝜋𝑇
bmep = (four stroke)
𝑉𝑑

2𝜋𝑇 - - - (9)
bmep = (two stroke)
𝑉𝑑

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 6

 - in terms of power
2𝑊̇𝑏
bmep = (four stroke)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁

𝑊̇𝑏 - - - (10)
beep = (two stroke)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁

 (bsfc) brake specific fuel consumption is the fuel flow rate 𝑚̇𝑓 devided by the brake power
𝑊̇𝑏 or:
𝑚̇𝑓 𝑚̇𝑓
bsfc= = - - - (11)
𝑤̇𝑏 2𝜋𝑇𝑁

 The brake thermal efficiency is given by:

𝑤̇𝑏
𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ = - - - (12)
𝑚̇𝑓 ∗ 𝑞𝑐
- Where 𝑞𝑐 is the heat of combustion or it is called heating value or calorie value (C.V).

 The volumetric efficiency (𝜂𝑣 ) is the mass of fuel and air inducted into the cylinder divided
by the mass that would occupy the displacement volume at the density pi in the intake
manifold.
- For four stroke engines:
2(𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 +𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )
𝜂𝑣 = (four stroke engines) - - - (13)
𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝑁
- For direct injection 𝑚̇𝑓 = 0
- Factor (2) accounts for the two revolutions/ cycle in four-stroke engine.

 For two stroke engines:

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜂𝑣 = (two stroke direct injection engine) - - - (14)
𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑 𝑁
- Where 𝜌𝑎 is the ambient air density.

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 7

Example: A three liter V6 engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3600 r.p.m the
compression ratio is 9.5, the length of the connecting rod is 16.6 cm, and the engine is
square(b=s) at this speed, combustion ends at 20𝑜 at TDC, calculate:
1- Cylinder bore & stroke length.
2- Average piston speed.
3- Clearance volume of one cylinder.
4- Piston speed at the end of combustion.
5- Distance that the piston has traveled from TDC at the end of combustion.
6- Volume in the combustion chamber at the end of combustion.
Solution:
for square engine (b = s)
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 3𝐿
1. for one cylinder 𝑉𝑑 = = = 0.5𝐿 = 0.0005 𝑚3
6 6
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑏2 𝑠 = 𝑏3 = 𝑏 = 0.086𝑚 = 8.6 𝑐𝑚
4 4

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 3600 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚

2. 𝜐̅𝑝 = 2𝑁𝑆 = 2 ∗ ∗ 0.086 = 10.32 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑟𝑒𝑣 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝑉𝑑 +𝑉𝑐 0.0005+ 𝑉𝑐 0.0005 0.0005

3. r = 9.5 = = = +1 = 8.5
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑐 = 0.000059 𝑚3 = 59 𝑐𝑚3

𝑠 0.086
4. 𝑎 = = = 0.043𝑚 = 4.3 𝑐𝑚, 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 20𝑜
2 2

𝜐𝑝 (𝜃) 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [1 + 1 ] = 0.668, 𝜐̅𝑝 = 10.32 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 so 𝜐𝑝 (20) = 6.89 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
̅𝑝
𝜐 2
𝑙 2 2
2
[( ) −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃]
𝑎

5. 𝑦 = 𝑙 + 𝑎 − [𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + √𝑙2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ]

𝑦 = 0.166 + 0.043 − [0.043 cos 20 √(𝑜. 166)2 − (0.043)2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (20) = 0.003 𝑚 = 0.3 𝑚
1
𝑉 1 𝑙 𝑙2 2
6. = 1 + (𝑟 − 1) [ + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ]
𝑉𝑐 2 𝑎 𝑎2

𝑉 1
= 1 + (9.5 − 1) [3.86 + 1 − cos 20 − √(3.86)2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (20)] = 1.32
𝑉𝑐 2
V = 1.32 Vc = 1.32(59) = 77.9 cm3 =0.0000779 m3

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 8

 Some additional operating parameters:
 Calorie value (C.V.): it is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel, when
the fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion cooled back to the initial
temperature of the combustible mixture also called heating value or heat of combustion
(qc).
If the water vapor in the products of combustion is condensed by cooling to 25o C, the
calorie value called (higher C.V) or (gross C.V), if not (the water vapor reach vapor)
the C.V called (lower or net C.V)
 Equivalence ratio:
F A
actual fuel − air ratio ( )act ( )sto
∅= = A = F
stochiometric fuel − air ratio F A
( )sto ( )act
A F
When ∅ = 1 (stoichiometric or chemically correct mixture)
∅ < 1 (Low mixture), or excess air
∅ > 1 (Rich mixture)

 Air-fuel ratio (A/F):-

𝐴 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐹 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐴 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
= or = or = =
𝐹 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐴 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐹 𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝐴
- for SI (spark ignition) engine 12 < < 18
𝐹
𝐴
- for CI (compression ignition) engine 18 < < 70
𝐹

 Indicated thermal efficiency ( 𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ )

𝑊̇𝑖 (𝑘𝐽/𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝑊̇𝑖
𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ = =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ( 𝑘𝐽/𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝑚̇𝑓 ∗𝐶.𝑉

 Mechanical efficiency ( 𝜂𝑚 )
𝑊̇𝑏 𝑊̇𝑏 𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ
𝜂𝑚 = = =
𝑊̇𝑖 𝑊̇𝑏 +𝑊̇𝑓 𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ
𝑊̇𝑓 = 𝑊̇𝑖 − 𝑊̇𝑏

Where 𝑊̇𝑏 = brake power ,𝑊̇𝑖 = indicated power , 𝑊̇𝑓 = friction power

 Indicated mean effective pressure (imep)

̇ 𝑖
2𝑊
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (For four-stroke engine cycle)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁
 Specific power output (𝑃𝑠 )
𝑊̇𝑏 𝑊̇𝑏
𝑃𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑝

 Relative efficiency (𝜂𝑅 )

𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝜂𝑅 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝐴.𝑆 =
𝜂𝐴.𝑆 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
- Where 𝜂𝐴.𝑆 = Air-standard efficiency

‫ عباس محمد اسماعيل‬.‫ م‬.‫أ‬ 9