CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

Water and Life

Water Is Our Lifeline That Bathes Us And Feeds Us. In An
Ancient Cultures, Water Represented The Very Essence Of Life. The
Romans were the first to pipe water into their growing cities,
especially with their aqueducts. They also realized that sewage water
could cause damage To Their People, and needed to be removed
from large areas of People.

Water has played a role not only in the history of countries, But in
religion, mythology, and art. Water in many religions cleans The
Soul through Holy Water. For example, The Water at Lourdes,
France Is through By Many Religions to be sacred water with healing
powers. In Egyptian mythology, The Nu was the beginning of
everything and represented water. It brought life to their people, but
in drought, produced chaos.

We do not exaggerate if we say that God made the water the secret
of everything living thing on this planet, And without adequate water
supplies our present society would never have evolved, And Our
Lives Today would be unrecognizable. Water is the important basic
elements created by the god on this planet to revive it.

Where there is water there is life, and where water is scarce, Life has to
struggle or just "Throw in the Towel ".

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Water is a chemical compound of two atoms of Hydrogen and

one atom of Oxygen; it must be [transparent, colorless, odorless and
Tasteless].

Water is of major importance to all living things. Up to 70

percent of the human body is water. Water is working on analysis of
the Nutrients in the bodies of living organisms through distribution to
the various organs of the body , and convert it to energy or important
elements for the growth of the body , as it needs the water to get rid of
pickings as well . It is worth mentioning that the man cannot live
more than three days without water, otherwise die. The water is
important to the human body, because it protected shields the body
from getting much serious diseases and maintains the body’s health
and safety.

Not only the importance of water for person to assist him in the
performance of vital operations inside his body , but take advantage
of the water is the management of a lot of other things of his life to
[clean, bathe, food preparation and cooking, and in the disposal of
waste and dirt].

1.2. The World’s Water:

Earth’s water is ( almost ) everywhere above the Earth in the air
and clouds , on the surface of the Earth in rivers , oceans , ice ,
plants , in living organisms , and inside the Earth in the top few miles
of the ground.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Below are two representations of where Earth`s water resides.

The left-side bar chart shows how almost all of Earth`s Water is
saline and is found in oceans. Of the small amount that is actually
freshwater, only a relatively small portion is available to sustain
human, plant, and life.

The globe image represents how much actual water exists,

compared to the total size of the Earth. Notice the blue spheres
(representing water) they look small because they are being
compared to the size of the whole globe. The image shows that`s
Earth water resides in very thin slice all around the Earth surface.

In the first chart, notice how only 3% of Earth`s water is

freshwater.

The middle chart shows the distribution of fresh water. Almost all
of it is locked up in ice and in the ground. Only a little more than
1.2% of all freshwater is surface water, which serves most of life
needs.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

The right chart shows the distribution of surface freshwater. Most

of this water is locked up in ice, and another 20.9% is found in lakes.
Rivers makes up 0.49% of surface freshwater. Although rivers
account for only a small of fresh water, this is where humans get a
large portion of their water from.

Looking at the globe we notice the tiny bubble hovering over.

This ball of water represents all of fresh water in lakes and rivers. The
water in that bubble has the huge responsibility of meeting most of
the needs of humans and animals.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Percent Of Percent Of Water volume , In Water Volume, In

Water Source
Total Water Freshwater cubic Kilometers cubic miles

Ocean, Seas,
96.5 --- 1,338,000,000 321,000,000 Bays
Ice caps, Glaciers
& Permanent
1.74 68.7 24,064,000 5,773,000
Snow
1.69 --- 23,400,000 5,614,000 Ground Water
0.76 30.1 10,530,000 2,526,000 Fresh
0.93 ---- 12,870,000 3,088,000 Saline
0.001 0.05 16,500 3,959 Soil Moisture
Ground Ice &
0.022 0.86 300,000 71,970 Permafrost
0.013 --- 176,400 42,320 Lakes
0.007 0.26 91,000 21,830 Fresh
0.006 --- 85,400 20,490 Saline
0.001 0.04 12,900 3,095 Atmosphere
0.0008 0.03 11,470 2,752 Swamp Water
0.00002 0.006 2,120 509 Rivers
0.0001 0.003 1,120 269 Biological Water

1.3. Water Resources Available For Use

Quantities Obtained In Egypt:-
1.3.1. Nile Water
River Nile is longest river on Earth, Flowing for nearly 6,700
kilometers from its source to its mouth. The river water yield is about
1,630 billion cubic meters (BCM) per annum, of which only 10
percent are exploited. The length of River Nile in Egypt is 1,530 km

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

and the area of The River Nile Basin is 1.3 million square meters.
The Basin spreads over ten countries : Rwanda , Burundi , The
Democratic republic Of Congo , Tanzania , Kenya , Uganda ,
Ethiopia , Eritrea , Sudan and Egypt.

The volume of water resources in Egypt amounts to

approximately 69.7 (BCM) per annum, Used for all purposes. River
Nile constitutes more than 95% of Egypt`s total water resources.
Egypt`s share of Nile water is 55.5 (BCM).

Due to establishment of High Dam in 1964 and the use of its

large capacity in continuous water storage, Egypt secured obtaining
fixed annual water yield.
[

1.3.2. Underground Water

Underground water is an important source of fresh water in

Egypt ; Its importance is augmented by the fact that it is the sole and
essential source of water in the Egyptian Desert that constitutes 95%
of Egypt`s total area . Underground water can be used directly
without treatment as it is not exposed to pollution, in addition to its
constant Temperature over the year. Thus, it is safe source for potable
water.

Within the framework of developing water resources plan that

Egypt is carrying out ( and ending in 2017 ) , the Quantity of
underground water aimed to be saved is estimated at 5.9 ( BCM ) ,

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

of which 2.7 ( BCM ) underground water and 3.2 ( BCM ) deep

underground water .

1.3.3. Rain Water

Rain falls on Egypt rarely; its rate ranges between 20 mm and

150 mm annually on Northwest Coast of Egypt and decreases
gradually in other parts. Southern Egypt receives only a trace of rain
each year. Thus; Rain remains a limited and unreliable sources in
agricultural development but can continue to play a role in pasture
cultivation in Desert areas and Irrigation in the North Coast.

1.3.4. Drainage Water

Since the 1950`s , Egypt has started to reuse The Agricultural

Drainage water which is treated and mixed with Nile Water to be
used in irrigation . Around 4.7 (BCM) of Agricultural Drainage water
is used annually, and is Targeted to be about 10 (BCM) over the next
10 years.

1.3.5. Future resources

It is forecasted that in 2025 the population of Egypt will increase to

about 95 million from about 75 million in 2008, leading to a decrease
in per capita water availability from 800 to 600 m3 per year assuming
that total water availability remains constant.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Developments in Sudan, Ethiopia or other riparian countries

could reduce water availability to Egypt, for example through
increased.

abstractions for irrigation. However, they could also increase

water availability, for example through the draining of swamps such
as the sudden where large amounts of water currently evaporate.

Furthermore, climate change is likely to affect water availability

to Egypt, although the direction of change is uncertain. According to
nahla abou el-fotouh of the national water research center (NWRC.)

Some experts say that there will be water increase with more rainfall
from the Ethiopian plateau, and some say there will be a decrease
because of water evaporation.

According to Mohamed al-Ray, A professor of environmental

studies at Alexandria University, some studies foresee a decline of up
to 70 percent in Nile water availability, while other studies project an
increase in Nile Water levels by 25 percent .

Seawater desalination, which already is used in some resorts on

the red sea, is also likely to become an increasingly important source
for municipal water supply in coastal areas of Egypt. For example, in
October 2009 the west Delta Electricity production company
awarded a contract for a power plant with a 10,000 m3/day seawater
desalination plant near Alexandria. Brackish water desalination for
irrigation may also become more important.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.4. Water usage:-

How we use water?

Water uses in Egypt.

1-Agriculture and reuse of drainage water:

Data on agriculture water use in Egypt are not precise and often
contradictory. The total area equipped for irrigation was 3.4 million
hectares in 2002; 85 percent of this area is in the Nile Valley and

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Delta. Agriculture used about 59 km3 of freshwater in 2000 (86

percent of total use). All drainage water in Upper Egypt, South of
Cairo, flows back into the Nile and the irrigation canals; this amount
is estimated at 4 km3/yr. Drainage water in the Nile Delta is
estimated at 14 km3/yr.

Reuse of drainage water occurs in five

different ways:

Official refuse through public pumping stations that water pump

water from drain to irrigation canal. This accounts for about 4.5
BCM\year in the Delta and .9 BCM/year in Upper Egypt and Fayum.
[

Unofficial reuse done by farmers themselves when they are short

of water. In the Delta alone this has been estimated to be around 2.8
BCM/year.

Indirect reuse from drains in Upper Egypt that discharge into the
Nile, amounting to about 4BCM/year.
[

Municipal and industrial use 3.5 km3 of water was used for
Municipal uses (8 percent) and 4km3 by industry (6percent). It has
been estimated that about 3.5 BCM\year of Municipal waste water
was begin Discharged into the Nile and the sea in 2002, out of which
only 1.6 BCM/year (about 45%) were treated. industrial Effluents
contribute to about 1.3 BCM/year.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Of waste water begin discharged to surface waters only some of

which is begin treated

Other uses Hydropower: An important use of water in Egypt is

for the production of hydropower. This use is Non-consumptive and
thus available for other uses further downstream. Hydropower plants
exist at the Aswan High Dam (2100 MW) and Naga hammadi weirs
(64 MW). Together these plants accounted for 16% of installed
Electricity generation capacity in 2004. The share of hydropower in
power generation declines since the hydropower potential is largely
exploited and power demand increases rapidly.

Navigation:

The Nile is also important for navigation, especially for tourism,

which make it Necessary to maintain a Minimum flow of the Nile
year-round.

Ecology:

Last but not least the Nile River also has Ecological functions
that require minimum flows to be maintained, especially for the
brackish lakes in the Delta.

Discharge to the sea:

Drainage water that is too saline to be used for Agriculture is

discharged from drainage canals in the Delta to the sea and the

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

northern lakes via drainage pump stations. The total amount of

drainage water that was pumped to the sea in 1995/1996 has been
estimated at 12.4 BCM/year of sea water that seeps into the Drains in
the Delta.

1.5. Overview of water problems in the world

An excess of water, such as floods, used to be the major

water-related problem .However ,In recent years, while excess are

still a problem shortages of water have become the newest problems

a Demand for the water resources increases ,and proper water
supplies do not increase due to the lack of sanitation facilities and
water supply .

Water shortages may become serious .when the changes in

precipitation pattern due to climate change are taken into
consideration, the per capita annual water consumption for 1.8 billion
people are estimated to be exposed to water stress in 2025.

Such water shortages can trigger international conflicts. for

example of the international river basins in countries, conflicts over
water distribution and funding for resource development and
pollution treatment between countries in upper river basins and lower
river basins have already broke out.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.6. Expansion of water demand due to

population increase and economic growth:
The major causes of water shortage on the global level are
expansion of water demand and stagnant water supply. according to
the UN. in 2000 , 700 million people under water stress finding it
unconventional to lead their daily lives with less than 1,700 cubic
meters of annual water consumption. United Nations environment
programmed 2007, global environment outlook4, cited above.7UN
(2005),water for life decade 2005-2015. The water demand has
increased mainly because of increasing water consumption due to
continuing population increase and economic growth as mentioned
in the previous section, the world population is estimated to increase
by 80 million annually until 2015.in accordance with the population
growth ,the food will increase and 3000 liters of agricultural water

is needed to produce the day per capita food requirements This means
water demand increases by 210 cubic kilometers annually to increase
in population and food demand.

1.7. Challenges facing water resources

development in Egypt:
Rapid growth and unbalanced distribution of the population

Rapid urbanization

Governments policy to reclaim new land

Unsustainable water use practices

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

These constraints developed a situation which places higher

demand on water resources far exceeding available supply and are
imposing limits on the economic development of the country.
[

In order to face these challenges the following must be

considered:

-Optimize the use of unconventional sources of water.

- Wastewater reuse.
- Desalination
- Rain harvesting
- Ground water

1.8. Desalination as solution of world water

shortage:

One of the biggest obstacles on the path of development of

the southern Mediterranean countries is the limitation of water
resources. The Evolution in the last decades shows that the present
limitation May strongly increase due to climate change. Considering
the demographic development in these countries, leads to the
collapse of the natural water supply system in the near future. The
declination of rain volume and with drawl of forests result together in
a continuous and rapidly increasing silting of the water reservoirs.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

As recently published study performed by the Egyptian “

National Water Research Center “ about nonconventional water
resources, like seeding rain clouds to induce rain and seawater
desalination, Showed the seawater desalination is the only option to
cover the growing water demand in the Arab World. The main
disadvantage of this option is its high specific energy requirement,
which is covered today mainly by burning fossil fuels.
[

Considering the enormous potential of available renewable

energy resources, especially sun energy in the southern
Mediterranean are, it is Necessary, for the sake of sustainability, to
use renewable energies for seawater and well-water Desalination. In
this respect, the concept of combined heat and power (CHP) gives
high advantages: in addition to producing electricity – which is
needed any way – the waste heat of the power plant is used for
thermal desalination. Significant cost effectiveness is achieved due to
this “Double Product Strategy”.
[

The project presents a technology which combines these

advantages and moreover, is Maintenance – friendly and easy -to-
install. The costs of the two products, Electricity and desalted water
are within the range of competition, because several parts of the solar
collector can be manufactured locally, taking advantage of the lower
production costs.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Adopting this strategy ensures a real sustainability, because

The Blessing of strong sun power is available everywhere in the Arab
World; and seawater is inexhaustible.

The suggestion Boosts Economic growth and social development

because of its simplicity thus giving the opportunity for local
manufacturing of many components

Fresh Water resources all are Dependent on natural rainfall,

which unlikely to change.

Water supply is reliant on:

 climatic conditions
 population concentrations ( pollution )
 excessive Draw off ( increased salinity ) World population”
 [

 Due to increasing in we need to find solution to provide

fresh water

Nature’s solution isn’t enough, Not reliable, climate dependent.

We Need an Alternative source of water that is climate independent.

1.9. Water Quality Characteristics

1.9.1. Physical Characteristics of water

Physical characteristics of water (temperature, color, taste, odor

and etc.) are determined by senses of touch, sight, turbidity and
suspended solids by sight, and taste and odor by smell.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.9.1.1. Temperature:

The temperature of water effects some of the important

physical properties and characteristics of water, thermal capacity,
density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension, specific
conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and etc.
Chemical and biological reaction rates increase with increasing
temperature. Reaction rates usually assumed to double for an
increase in temperature of 10 ْc. The temperature of water in streams

and rivers throughout the world varies from 0 to 35 ْc.

1.9.1.2. Color:

Color in water is primarily a concern of water quality for

aesthetic reason, colored water give the appearance of being unfit to
drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for public use. On
the other hand, color can used as a quantitative assessment of the
presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

1.9.1.3. Taste and Odor

Taste and Odor are human perceptions of water quality.

Human perception of taste includes sour (hydrochloric acid),
salty (sodium chloride), sweet (suroes) and bitter (caffeine).
Relatively simple compounds produce.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Relatively simple compounds produce sour and salty tastes.

However sweet and bitter tastes are produced by more complex
organic compounds. Human detect many more tips of odor than
tastes. Organic materials discharged directly to water, such as falling
leaves, runoff, etc., are sources of tastes and odor-producing
compounds released during biodegradation.

1.9.1.4. Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of

water and is comprised of suspended and colloidal materials. It is
important for health and aesthetic reasons.

1.9.1.5. Solids
The total solids content of water is defined as the residue
remaining after evaporation of the water and drying the residue to a
constant weight at 103 ْc to 105 ْc. the organic fraction (or volatile

solids content) is considered to be related to the loss of weight of the

residue remaining after evaporation of the water and after ignition of
the residue at a temperature of 500 ْc. The Volatile solids will oxidize

at this temperature and will be driven off as gas, the inorganic (or
fixed solids) remind as inert ash. Solids are classified as settle able
solids, suspended solids and filterable solids. Settle able solids (silt
and heavy organic solids) are the one that settle under the influence
of gravity.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Suspended solids and filterable solids are classified based on

particle size and the retention of suspended solids on standards
glass-fiber filters.

1.9.2. Chemical Characteristics of water

1.9.2.1 Major captions

Major captions found in natural water include calcium

(Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+).

Calcium (Ca2+) is the most prevalent action in water and second

inorganic ion to bicarbonate in most surface water.

1.9.2.2 Major Anions

Major anions include Chloride, Sulfate, Carbonate, Bicarbonate,

Fluoride and nitrate. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is the principal anion
found in natural water. These ions are very important in the carbonate
system, which measure for Alkalinity of water

1.9.2.3 PH and Alkalinity

Alkalinity is defined as the capacity of natural water to

neutralize acid added to it. Total alkalinity is the amount of acid
required to reach a specific PH (PH = 4, 3 to 4, 8). Total Alkalinity
can de approximated by Alkalinity as the following expression:

Total Alkalinity = [HCO3-] + 2[co32-] + [OH-] – [H+] (2.10)

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.9.2.4 Acidity

Acidity is the “quantitative capacity of aqueous media to

react with Hydroxyl ions “. Titration with a Strong base (NaoH) to
define end points (PH= 4, 3 and PH= 8, 3). Acidity indicates the
corrosiveness of Acidic water on steel, concrete and other Materials.

1.9.2.5 Total Dissolved Solids

A total dissolved solid (TDS) is a measure of salt dissolved in a
water sample after removal of suspended solids. TDS is Residue
remaining after evaporation of the water. The TDS load carried in
streams throughout the world has been estimated by living stone
(1963) to 120 mg/L

1.9.3. Microbiological characteristics

The principal groups of microorganisms in natural water

include protists, plants and animals. Some of the physical and
biological characteristics of organisms important for water quality
considerations.

Much Bacteria, Protozoa and many Viruses and are causative

organisms for some of the more virulent diseases transmitted to
humans directly through water and indirectly through contaminated
food.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.10. The water cycle:

The hydrologic cycle or water cycle is a graphic representation of

how water is recycled through the environment. Water molecules
remain constant, though they may change between solid, liquid and
gas forms. Drops of water in the ocean evaporate, which is the
process of liquid water becoming water vapor. Evaporation can occur
from water surfaces, land surfaces and snow fields into the air as
water vapor. Moisture in the air can condensate, which is the process
of water vapor in the air turning into liquid water.

Condensation is the opposite process of evaporation. Water

vapor condenses on tiny particles of dust, smoke and salt crystals to
become part of a cloud.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

After a while, the water droplets combine with other droplets

and fall to earth in the form of precipitation (rain, snow, hail, sleet
and dew).

Once the precipitation has fallen to earth, it may go into an

aquifer as ground water or the drop may stay above ground as surface
water.

The hydrologic cycle is an important concept to understand.

Water has so many uses on earth, such as human and animal
consumption, power production, and industrial and agricultural
needs. Precipitation- in the form of rain and snow- also is important
thing to understand. It is the main way that the water in the skies
comes down to earth, where it fills the lakes and rivers, recharges the
underground aquifers, and provides drinks to plants and animals.

Different amounts of precipitation fall a different areas of the

earth at different rates and at various times of the year.

Once problem facing the cycle of water in earth is water

contamination. Chemicals that go into the water often are very
difficult, if not impossible to remove. One potential source of
contamination of water is runoff, the overland flow of water. While
precipitation causes the runoff to occur, stripping vegetation from
land can add to the runoff in a particular area.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

The sediment and soil from these areas, not to mention any
pesticides or fertilizers that are present, are washed into the streams,
oceans and lakes.

What happens to the rain after it falls depends on many factors,

such as the intensity and duration of rain fall, the topography of the
land, soil conditions, amount of urbanization and density of
vegetation.

A common misconception about rain that it is tear-shaped,

when in Actuality it is shaped more like a hamburger bun.

Rain drop also are different sizes due to the initial difference in
particle size and the different rate of coalescence.

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