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 CONTENTS
July 2018 Volume 23 Number 07 ISSN 1468-9340
03 Comment 57 Avoiding the invisible pitfalls
Bradford M. Cook, Sabin Metal Corp., USA, explains how
05 World News effective precious metal management can help to maximise
10 Diverse and developing returns for refiners.
Nancy D. Yamaguchi, Contributing Editor, explores 60 Improving reliability
Sub-Saharan African oil and natural gas resources and
Mike Minnerly and Taylor Birckbichler, Elliott Group, USA,
downstream operations.
discuss how a rerate of a refiner’s poorly performing hot gas
19 A novel approach expander resolved its reliability issues.
Youdong Tong, Feng Su and Peter Sun, Nalco Champion, an 65 A welcome boost
Ecolab Company, along with Guang Tian, Gui-Hong Huang,
Ipek Öztürk, Kurita Europe GmbH, explains how chemical
and Dong-Feng Su, China National Offshore Oil Corp.
treatment programmes can help boost the efficiency of
(CNOOC), present an approach to acrylic acid fouling control.
wastewater treatment.
24 A different mindset 71 Targeted delivery
With uncertainty in the global transportation fuels market,
Concetta Sapio, SUEZ Water Technologies & Solutions, Italy,
Ujjal Mukherjee, Chevron Lummus Global, USA, outlines key
recalls how microbiological growth and sulfate-reducing
considerations for crude to chemicals operations.
bacteria levels were controlled at a refinery in Italy.
33 Unified catalyst development 75 Controlling water-steam cycles
Steven Zink, Honeywell UOP, USA, explores a unified
Jens-Uwe Schröter, LAR Process Analysers AG, Germany,
approach to hydrotreating catalyst development.
discusses how online total organic carbon analysis can help
39 What to do with too much naphtha? optimise and control water-steam cycles in the downstream
Bart de Graaf, Ray Fletcher, Herman van den Bold, and oil and gas industry.
Niels van Buuren, Inovacat B.V., the Netherlands, explain 79 Chilled out
how new naphtha conversion technologies can help address
A. M. Derevyagin, G. A. Derevyagin, S. V. Selesnev and
increasing demand for propylene.
P. C. Lyon, Vympel, introduce the next generation of
43 Delivering value chilled-mirror hygrometers.
Ch. Chau, Y. Jeong, R. Hu, and M. Federspiel, W.R. Grace & Co., 83 A measure of success
USA, discuss how to boost resid-to-propylene with premium
Eric Benson, HollyFrontier, Steve Cox, Fluid Components
FCC catalytic solutions.
International (FCI), and Scott Anderson, LaTech Equipment,
47 Metals management USA, review a case where flow meters helped a refinery to
Carl Keeley, Vasilis Komvokis, Fernando Sánchez Arandilla and measure flare gas for safety and environmental compliance.
Modesto Miranda, BASF, Europe, introduce a new catalyst for 87 Proactive protection
heavy resid feedstock applications.
Dr Alexander Horch, HIMA Paul Hildebrandt GmbH, Germany,
51 Taking steps to reduce FCC NOX explains why safety and security in refining and processing
emissions needs rethinking.
Miray Genç, Aytaç Gül, Eda Bayraktar Dalgıç, and 91 An inside out defence
Şeyma Avcılar, Tüpraş, along with Tom Ventham, Johnson Sam Galpin, Bedrock Automation, USA, explains how the use
Matthey, map out the path that the Tüpraş İzmit Refinery of public key infrastructure can enhance plant security.
took when exploring the subject of fluid catalytic cracking
(FCC) NOX reduction. 95 Pumps, Valves & Seals Review
Hydrocarbon Engineering presents an overview of some of the
recent developments and technologies in pumps, valves and
seals for the downstream oil and gas industry.

THIS Elliott Group is supplying Africa's first hot gas

MONTH'S
expanders. Two TH140-1 hot gas expander strings
will be installed at a grassroots refinery in Nigeria.

FRONT
Designed to produce over 26 MW each, the
units were manufactured and tested at Elliott’s
Jeannette, Pennsylvania, US, facility and shipped in

COVER early 2018, with commissioning planned for 2019.

2018 Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

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CONVERSATION
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
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@HydrocarbonEng Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Uncaptioned images courtesy of www.shutterstock.com.
 INTRODUCING
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COMMENT
CALLUM O'REILLY
EDITOR
T
he outcome of the latest OPEC meeting
has left analysts scratching their heads.
The official line following the 174th
meeting of OPEC members – and the
subsequent meeting with leading non-OPEC
producers – was as follows: “Countries will
strive to adhere to the overall conformity level,
voluntarily adjusted to 100%, as of 1 July 2018 for the remaining duration of the
[Declaration of Cooperation].”
In other words, OPEC is aiming to ensure that production cuts return to 100%
compliance with the targets agreed in late 2016, following an impressive rate of
compliance that reached 147% in May 2018, according to OPEC figures. This means
that more oil will need to be pumped. However, aside from this fact, the details
remain sketchy.
Saudi Arabia’s Energy Minister, Khalid al Falih, reportedly claimed that output
would increase by up to 1 million bpd.1 Where exactly the increased production
will come from remains uncertain in light of the fact that several OPEC countries
are unable to raise output, although it is likely that Saudi Arabia, its Gulf allies and
Russia will be the ones to step up. Concerns surrounding Venezuela, in particular,
are growing. The country is in the midst of an economic and political crisis that
has already seen it involuntarily cut its output by 700 000 bpd in the past year,
and experts warn that this figure is likely to grow. Meanwhile, Iran – who opposed
the decision to increase production – faces fresh sanctions from the US, and there
is the potential for a sustained period of supply insecurity in Libya. Paul Horsnell,
Head of Commodities Research at Standard Chartered, has suggested that there
could be a further drop in production of between 1.5 million and 2.3 million bpd
from these three countries alone by the end of this year.2
Combined with the shortage of pipeline capacity in the Permian basin, which
will see US production growth slowing, analysts have raised concerns about a
limited amount of spare capacity in the market, which could lead to a potential
price spike. As Bloomberg’s Energy Columnist, Liam Denning, explains: “While
higher prices would bring a near-term windfall for Saudi Arabia and Russia, the cost
would be steep, ranging from a tweet-rage from Pennsylvania Avenue to demand
destruction and serious dissent in OPEC’s ranks as Iran and others see fellow
[OPEC] members profiting further from their woes.”3
Of course, in the longer term, the prospect of a dramatic increase in US tight
oil production is an even bigger problem for OPEC and other producing countries.
The US will become a significant exporter as demand increases and in such a
scenario, the Financial Times’ Nick Butler believes that continued management of
supply by OPEC and other producers would be needed to avoid a sharp price fall.4
All of this serves to highlight the delicate balancing act that OPEC
continues to face. We’ll continue to keep track of the latest developments at
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com
1. CROOKS, E., ‘The week in energy: Perspectives on Opec’, Financial Times, (25 June 2018).
2. RAVAL, A. and SHEPPARD, D., ‘All eyes on oil supply after Opec deal to boost output’,
Financial Times, (26 June 2018).
3. DENNING, L., 'OPEC’s Gonna Give It the Old College Try, Folks', Bloomberg, (22 June 2018).
4. BUTLER, N. ‘Issues beyond Opec will drive oil prices in coming years’, Financial Times,
(24 June 2018).
 WORLD NEWS
ExxonMobil to expand lubricant
Singapore |
basestocks and fuels production
E xxonMobil is progressing a
multi-billion dollar project at its
integrated manufacturing facility in
Singapore to produce higher-value
products and expand lubricant
basestocks production to meet
growing demand. Should the project
proceed, startup is anticipated in
2023.
ExxonMobil plans to develop and
apply proprietary technologies that
will convert lower-value byproducts
into cleaner, higher-value products,
including high-quality light and
heavy lubricant basestocks. The
technologies will also allow the
company to introduce a new high
viscosity Group II basestock.
Worldwide | Gas spending set to increase
A recent survey from DNV GL
suggests that nearly two-thirds
(64%) of oil and gas sector leaders
expect to increase or sustain
spending on gas projects in 2018, as
the sector prepares for gas to
overtake oil as the world’s primary
energy source in the mid-2030s.
The vast majority (86%) of the 813
senior industry professionals
surveyed agree that gas will play an
increasingly important role in the
global energy mix over the next
decade, up from 77% last year.
The findings appear in ‘Transition
in Motion’, a special report from
Mexico | Kiewit and TechnipFMC win LNG contract
S empra LNG & Midstream, a unit
of Sempra Energy, has announced
that a TechnipFMC and Kiewit
partnership has been selected as
the engineering, procurement,
construction and commissioning
(EPC) contractor for the Energía
Costa Azul (ECA) liquefaction
Designed to help blenders achieve
greater formulation flexibility and
simplify global testing, these
products will allow customers in
Asia Pacific to cost-effectively blend
a range of finished lubricants.
The refinery expansion project
will also result in the production of
more clean fuels with lower sulfur
content, including high-quality
marine fuels that comply with the
International Maritime Organization’s
0.5% sulfur cap to help customers
meet the reduced sulfur limit.
This project is the company’s
latest and most significant in a series
of recent investments in basestock
production in Singapore.
DNV GL’s research on the outlook for
the oil and gas industry in 2018. It
reveals the primary driver for
investment in natural gas and LNG
projects this year is the global energy
transition.
The pace of the oil and gas
industry’s intentions to lower carbon
emissions differs by region, however.
Just a third of survey respondents in
North America (33%) say that their
company is actively preparing for the
shift to a lower carbon energy mix
this year, compared to more than
half (51%) in the Middle East and
North Africa.
project under development in
Baja California.
The TechnipFMC-Kiewit
partnership will perform the
engineering, planning and related
activities necessary to prepare,
negotiate and finalise a lump-sum EPC
contract for the project, leveraging the
Saudi Aramco
India |
and ADNOC partner
on refinery project
S audi Aramco and the Abu Dhabi
National Oil Co. (ADNOC) have
signed a framework agreement to
jointly develop the Ratnagiri Refinery
and Petrochemicals Ltd (RRPCL), a
1.2 million bpd integrated mega
refinery and petrochemicals
complex.
The agreement defines the
principles of the joint strategic
cooperation between Saudi Aramco
and ADNOC to jointly build, own
and operate the complex in
collaboration with a consortium of
Indian national oil companies,
currently consisting of Indian Oil
Corp. Ltd (IOCl), Bharat Petroleum
Corp. Ltd (BPCL), and Hindustan
Petroleum Corp. Ltd (HPCL).
Saudi Aramco and ADNOC will
jointly own 50% of the new joint
venture company, RRPCL, with the
remaining 50% owned by the Indian
Consortium.
The companies also signed a
Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) and acknowledgement.
The agreements have been signed
to explore a strategic partnership and
co-investment in the development of
the new US$44 billion mega refinery
and petrochemicals complex. A
pre-feasibility study to determine the
project’s overall configuration will
now be jointly executed by the
parties.
two companies’ extensive experience
on LNG projects worldwide.
Permitted to be built adjacent to
the existing ECA regasification facility,
the liquefaction project is being
developed by Sempra Energy to
provide customers with direct access
to west coast LNG supplies.
HYDROCARBON 5 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF
 
hte – the high throughput
experimentation company – has
supplied a 16-fold high throughput
catalyst testing system for hydrotreating
of heavy feeds to SK Innovation. The
unit is able to process heavy feeds, such
as atmospheric residue.

Freeport LNG Marketing LLC has
entered into a binding mid-term sales
and purchase agreement (SPA) with
Trafigura Pte Ltd for 0.5 million tpy
to be supplied from its natural gas
liquefaction and LNG loading facility
on Quintana Island near Freeport, Texas.
The SPA with Trafigura will commence
on 1 July 2020, soon after the expected
completion of construction of the third
liquefaction train.

Clariant has announced the official
opening of two new, fully-owned
additives facilities at its site in Zhenjiang.
This completes a multi-million
investment originally announced last
year and puts Clariant’s Additives
business in China on track to further
expand its offering of customised,
high-end solutions for the plastics,
coatings and ink industries.
 
MOL Group has entered into a
strategic partnership with Inovacat.
The cooperation is expected to further
upscale and commercialise Inovacat’s
GasolfinTM technology, which converts
naphtha into propylene, butylene and
BTX (benzene, toluene, and xylene),
while supporting MOL’s strategic
objective to become a leading chemical
company in Central Eastern Europe.
July 2018 6 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
First modules arrive for Al-Zour
Kuwait |
Project
T he first modules for the Kuwait
Integrated Petroleum Industries
Co. (KIPIC) Al-Zour project have
arrived in Kuwait.
Fluor is working with its joint
venture (JV) partners to deliver two
engineering, procurement, fabrication
and construction packages for key
process support units, utilities and
infrastructure for the Al-Zour refinery
project. Upon completion, the new
complex is expected to be one of
the largest refineries in the world and
produce 615 000 bpd.
Modules are being constructed at
the COOEC-Fluor Heavy Industries
USA | PGNiG and Port Arthur LNG ink deal
P olish Oil & Gas Company (PGNiG)
and Port Arthur LNG, a subsidiary
of Sempra LNG & Midstream, have
entered into an agreement relating to
the terms of delivery of LNG from
the Port Arthur liquefaction facility.
The agreement defines basic
terms and conditions of a 20-year
contract to be finalised between the
parties for the sales and purchase of
SIDPEC selects Honeywell propylene
Egypt |
technology
S
idi Kerir Petrochemicals Co.
(SIDPEC) has chosen Honeywell
UOP’s C3 OleflexTM technology to
produce 500 000 tpy of on-purpose
propylene at SIDPEC’s refinery in
Amerya, near Alexandria.
Honeywell will also provide the
process design package, proprietary
and non-proprietary equipment,
on-site operator training, technical
services for startup and continuing
operation, and catalysts and
adsorbents for the project. When
completed, the SIDPEC unit will be
Co. Ltd (COOEC-Fluor) fabrication
yard in Zhuhai, China. The first 14 of
the 188 modules were loaded onto a
shipping barge and sailed away in
May to Kuwait. The sailaway of the
modules was marked by a ceremony
officiated by Hatem Al-Awadhi,
KIPIC’s Deputy CEO, and Jim Brittain,
Group President of Fluor’s Energy &
Chemicals business, and was
attended by executive members of
the project team.
The Fluor-led JV, known as FDH JV,
includes Daewoo Engineering and
Construction and Hyundai Heavy
Industries.
2 million tpy of LNG, which equals
approximately 2.7 billion m3/y of
natural gas following regasification.
Cargoes will be supplied starting
in 2023 from the Port Arthur LNG
facility, which is being developed in
Jefferson County, Texas. The
documents were signed during the
World Gas Conference in
Washington, D.C.
the first Oleflex unit operating in
Egypt.
According to IHS Markit, annual
demand for polypropylene in Africa
was 1.9 million t in 2016. But due to
rapid population growth and
urbanisation, this demand is expected
to rise by an additional 1 million t in
the next decade. Egypt is the top
consumer of polypropylene in Africa,
consuming approximately 4.4 kg per
capita, and demand there is projected
to grow by more than 5% annually
through 2022.
 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES SNC-Lavalin and Florexx ink
UAE |
agreement
12 - 13 September 2018
11th Annual National Aboveground Storage
Tank Conference & Trade Show
S NC-Lavalin has signed an exclusive
agreement with Florexx
International Investments LLC for the
Once the project proceeds to the
engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) phase,
Galveston, Texas, USA extended basic engineering and SNC-Lavalin will carry out the
www.NISTM.org subsequent design and delivery of an complete design and delivery of the
Advanced Topping Refinery. refinery, working alongside Emirati
13 - 14 September 2018 Under the agreement, contractors to maximise in-country
11th EFRC Conference SNC-Lavalin will carry out the initial value.
Madrid, Spain
www.recip.org
basic engineering, master planning, Advanced Topping Refineries use
process technology evaluation and distillation columns to separate
17 - 20 September 2018 selection to support project crude oil into different petroleum
Gastech financial investment decision products, including naphtha, diesel,
Barcelona, Spain approvals, expected in 3Q18. kerosene and fuel.
www.gastechevent.com

18 - 20 September 2018
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia USA | Phillips 66 to expand Sweeny Hub
Houston, Texas, USA
tps.tamu.edu

26 - 27 September 2018
P hillips 66 has announced it is
proceeding with an expansion of
the company’s Sweeny Hub near Old
Tank Storage Asia Ocean, Texas.
Singapore
www.tankstorageasia.com
The project, which is expected to
cost up to US$1.5 billion and begin
27 September 2018 commercial operations in late 2020,
Tank Storage Conference & Exhibition includes the construction of two
Coventry, UK 150 000 bpd NGL fractionators,
www.tankstorage.org.uk/conference-exhibition additional NGL storage capacity, and
associated pipeline infrastructure.
9 - 11 October 2018 S & B has been selected by
Asia Downstream Week Phillips 66 to perform engineering,
Bangkok, Thailand procurement and construction (EPC)
www.europetro.com
for the two NGL fractionation
22 - 24 October 2018 plants. The plants will have a
6th Opportunity Crudes Conference combined capacity of 300 000 bpd
Houston, Texas, USA
www.opportunitycrudes.com/houston2018
and will be based on S & B’s proven
fractionation plant design.
The Sweeny Hub currently has
100 000 bpd of fractionation
capacity through Phillips 66
Partners’ Sweeny Fractionator One,
200 000 bpd of LPG export
capability, and access to
9 million bbls of gross NGL storage
capacity at the nearby Phillips 66
Partners’ Clemens Caverns.
Upon completion of the
expansion, the Sweeny Hub will
have 400 000 bpd of NGL
fractionation capacity and access to
15 million bbls of total storage
capacity.

12 - 15 November 2018
UK | Wood extends partnership with SABIC

W
ADIPEC
Abu Dhabi, UAE
ood has secured a new
www.adipec.com contract with SABIC UK
Petrochemicals Ltd (SABIC), to
1 - 5 April 2019 provide industrial services at the
LNG 2019 Olefins 6 plant in Wilton, Teesside,
Shanghai, China which produces ethylene and
www.lng2019.com propylene.
The contract, effective
immediately, is to provide rope
access, scaffolding, insulation and
coatings services to support
pipework and vessel inspections
This contract extends Wood’s
support of SABIC globally; the
company currently supports SABIC
in operations in the US and
Saudi Arabia. It also recently signed
a contract with SABIC and
Saudi Aramco to develop the
world’s largest fully integrated
crude oil to chemicals (COTC)
complex.

July 2018 8 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
July 2018 10 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
 S
ub-Saharan Africa is defined as the geographic region of Africa south of the
Nancy D. Yamaguchi, Sahara Desert, generally subdivided further into West Africa, Central Africa,
Contributing Editor, East Africa, and South Africa. This article focuses on the belt of Sub-Saharan
explores Sub-Saharan countries traversing Africa from West to East.
The World Bank reports that economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa is recovering
African oil and after a sharp slowdown in 2015 – 2016. Economic growth picked up from 1.3% in 2016 to
natural gas resources 2.4% in 2017, being led by the largest economies: Nigeria, South Africa, and Angola. Nigeria
and South Africa have passed through economic recessions. The Bank noted an increase
and downstream in output from the mining and agricultural sectors. High prices for commodities are
operations. helping to control current account deficits. The World Bank forecasts economic growth
of 3.2% in 2018 and 3.5% in 2019.
There is enormous variability in the economic outlook, and a large gap between rich
and poor. The Bank foresees weak prospects in Central African countries (Gabon,
Cameroon, Chad, the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, and
Equatorial Guinea). However, some of the recent economic difficulties may be alleviated
by rising prices for commodities, including oil for those countries possessing oil and able
to market it efficiently. Oil wealth has caused divisiveness in some countries, particularly
those with large gaps between rich and poor. This article provides a regional briefing on
Sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on countries with oil and natural gas resources and
downstream industries.

The reserves picture

Many Sub-Saharan countries possess oil and gas reserves, but proven reserves vary widely.
The largest oil reserves are held by Nigeria, Angola, Sudan and South Sudan, Uganda and
Gabon. The largest gas reserves are held by Nigeria, Mozambique, Angola, and Cameroon.
Table 1 presents estimated proved oil reserves in the Sub-Saharan African countries.

Oil production
The largest oil producers in Sub-Saharan Africa are its OPEC members – Angola,
Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon – responsible for 89% of Sub-Saharan oil output

HYDROCARBON 11 July 2018

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Estimated proved oil reserves in the Key country profiles1
Sub-Saharan African countries (sources: Oil and Table 2 presents crude refining capacities in the key countries
Gas Journal and BP) covered in these profiles.
Country Estimated proved oil reserves,
1000 bbls, January 2018 Angola
Angola 9 523 000 Angola has one of Africa’s largest oil industries. It is a
Benin 8000 participant in the current OPEC production cut agreement.
According to OPEC, Angolan crude production averaged
Cameroon 200 000
1.64 million bpd in 2017, down from 1.73 million bpd in 2016.
Chad 1 500 000
The country had pledged to reduce output to 1.65 million bpd
Rep. of Congo (Zaire) 180 000 in 2017, so its compliance with the cut agreement exceeded
Rep. of Congo (Brazzaville) 1 600 000 100%. Like many oil-exporting countries, Angola’s revenues fell
Equatorial Guinea 1 100 000 during the recent years of low oil prices. The higher price
regime could help reverse this. However, production has
Gabon 2 000 000
declined further in recent months. According to OPEC,
Ghana 660 000 Angola’s crude production fell to 1.57 million bpd during 1Q18.
Ivory Coast 100 000 OPEC lists Angola’s estimated proved oil reserves at
Niger 150 000 9.52 million bbls. This is the fourth-largest reserve base in
Nigeria 37 453 000 Africa, following Libya, Nigeria, and Algeria.
Angola has one refinery at Luanda, owned and operated
S. Sudan (BP) 3 500 000
by Sonangol, the national oil company. Sonangol lists the
Sudan (BP) 1 500 000 capacity at 2.8 million tpy, or approximately 57 000 bpd. The
Uganda 2 500 000 refinery was inaugurated in 1958. It was expanded and repaired
Sub-Saharan Africa 61 974 during the many years of civil war, but it often operates at low
World 1 651 849 737
rates of utilisation. Angola routinely imports refined product
for its domestic needs, sometimes up to 80% of its demand.
Percentage in Sub-Saharan 3.8%
The country plans to build two new refineries in Lobito and
Africa
Cabinda. Sonangol reported that it had received 28 proposals
from a range of international firms and consortia to build the
refineries.

Figure 1. Sub-Saharan Africa oil production, ‘000 bpd
(source: BP).
Cameroon
Cameroon possesses oil reserves of 200 million bbls. Its crude
production was listed at 93 300 bpd in 2016 and an estimated
90 000 bpd in 2017.1 In early 2018, production began at
Cameroon’s first floating LNG (FLNG) unit, Hilli Episeyo,
developed with Perenco and Golar.
Cameroon’s sole refinery in Cape Limboh, Limbe, is run by
Societe Nationale de Raffinage (Sonara) with 42 000 bpd
capacity. In 2017, Sonara hired a French consortium to modernise
and expand effluent treatment at the refinery. In April 2018, the
refinery went into technical shutdown to undertake
modernisation. The capacity will be raised from the current
2.1 million tpy (42 000 bpd) to 3.5 million tpy (70 000 bpd).

in 2016. Figure 1 displays the trend in oil output, per BP. Low
global oil prices and unplanned outages contributed to a
drop in output of approximately 856 000 bpd between 2010
and 2016.
As OPEC members, Angola and Gabon are participants in
the OPEC production cut agreement. Angolan output
averaged 1.64 million bpd in 2017, relative to its pledged
quota of 1.67 million bpd, giving it a compliance rate of 102%.
Gabon produced 20 000 bpd in 2017, relative to its pledged
quota of 193 000 bpd, giving it a compliance rate of 96.5%.
Nigeria was allowed to bow out of the cuts because of
chronic internal unrest. Equatorial Guinea was not a full
member of OPEC at the time the production cut agreement
was inked, but its production fell from 185 000 bpd in 2015
to 135 000 bpd in 2017, according to OPEC.
Chad
Chad is dependent on petroleum as its only source of
commercial fossil energy. Oil reserves are reasonably
abundant, listed at 1.5 billion bbls.1 No new reserves have been
added for many years. Production was estimated at
98 000 bpd in 2017, down from 150 000 bpd a decade prior.
Chad is land-locked, and most of its oil output is exported via
the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline, a 660-mile pipeline connecting
oilfields in southern Chad with a floating storage facility near
Kribi in Cameroon. The pipeline opened in 2003, but has been
controversial with allegations of corruption, diversion of
funds, environmental degradation, and negative impacts on
indigenous communities.
China was the key investor in Chad’s oil exploration,
development and processing sector, via its Chinese National

July 2018 12 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Table 2. Sub-Saharan Africa refinery capacities
(sources: Oil and Gas Journal, company websites,
trade press and World Bank)
Country Crude capacity (bpd)
Angola 56 921
Cameroon 42 000
Chad 20 000
Rep. of Congo (Brazzaville) 21 000
Gabon 24 000
Ghana 45 000
Ivory Coast 71 000
Kenya 32 000
Nigeria 445 000
Tanzania 540
Total 757 461
Notes: Chad refinery currently not operating. Kenya refinery
is operating as product terminal. Tanzania refinery is oriented
toward lubrication production
Petroleum Co. (CNPC). In partnership with the Chadian National
Hydrocarbon Co., CNPC built a 20 000 bpd refinery north of
N’Djamena, completed in 2011. However, in 2012, the Chadian
government shut down operations, reportedly because CNPC
refused to produce fuel at the government-set price.
Congo
The Republic of the Congo has proved oil reserves of
1.6 billion bbls. The country has a mature oil industry,
confronted with declining production. A series of offshore oil
finds is now reversing the downward trend. Production in 2017
was estimated at 303 000 bpd2, and it is forecast to grow to
350 000 bpd in 2018. The higher production volumes and
higher global prices will provide welcome relief to the
country’s economy.
Congo operates a single refinery of 21 000 bpd capacity at
Pointe Noire, operated by Congolaise de Raffinage (CORAF).
Refinery utilisation rates are low. The US Energy Information
Administration (EIA) estimated total refinery output in 2010
was 13 800 bpd. The government has proposed privatising and
upgrading the refinery, but the economics have not been
favourable.
Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea is estimated to possess 1.1 billion bbls of oil
reserves. The country’s economy is heavily reliant upon oil and
gas revenues, and it has been under pressure from declining
production and, until recently, weak oil prices. Equatorial Guinea
became the sixth African country to join OPEC when it became
a full member in May 2017. According to OPEC, the country’s
crude oil production fell from 185 000 bpd in 2015, to
164 000 bpd in 2016, and to 135 000 bpd in 2017. The recent
strength in global oil prices is stimulating interest in oil
development. Equatorial Guinea completed a licensing round in
2017 and announced seven winners. The government is
optimistic about reversing the downward trend in production.
Equatorial Guinea relies on imported fuel. There have been
plans to build a 20 000 bpd refinery at Mbini, but the
economics have not been attractive.
July 2018 14 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The country is a significant exporter of natural gas in the
form of LNG from its single LNG plant, Punta Europa, on
Bioko Island, which was completed in 2007. LNG exports
totalled 4.3 million m3 in 2016, which went to a variety of
customers in Asia, Europe, the Americas, and the Middle East.
The government hoped to build a second plant that would
expand domestic production and incorporate natural gas
supplies from Cameroon and Nigeria. The developer,
Ophir Energy, is instead focused on building the Fortuna FLNG
project.
Gabon
Gabon is the fifth largest Sub-Saharan African oil producer with
oil reserves listed at 2 billion bbls. Gabon’s oil industry is mature,
and production has been declining. The country joined OPEC in
1975, left in 1995, and rejoined in 2016. Its oil production peaked
at 365 000 bpd in 1996. It declined to 227 000 bpd in 2016, a loss
of 137 000 bpd, but the government hopes to reverse this. In
2011, it established the Gabon Oil Co., a national oil company
designed to expand the government’s role in the oil industry.
The hydrocarbons law signed in 2014 authorises the NOC to
take a 15% equity stake in all new projects. Several new offshore
oil deposits have been discovered, and the government is
optimistic that the recent increase in oil prices will reinvigorate
the upstream sector.
Gabon operates a single refinery at Port-Gentil, run by
Societe Gabonaise de Raffinage (Sogara). The refinery came
onstream in 1967. Although its nameplate capacity was listed at
24 000 bpd, it rarely processes over 18 000 bpd, and at times its
utilisation is even lower. The output is mainly low-value residual
fuel oil. The Gabon Oil Co. is planning to become involved in
the refining sector by signing a Memorandum of Understanding
with Samsung Corp. to build a new 50 000 bpd refinery to
replace the antiquated Sogara refinery.
Ghana
Ghana has a moderate oil reserves base of 660 million bbls.
Production has been rising, boosted by new output from the
Jubilee oil field, which was discovered in 2007 in the offshore
area near the Mahogany and Teak fields. Oil output of
100 600 bpd in 2016 grew to an estimated 166 300 bpd in 2017.1
In 2017, field operator Tullow Oil reported that 89 600 bpd
came from the Jubilee field. Technical problems have
prevented the achievement of the 120 000 bpd target initially
planned.
Ghana’s Tema refinery, commissioned in 1960, has a
nameplate capacity of 45 000 bpd. It underwent a revamp
that should have increased capacity to approximately
49 000 bpd and added a residual oil catalytic cracker (RCC).
But maintenance was neglected for lack of funds, and the
facility has deteriorated. General shutdown and maintenance
were skipped in 2011, 2013, and 2015. An explosion shut down
the refinery in 2017, and another forced shutdown occurred in
January 2018, just weeks after it re-opened. The government is
planning a new refinery to replace the Tema refinery,
envisioned as a 150 000 bpd plant.
Ivory Coast
The Ivory Coast possesses a modest reserve base of
100 million bbls of oil. The country is actively promoting the
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 expansion of its hydrocarbon industry. It was roiled by two civil
wars, the first from 2002 to 2007 and the second from 2010 to
2011. The current period of relative stability has given the
country hopes of expanding its economic base. Petroci, the
national oil company, proposes to double the country’s oil and
gas output by 2020, and it has been seeking foreign investment
to expand offshore oil and gas development. Tullow Oil, which
has been active in the country for many years, recently acquired
four new offshore licenses from Petroci. Petroci reported that
oil production rose from approximately 30 000 bpd in 2015 to
53 000 bpd in 2016, and that the goal was to produce
200 000 boe by 2020. It has been estimated that crude
production was 30 000 bpd in 2017.2
The Ivory Coast is the site of a relatively large refinery, a
70 000 bpd hydrocracking refinery at Abidjan, the economic
capital and main port city. The refinery is run by Societe
Ivoirienne de Raffinage (SIR). SIR has been achieving record-high
output, and it provides fuel to several neighbouring countries.
There were plans to build a second refinery of 60 000 bpd
capacity, but these plans were postponed. This refinery was
saddled with heavy debt, estimated to be over US$300 million,
and the government was required to organise debt relief.
Kenya
Kenya is in the early stages of developing its oil industry and
becoming an oil exporter. An international consortium led by
Tullow Oil discovered commercial oil resources in the
South Lokichar Basin, estimated at over 600 million bbls of
recoverable oil. The consortium planned to produce between
60 000 bpd and 100 000 bpd of crude. In May 2018, Tullow
announced that it had discovered additional oil deposits in the
South Lokichar Basin. The company also believes commercial oil
reserves exist in other basins, including the neighbouring
Kerio Basin and the North Turkana Basin.
The government tried to stimulate oil production by
presenting a Petroleum Exploration, Development and
Production Bill in February 2018, but the bill was withdrawn for
lack of support. In May 2018, the central government announced
that it would try to break the deadlock by dropping budget
allocations for the oil-rich counties which placed caps on the
amount of revenue the local communities could receive.
Investments in petroleum development have been slowed
by a lack of transport infrastructure. Initially, Kenya and Uganda
had agreed to jointly build an export pipeline. The route would
have begun in western Uganda in the oil-rich Albertine Graben
area, travelled east to traverse Kenya’s South Lokichar Basin, and
ended at Kenya’s northern Lamu Port. Kenya hoped to tie the
pipeline project into a significant port development project as
well. But Uganda subsequently announced a competing pipeline
project that would carry its oil south and east via Tanzania.
Kenya was forced to shift plans to build its own pipeline project.
In the meantime, the government announced that it had
produced and stored 70 000 bbls of oil, and that it was
launching a pilot project to test the viability of using trucks to
transport the oil to Mombasa for export by tanker.
Kenya also had plans to expand its role as a regional
refining centre. Its refinery at Mombasa was the only refinery
in the region, and it provided product for neighbouring
countries including Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and
South Sudan. India’s Essar Energy Overseas group purchased a
July 2018 16 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
stake in the refinery in 2009, with the intention of expanding
and upgrading. The capacity was listed at 1.6 million tpy
(approximately 32 000 bpd), and the plan was to expand to
4 million tpy (approximately 80 000 bpd). However,
subsequent economic analysis indicated that the expansion
and upgrade would not be cost-effective. The refinery was
idled in 2013, and the site is used as an import terminal. Essar
pulled out of the deal and sold its stake in the refinery to the
Kenyan government.
Nigeria
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, with over
181 million inhabitants. Its estimated proved oil reserves of
37.4 billion bbls are the largest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nigeria is
the largest oil producer in Africa, with production listed at
1.66 million bpd in 2017, according to OPEC. Nigeria has been an
OPEC member since 1971. It is a major focal point for
Sub-Saharan Africa, and many international companies maintain
a presence there. But it is also known as a country where doing
business can be difficult.
Most of the country’s oil industry is located offshore in the
Bight of Benin and in the southern Niger Delta region. Civil strife
in this area has caused repeated supply outages. Many citizens
believe that Nigeria’s oil wealth is not flowing to the people.
Strikes and protests are frequent. While the oil and gas
industries provide important employment, local workers have
suffered from lack of security. Militant groups have attacked oil
pipelines and other infrastructure, cutting off supplies and
forcing producers to declare force majeure. Outages have been
in the range of 200 000 – 300 000 bpd and higher. Some
international oil companies have sold assets and evacuated staff.
Moreover, some of the damage has caused oil spills and
environmental hazards.
Because of internal unrest and unpredictable output,
Nigeria was allowed an exemption from the OPEC production
cut agreement that took force in January 2017. At that time,
Nigeria’s official baseline production was 1.58 million bpd, well
below its peak. Production recovered in 2017, reaching
1.86 million bpd in December. This prolonged the supply glut,
but with 2018 prices now strengthening and potential for
declines in Iran and Venezuela, OPEC may renegotiate its
production caps.
Despite new oil finds, however, it is not clear that Nigerian
output could reach its prior peak levels anytime soon. Some of
the new developments serve only to replace declines in mature
fields, and other developments have been postponed
repeatedly because of regulatory uncertainty. Nigeria put forth a
Petroleum Industry Bill (PIB) in 2008 that would change many
facets of the regulatory environment, possibly making some
projects commercially infeasible. Although a decade has passed,
the regulations have not been finalised.
Nigeria has a major LNG plant at Bonny Island. It is Africa’s
largest exporter of LNG, and the fourth-largest LNG exporter in
the world in 2016. Exports totalled 23.7 million m3. There are
plans for another LNG project, known as Brass LNG.
Natural gas is also converted to liquid fuels at the Escravos
gas-to-liquids (GTL) plant, which came onstream in 2014, close
to a decade behind schedule. At full capacity, Escravos GTL can
convert 325 million ft3/d of natural gas to 33 200 bpd of liquids,
chiefly GTL diesel.
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 Nigeria has four refineries: Port Harcourt I, Port Harcourt II,
Warri, and Kaduna. Three of these are catalytic cracking
refineries. All four have catalytic reformers for octane provision,
and two of the cat crackers have associated alkylation units.
Total capacity is listed at approximately 424 000 bpd. However,
utilisation rates are low – sometimes below 20%. The refineries
have deteriorated, and at times they are starved for crude oil
feedstock because of pipeline sabotage and theft. The Nigerian
National Petroleum Corp. (NNPC) has been seeking private
partners to revamp the refineries. In the meantime, the country
has grown dependent on imported fuels.
Nigeria is now working to build the Dangote Project, which
will be an integrated petrochemical-refinery complex. Costs are
estimated at US$11 billion. It will include a massive 650 000 bpd
refinery, equipped with mild hydrocracking, residual oil catalytic
cracking, alkylation, and ample hydrodesulfurisation capacity.
The output will conform to Euro 5 quality standards. The
complex will also produce fertilizer and polypropylene. The
refinery is scheduled for completion in 2019. When completed,
Nigeria should be fully self-sufficient in refined product, and will
be able to export fuel as well.
Tanzania
Tanzania is not an oil producer, but it is a natural gas producer
with ambitions to become an LNG exporter.
In the 1960s, Tanzania had a 12 000 bpd refinery, built by
Italian partners. In 1991, the refinery was closed. It was then
estimated to be running at 60% utilisation. It was converted to
an oil terminal. In 2016, Tanzania inaugurated a heavy oil
refinery at Zinga, Bagamoyo District. The refinery produces
27 000 tpy of oil products (540 bpd) and 10 000 tpy of
lubricating oils (200 bpd).
Uganda
Uganda is not an oil producer or a refiner, though it has
ambitious plans for both upstream and downstream
development. The country successfully identified
commercially feasible oil resources. Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ)
reported Ugandan reserves at zero in 2010, jumping to
1 billion bbls in 2011, and raising to 2.5 billion bbls in 2013.
Exploration then faltered, and the OGJ reserves picture has
not changed since then.
The Ugandan government, however, believes that its
Albertine Graben area contains 6.5 billion bbls of recoverable
oil, and it hopes to start commercial production by 2020.
Plans have not been finalised concerning oilfield development.
The pipeline route has also has shifted from one which initially
was to go through Kenya to one that traverses Tanzania. On
the upstream side, the government is set to decide on the
development of its Kingfisher oilfield in 2018. The China
National Offshore Oil Corp. (CNOOC) purchased interest in
the field from Tullow Oil in 2012. CNOOC plans to bring
production online within three years of government approval.
If the government finalises the deal this year, production could
come onstream in 2021, reaching 40 000 bpd.
Uganda has long hoped to build a refinery, with Hoima
being the chosen site. The refinery plan was backed by Russian
interests initially, but negotiations fell through in 2017. Progress
was made on the refinery plan in early 2018, when a ‘Special
Purpose Vehicle’ (SPV) consortium known as the Albertine
Graben Refinery Consortium (AGRC) won a bid to build,
operate, and partly own the proposed 60 000 bpd refinery.
The consortium includes companies from Italy and Mauritius,
plus the Uganda National Oil Co.
Conclusion
The Sub-Saharan Africa region cuts across a wide swath of
territory, with diverse terrain, resources, and countries. Many
countries in this region have long-established oil and gas
industries, and others possess resources that they plan to
develop. The World Bank reports that economic growth and
activity are recovering, after a sharp slowdown in 2015 – 2016.
Commodity exporters are also benefitting from an increase in
global prices. This is especially visible in the oil sector. Spot
prices for Brent Crude averaged US$108.56/bbl in 2013. This
collapsed to US$43.64/bbl in 2016. Crude prices are now on an
upswing, largely because of the OPEC production cut
agreement and growth in global demand. Brent spot prices
rose above US$68/bbl during the January – April 2018 period,
and NYMEX futures prices have topped the US$70/bbl mark
in recent trading.
The higher price regime has raised interest in oil exploration
and development, and many international firms are involved in
regional projects. Oil production could rise in both OPEC Africa
and some smaller producing countries. Refinery projects
continue to be planned, ranging from small modernisation
projects to the mega-project in Nigeria, which is envisioned as a
650 000 bpd refinery, integrated with petrochemical and
fertilizer plants. There is abundant opportunity, with the caveat
that investment capital is always limited.
Reference
1. Unless otherwise noted, Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ) is the source of the
reserves data used in this article.
2. Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ).
Youdong Tong, Feng Su and Peter Sun, Nalco Champion, an
Ecolab Company, along with Guang Tian, Gui-Hong Huang,
and Dong-Feng Su, China National Offshore Oil Corp.
(CNOOC), present an approach to acrylic acid fouling control.
P
olymerisation-induced fouling often imposes an
operational constraint for acrylic acid production.
Although the use of polymerisation inhibitors
alleviates the situation to a certain degree,
frequent or unplanned shutdowns due to fouling still pose
operational challenges and financial losses to producers.
In an effort to offer acrylic acid producers additional
options to mitigate fouling, Nalco Champion has
developed a dispersant-based antifoulant, designed to
interact with the foulant to suspend the solid within the
process fluid. The dispersant chemistry precludes
agglomeration, and consequently prevents the
precipitation and deposition of solids onto the surface of
equipment. The use of a dispersant does not replace the
need for an inhibitor, but is designed as a complementary
addition to the fouling mitigation strategy.
In August 2015, CNOOC began a trial of this dispersant
technology with the aim of achieving an extended plant
run length with improved operation in terms of safety,
reliability and economic benefit. The chemistry was
applied to various selected locations throughout the
solvent recovery and product purification sections. The
dispersant changed the polymer foulant morphology and
reduced the polymer deposition. A significant
improvement in fouling mitigation was observed via key
performance indicators (KPIs), including column reboiler
delta temperatures, bottom filter frequency and
column/equipment cleanliness.
HYDROCARBON 19 July 2018
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Mechanism of acrylic acid radical polymerisation.
Figure 2. Representative chemical structure of polymeric
foulant formed during acrylic acid manufacturing.
Figure 3. Reflux laboratory simulation after 30 min.
reflux untreated (left) and two hour reflux with
dispersant (right).
This article will provide a review of the dispersant
trial at CNOOC.
Acrylic acid is among the most reactive monomer
‘building blocks’. It can readily polymerise through a
free-radical mechanism. Its reactivity poses operational
inconvenience and safety risks, and is particularly a
challenge in the recovery and purification sections of
the plant. Under manufacturing conditions, such as
distillation at elevated temperatures in stainless steel
columns, the unwanted radical polymerisation of acrylic
acid routinely occurs. Elevated temperatures accelerate
the rate of polymerisation, and the metal surface of
equipment provides a substrate for the acrylic acid
polymer to accumulate.
Figure 1 illustrates the mechanism of acrylic acid
radical polymerisation. Acrylic acid polymer typically has tail. The dispersant molecule is designed so that that one
a high molecular weight and is insoluble in the acrylic
acid process stream. Precipitation occurs almost
immediately after its formation. Additionally, acrylic acid with the process stream. Via this mechanism, the polymer
polymer has an affinity to a metal surface due to a
favourable interaction between the acrylic acid
July 2018 20 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
functionality of the polymer and the metal surface of
the equipment, i.e. polymer sticks firmly onto the
equipment surface.
Acrylic acid can also form oligomers through the
Michael Addition mechanism. Oligomer formation is
the major loss in acrylic acid manufacture. In recent
years, engineering measures have been designed into
the manufacturing process to recover the loss by
thermally cracking oligomers. Due to their significant
presence, oligomers inevitably participate in a
co-polymerisation with acrylic acid. The co-polymers
present a great challenge for fouling control and
equipment cleaning due to the tenacious nature of
the acrylic acid-acrylate co-polymer (Figure 2).
Polymer deposition occurs in every acrylic acid
plant, and process equipment fouls over time. Once a
certain critical mass has been reached, and the
performance and heat transfer efficiency of equipment
has been compromised, shutdown and cleaning is
required for polymer removal. Cleaning requires long
downtime and high cost. The use of polymerisation
inhibitors in the recovery and purification sections are an
industry standard to mitigate the undesired polymerisation.
Phenolic compounds, amines, quinones, nitroxyl
compounds and certain inorganic metal complexes have
been used while phenothiazine (PTZ), hydroquinone (HQ)
and monomethyl hydroquinone ether (MEHQ) are
widely-used inhibitors. The inhibitors are designed to
disrupt the radical polymerisation chain reaction by
scavenging or quenching the initiation or propagation
radicals and thus terminating the polymer formation.
Although polymerisation inhibitors have been around
for decades, plants remain run length limited by unwanted
acrylic acid polymerisation. Periodic unplanned
shutdowns for cleaning and maintenance due to fouling
still occurs, and operation interruption results in
economic loss, as well as safety and environment
concerns.
Nalco Champion R&D initiated a project that set out
to redefine the options available to acrylic acid producers
in order to mitigate fouling challenges. The outcome of
the project is the discovery and development of a
dispersant chemistry, designed to complement the use of
an inhibitor. The dispersion of an acrylic acid polymer as a
fouling mitigation strategy is a new concept to the acrylic
acid industry.
A dispersant works by solvating polymer to keep the
molecules suspended in a process flow. The solvated
polymer is then safely removed from the process with the
heavies’ bottom flow. In the absence of a dispersant,
polymer molecules agglomerate, and once a certain size is
reached, precipitation on equipment surface occurs.
The structure of a dispersant is typically characterised
by two functional groups: a polar head and a non-polar
functional group has favourable interaction with the
polymer, and the other group has favourable interaction
is precluded from agglomeration with other polymer
molecules. In simple terms, in the presence of the
dispersant molecules, polymer foulant becomes soluble
or dispersed polymer.

Laboratory efficacy evaluation

During the development of the dispersant, laboratory-scale
evaluations were conducted using a custom-design
bench-scale simulation rig. The simulation rig is a total
reflux apparatus with pressure and temperature controls. A
reboiler flask boils acrylic acid and generates inhibitor-free
acrylic acid vapour. The vapour rises through the tray Figure 4. Round bottom flask demonstrating that the
section, containing six circular stainless steel 316L metal acrylic acid polymer is in a colloidal solution due to
trays, and into the reflux condenser. The acrylic acid the presence of the dispersant (right) relative to the
condensate from the reflux condenser drips back through blank (left).
the trays to the reboiler flask. The simulation unit was
operated under vacuum and the operating parameters were
in the range of a typical acrylic acid recovery and
purification operation. For instance, the bottom
temperature was controlled at approximately 95°C while
the tray section was at 80 – 90°C.
Figure 3 shows the results of the laboratory-scale
evaluation. The outcome of the untreated, control run is
shown on the left; acrylic acid polymer precipitated and
deposited on metal trays and on the reboiler flask walls.
On the right is an image of the dispersant treated run,
where the dispersant was injected above the tray
section. In this experiment, the metal trays and reboiler
flask walls remain clean, and the acrylic acid polymer is
dispersed in the flask liquid (Figure 4). The duration of Figure 5. Foulant collected in a filter after 12 hrs
(left) and five days (right), showing the influence
the untreated experiment was approximately 30 min. and
of dispersant application on foulant morphology.
the treated experiment was two hours. This Plant operations without dispersant (left) and plant
demonstrates the point that the dispersant is not operations with dispersant (right).
designed to replace an inhibitor treatment but is a
complementary approach. Inhibitors do not prevent all
unwanted polymerisation. By applying an effective The KPIs for the trial were as follows:
dispersant chemistry, the acrylic acid polymer that does „ Frequency of filter cleanings.
form is suspended into the liquid and carried out as a „ The solvent recovery column reboiler inlet-outlet
colloidal solution. This is a benefit to the unit as the temperature differential (ΔT).
acrylic acid polymer continues to move with the process „ Visual inspection of column at turnaround.
flow and does not deposit onto metal surfaces and
equipment, limiting performance. The colloidal solution Historical runs of the plant were used to define the
that forms due to the presence of the dispersant is baseline of the trial. Unwanted polymerisation that
clearly shown in the round bottom flask following the occurred are collected in the filter baskets; the cleaning
reflux test with dispersant. frequency of these baskets was twice per day on
average. The reboiler exhibited signs of foulant
Commercial trial accumulation over time by a steady increase in the
CNOOC has a newly-commissioned plant in Huizhou, reboiler ΔT, including a rapid increase which would
China. In this trial, the plant was challenged by fouling determine the end of run of the plant. During visual
associated with acrylic acid polymerisation, which inspection during turnarounds, considerable polymer
deposited throughout the solvent recovery and build-up in the reboiler and on the trays of the column
purification train. The company participated in a trial to was routinely observed.
evaluate the use of dispersant technology to quantify the
benefit this approach could offer an operating plant. The Filter cleaning frequency
objective was to extend the unit run length and ensure The application of dispersant treatment into the solvent
reliable operation under higher throughput operations. recovery section resulted in measurable operational
Nalco Champion’s Acryl-exTM EC3436B acrylic acid improvements. The most immediate benefit was a
dispersant technology was injected into the solvent reduction in filter cleaning frequency. Without dispersant
recovery section of the plant in two locations. These were application, the filter cleanings were two times per day.
judiciously selected based on the high severity fouling Once the dispersant chemistry was applied, the filter
locations of the plant. The goal was to treat the reboilers cleaning was reduced to once every three to five days.
and lower section of columns A and B. This is a filter cleaning interval extension of a factor of 10.

HYDROCARBON 21 July 2018

ENGINEERING
 In addition to the extension in cleaning frequency, it was
also observed that the dispersant changed the
morphology of the foulant collecting in the filter.
Without dispersant, the foulant morphology was large
pieces that were challenging to remove. With dispersant
treatment, the foulant collected were relatively uniform
small fines. This morphological difference is shown in
Figure 5.
Solvent recovery column reboiler inlet-outlet
temperature differential
The dispersant’s performance was demonstrated by
monitoring the reboiler ΔT (Figure 6 and 7). The unwanted
Figure 6. Column reboiler inlet-outlet ∆T over time
for solvent recovery column, without dispersant (blue)
and with dispersant (red).
Figure 7. Column reboiler inlet-outlet ∆T over time
for a Crude AA distillation tower reboiler, without
dispersant (blue) and with dispersant (red).
Figure 8. Column trays during plant turnaround without
dispersant (left) and with dispersant chemistry (right)
after five months.
July 2018 22 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
polymerisation of acrylic acid causes solid accumulation
over time within the reboiler, restricting flow and limiting
heat transfer efficiency.
Historical data shows that with the standard fouling
mitigation strategy of inhibitor only, the ΔT steadily
increases over time, followed by a sharp increase, which
determines the end of run. During the trial, the reboiler
ΔT curve remained flat, i.e. the rate of ΔT increase
decreased by including the dispersant in the fouling
mitigation strategy. The KPI goal for the trial was defined
as <20°C in nine months or <2°C per month on average.
Due to an unexpected occurrence unrelated to fouling,
the plant did not achieve the extended run-length, but
the target of <2°C per month was achieved.
Visual inspection of acrylic acid plant during
turnaround
The turnaround inspection demonstrated the
performance of the dispersant treatment. With the
dispersant programme, the reboiler tubes contained less
fouling than without treatment and none of the tubes
were plugged. Less polymer accumulation was also
evident on the trays in the column, as shown in Figure 8.
Overall, the trial demonstrated the efficacy of the
dispersant and quantified the benefit from adopting a
dispersant chemistry into the fouling mitigation strategy.
Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the acrylic acid
dispersant technology does not have a negative influence
on Crude AA product slate or product quality.
In summary, the benefits of the dispersant programme
include:
„ Fouling mitigation of high severity reboilers,
evidenced by reduced rate of differential temperature
increase.
„ Plant run length extension by eliminating this
bottleneck.
„ Operating at consistent or higher plant throughput
has the potential to keep equipment cleaner.
„ Reduction in equipment cleaning time and costs.
„ Operation reliability and freedom.
„ Total operating costs reduced by >US$300 000/yr.
This trial has demonstrated the unique efficacy of the
dispersant antifoulant and improved the solvent recovery
and product purification operation. Based on the success
of the trial, the incorporation of the dispersant has
become a standard procedure for mitigating fouling of the
plant.
Conclusion
Looking forward, further elucidation of fouling
mechanisms, coupled with an understanding of the
influence of conditions on fouling severity, is a vital first
step for preventing and mitigating unwanted reactions
during acrylic acid manufacturing.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr Zhenglin Tang, Jeff Zhu,
Dr Jessica Hancock and Dr Lisheng Xu for their technical expertise
and advice during the development of fouling mitigation strategy and
application of new technology.
 © 2018 Ecolab USA Inc., All Rights Reserved.
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 With uncertainty in the global transportation fuels market,
Ujjal Mukherjee, Chevron Lummus Global, USA, outlines
key considerations for crude to chemicals operations.
T
he immediate future of refineries producing
transportation fuels only is beset with uncertainties.
Globally, demand for refined products such as
gasoline and diesel is growing in the range of 0.5 –
1.5%. Europe continues to be a major consumer of diesel, despite
the emission scandals that have seen a steady progression of
major cities banning diesel cars in the near future. China is
exporting diesel. India is also exporting diesel, although its
market will be a major consumer of diesel over the next decades
as road infrastructure in the country see dramatic improvements
and GDP continues to rise at a pace of around 7%.
Barring sudden local environmental restrictions, such as
those seen in Western Europe, diesel is intimately tied to the
GDP growth of a country, unlike gasoline, which is very much
linked to personal consumption. Gasoline consumption will
experience downward pressure with more electric vehicles (EVs)
and hybrids entering the automobile sector, but most global
projections do not see the overall impact of EVs and hybrids
exceeding approximately 5000 bpd by 2030 or roughly 5% of
the overall petroleum products market; gasoline demand in
2030 is still expected to be approximately 30 million bpd.
The last major transportation fuel is jet fuel, which will see a
flat to modestly upward growth, especially near major airports.
Even as demand for transportation fuels flattens, the impending
International Maritime Organization (IMO) Sulfur Specification
on Bunker Fuel Oil of 0.5 wt% will put further pressure on
July 2018 24 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
E
EN GINEERING
refineries that do not have advanced residue upgrading
technologies or, at the very least, a delayed coking unit.
The price of high sulfur fuel oil will see a marked drop to
well below the crude price line as outlets for this fuel oil dry up.
Installing scrubbers on ships is an unpopular and marginal
solution to what needs to be with the large amount of high
sulfur residue that will need upgrading from existing refineries.
All new refinery projects will be designed with either the
capability to produce ultra-low sulfur fuel oil or to eliminate
bottoms altogether with sophisticated residue conversion units.
Against this backdrop, the petrochemicals sector looks
brighter. Global growth in petrochemicals is expected to be in
the range of 3 – 5%. Volatility in crude oil prices can be greater
than 100%, while those of major polymers are significantly lower
at approximately 40%. Therefore, there is pressure on oil
producers and major refiners to convert as much crude to
chemicals as possible in order to increase margins and have a
more predictable uplift. The easiest pathways to chemicals
remain in converting ethane from natural gas to ethylene or
converting naphtha to ethylene and propylene.
Why convert crude to chemicals?
Crude-to-chemicals provides a strategic option of valorising
crude when the transportation fuels market is uncertain. Gas is
often scarce in regions where crude is abundant. Supply of
cheap naphtha may tighten as refiners increasingly use this raw
HYDROCARBON 25 July 2018
July
ENGINEERING
 material for chemicals production, particularly in Asia.
Crude-to-chemicals provides refiners with options to change
the ratio of chemicals to fuels depending on market needs. This
article talks through the various commercially-viable routes to
converting crude to chemicals.
Converting crude to chemicals requires a complete change
in mindset. In a conventional refinery with petrochemicals, the
crude throughput is first fixed in either barrels per day or million
metric tonnes per year, and the desired transportation fuels are
produced. Excess naphtha or other low value streams are routed
to petrochemicals. In the crude-to-chemicals scenario, the type
and quantity of chemicals to be produced is identified first.
Next, the amount of transportation fuels required, if any, is
determined and then the required amount of crude to meet the
demand of petrochemicals and optional transportation fuels is
calculated.
Challenges of converting crude to
chemicals
Bulk petrochemicals, such as ethylene and propylene, are made
most readily from low molecular weight normal paraffins, such
as ethane, propane, butane, pentane, etc. through steam
cracking. As the carbon number and boiling point of the
petroleum cut increases, naphthenes and aromatics start
appearing. Aromatics produce no olefins but rapidly coke up the
pyrolysis heaters. Heavier aromatics and heavy polynuclear
Figure 1. Converting a compound with a carbon
number of 20.
Figure 2. The number and types of HOPS stages.
July 2018 26 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
aromatics should never be fed to cracking heaters. When
moving into the atmospheric and vacuum gas oil range, the
heavier aromatics start appearing. Finally, in the residue boiling
range (typically above 550°C), polar multi-ring aromatics with
alkyl chains (resins) and higher molecular weight aromatic
clusters called ‘asphaltenes’ appear in large proportions.
Figure 1 shows the complexity of converting a compound
with a carbon number of 20. The normal paraffin will convert
easily to a high yield of ethylene. It boils at approximately 320°C.
The aromatic structures with the same number of carbon atoms
could be boiling anywhere from 430°C to well over 550°C and
can be impossible to convert because of extremely short
pyrolysis heater run lengths.
Stream cracker solution
Lummus Technology, currently a division of McDermott’s
Technology group, developed its Heavy Oil Processing Scheme
(HOPS) as a way of utilising whole crudes directly in steam
crackers, bypassing conventional refinery units. In this scheme,
the whole crude is pre-heated in the convection section of the
steam cracker and flashed. The flashed vapour is mixed with
steam and controlled heating in the convection section is sent
to the pyrolysis reaction section for conversion to olefins. Four
units were designed, and three are still in operation. There are
several factors that influence both the number of HOPS stages,
and the routing of flashed lighter fractions to different heaters
(Figure 2).
Crude is a mixture of wide boiling components. For
example, if vacuum gas oil (VGO) and propane are cracked in
the same heater, and the severity is maximised for VGO
cracking, the propane will be under cracked (below maximum
propylene). In combination with the steam cracker convection
section, the HOPS allows the crude to be separated into
fractions that can be sent to the pyrolysis reaction section
together for maximising the yield of olefins.
As mentioned earlier, steam cracking of residue
components would lead to rapid fouling of heater tubes and a
low olefins yield. Therefore, direct crude cracking without
pre-treatment is only suitable for crudes with very small
fraction boiling in the residue range (typically above 540°C) or
condensates. Thus, to maximise the yield from a combination of
naphtha, atmospheric gas oil (AGO) and VGO, a three-stage
HOPS is recommended.
Figure 3 illustrates the challenge
of whole crude cracking. As the
crudes become heavier, more of the
residue has to be rejected, and
without an adjoining refinery to
upgrade this residue, the stream has
no outlet other than as high sulfur
fuel oil. Even this outlet will disappear
post-2020 with the new IMO
regulations on sulfur.
The benefits of
hydrogen addition
Even if the whole raw crude could be
processed in cracking heaters,
whether the olefin yield is
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 competitive in comparison to yields from more traditional
feedstocks still needs to be examined.
Table 1 shows the typical yields from a steam cracker for
various straight-run feeds compared to unconverted oil from a
partial conversion hydrocracker. Not only does hydrocracked
VGO produce far more ethylene than straight-run VGO, it also
produces far less pyrolysis fuel oil. The pyrolysis fuel oil is a
highly aromatic, low hydrogen content stream that typically has
no outlet other than as internal fuel oil. Hydrocracked VGO
produces almost as much olefins as straight-run full-range
naphtha.
Table 2 shows the typical yield of olefin products from a
hydrocracker, using Chevron Lummus Global’s (CLG)
ISOCRACKING technology, operating at approximately 65%
conversion. CLG is a joint venture between Chevron and
McDermott. Light naphtha and unconverted oil are excellent
feedstocks for steam crackers and heavy naphtha is a good feed
for a catalytic reforming unit. Kerosene and diesel streams are
best suited for transportation fuels.
Clearly, the addition of hydrogen is beneficial to the
conversion of oils to chemicals. Paraffins that have the highest
hydrogen content produce the highest olefin yield from
crackers. Light naphtha and unconverted oil at relatively high
conversions and high-pressure operation are rich in paraffins and
produce the highest ethylene yields. One measure of the
degree of hydrogenation of unconverted oil is the Bureau of
Mines Correlation Index (BMCI). The lower the BMCI, the higher
the yield of ethylene.
BMCI = 473.7 (Sp. Gr.) - 456.8 + (87552/MABP)
Where:
„ Sp. Gr. = specific gravity at 15/15°C.
„ MABP = molal average boiling point (°R).

Lummus has designed steam crackers with a wide range of

gas oils and BMCI ranging from 2 to 42. A high-pressure
hydrocracking unit with relatively high conversion will produce
BMCI in the 8 – 10 range for straight-run VGO feeds. The
advantage of producing unconverted oil with low BMCI is that
this oil will also be a key feedstock for lubrication oil base stock
production. Mild hydrocrackers operating at lower pressure and
relatively low conversion (<50%) will produce unconverted oil
with low sulfur, low nitrogen, and good hydrogenation, suitable
for a fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit but with relatively high
BMCI (20 – 45), resulting in low ethylene yields that are
unsuitable for steam crackers.
Another factor that is extremely important is the nature of
Figure 3. As crudes become heavier, more residue has polynuclear aromatics still present in the unconverted oil.
to be rejected. Advanced analytical techniques utilised by CLG identify
signature heavy polynuclear aromatics (HPNA) at very low
concentrations. Just a few parts per million of HPNA, such as
Table 1. Typical yields from a steam cracker for coronenes, can dramatically reduce the run length of steam
various straight-run feeds cracker heater tubes and/or foul the transfer line exchanger
Full range AGO VGO Isocracked (TLE).
naphtha VGO Straight-run VGO with high end points (>550°C) have
CH4 15.4 10.9 9.2 12.6 five-ring aromatic compounds. This can grow to 11+ rings in
C2H4 29 24.5 13.5 30 hydrocracking unless companies have the correct catalyst
system and hydrocracking operating environment. With any
C3H6 13.5 13.3 12 13.3
crude-to-chemicals campaign that is dealing with light, medium
C4, S 8.7 8.85 7.85 8.6 or heavy crudes, residue hydrocracking becomes an essential
C5-204˚C 21.2 19.05 16.6 19 component of feed preparation for downstream
Fuel oil 5.6 18.16 37.45 10.1 petrochemicals. Residue hydrocracking requires conversion of
asphaltenes and, irrespective of the technology employed, the
VGO derived from vacuum residue at quasi-total conversion
Table 2. Typical yields of olefin products from a will be rich in four- and five-ring polynuclaer aromatics. The
hydrocracker using ISOCRACKING technology
VGO needs to be hydrocracked so that the resulting naphtha
Light Heavy Kerosene Diesel Isocracked
can be converted to aromatics and/or olefins in catalytic
naphtha naphtha VGO
reforming and/or steam cracking.
CH4 16 12.8 11 12.2 12.6 Hydrocracking to very high conversion of residue
C2H4 29 23.8 23 27 30 hydrocracking-derived VGO requires expertise in both catalyst
C3H6 14 12.85 13.5 13.4 13.3 and process technology. CLG is the only process licensor with
C4, S 9.55 10.3 8.8 8.85 8.6 commercially-operating integrated hydrotreating and
hydrocracking units. The company uses its optimised partial
C5-204˚C 19.5 26.2 21.15 18.75 19
conversion (OPC) for high conversion of VGO from residue
Fuel oil 4.83 7.85 17.53 14.07 10.1 hydrocracking.

July 2018 28 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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with the FlarePro™ Mass Spectrometer

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ZWLJ[YVTL[LYOHZ[OLZWLLKHUKZWLJPÄJP[`MVY[OL[HZRJHSJ\SH[PUNTHRL\WNHZX\HU[P[PLZ
?MHZ[LY[OHUJOYVTH[VNYHWOZ0[JHUZWLJPH[LHUKX\HU[PM`HSRHULZHUKHSRLULZ\W[V
*HUKJVU]LY[(:;4JHSJ\SH[PVUZVMJVUJLU[YH[PVU[V`PLSKÅHYLNHZ);<]HS\LZL]LU^P[O
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 The hydrocracker is one of the most important components in the
overall crude-to-chemicals strategy. The technology is versatile and can
maximise heavy naphtha rich in naphthenes and aromatics for
maximising feed to catalytic reforming, produce high quality
transportation fuels or lubricant oil base stocks or, in maximum severity
Figure 4. Core technologies for crude-to-chemicals projects.
mode, convert all the VGO and diesel range material to
naphtha that is suitable for a steam cracker.
The RDS-RFCC route
Atmospheric or vacuum residue can be desulfurised and
fed to a residue FCC (RFCC) unit, designed to maximise
propylene. This configuration has the advantage of
minimising hydrogen consumption and has the potential
for maximising propylene.
If there is demand for gasoline and diesel, as well as a
good market for propylene, a residue desulfurisation RFCC
(RDS-RFCC) is an effective configuration. Being a fixed bed
system, the RDS will usually have multiple trains so the unit
can continue running when one train is down for catalyst
changeout, usually every 11 – 13 months.
The turnaround schedule and capacity factors must be
carefully planned so that feed for downstream chemicals
production is never compromised. The main drawbacks of
this scheme are the following:
„ Not all of the crude can be converted to chemicals.
There will always be some transportation fuels that
have to be produced. Any light cycle oil from the
RFCC is usually blended with straight-run diesel and
severely hydrotreated to produce Euro VI diesel.
„ There is no outlet available for the heavy cycle oil
from the RFCC or the pyrolysis fuel oil from the steam
cracker other than as low-grade fuel oil with limited
outlets.
„ There will be a substantial amount of gasoline
production.

Commercially viable configurations

The core technologies for a successful crude-to-chemicals
project are residue hydrocracking, hydrocracking and a
Figure 5. A configuration with LC-FINING residue steam cracker, as depicted in Figure 4. Figures 5 and 6
hydrocracking technology. depict configurations with CLG’s LC-FINING residue
hydrocracking technology. Conversion typically ranges
from 60 to 85%. The
unconverted oil from the
residue hydrocracking unit
can be sent to a delayed
coking unit for incremental
conversion to heavy coker
gas oil and lighter material
that can be further
upgraded to steam cracker
and/or catalytic reformer
feed utilising
ISOCRACKING technology.
Placing the unit upstream of
a delayed coking unit allows
the complex to produce
low sulfur pet coke that
often meets green coke
requirements of anode
grade coke.
Figure 7 shows a
configuration using
Figure 6. Another LC-FINING configuration. LC-MAX, where VR
conversion can be

July 2018 30 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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CHALLENGE CONVENTION
 extended to nearly 93%. The pitch can be sent to gasifier for
production of hydrogen and power. This technology uses two
reaction stages with an intermediate solvent deasphalting step
to reject the most hydrogen-deficient asphaltene molecules.
LC-SLURRY can be used for complete conversion of residue to
distillates suitable for petrochemicals production.
In all of the LC- configurations, pyrolysis oil from the steam
cracker can be processed to produce incremental steam cracker
feed or transportation fuels. The configuration thus significantly
reduces the production of orphan streams (Table 3).
Summary
Crude-to-chemicals requires a different mindset.
Organisations must first focus on the quantity and type of
Figure 7. A LC-MAX configuration.
chemicals that makes economic sense for a particular region
and then work back to the amount of crude required.
Petrochemicals units such as steam crackers have precise
feedstock quality requirements, especially in the gas oil
range. The complex requires high on-stream factor in
classical refining technologies to match the high on-stream
factor of petrochemicals units. A crude-to-chemicals
complex has to be designed with both crude and product
flexibility in mind. For example, in times of high diesel
demand, it would not be economically justified to destroy
diesel in favour of making naphtha for petrochemicals. In
terms of crude slate, a balance between light and heavy
crude slate will offer the best balance between capital and
operating costs. In every scenario, high residue conversion is
necessary as is the need to not have any orphan low value
stream such as slurry oil or pyrolysis oil leaving the
complex. Direct crude cracking to chemicals using HOPS
technology is viable for condensates and very light crudes,
and RDS-RFCC remains attractive when both the gasoline
and propylene markets are robust.
Residue hydrocracking offers the maximum conversion
and crude flexibility. Hydrocracking is at the heart of the
petrochemicals feed preparation. This versatile technology
can vary the product slate from maximum petrochemicals
feed to a balance between transportation fuels and
petrochemicals feed and offers the possibility of producing
high value lubrication oil base stocks. Finally, a high quality
mixed feed cracker with an adequately sized refinery
provides the highest return on investment and maximum
product flexibility in a crude-to-chemicals project.

Table 3. Comparison of various residue hydrocracking options in the production of chemicals and
transportation fuels
Minimum LC-FINING; LC-FINING LC-FINING with LC-FINING + LC-Slurry
investment; no no fuels; with fuels; fuels; sell LSFO delayed coking; with fuels;
resid upgrader; no sell LSFO sell LSFO – two-train no fuels; produce produce
fuels; sell HSFO cracker anode coke ULSFO
Arab Light Crude (bpd) 195 000 162 000 227 000 400 000 137 689 246 515
Ethylene (tpy) 2 million 2 million 2 million 4 million 2 million 2 million
Propylene (tpy) 1.48 million 1.49 million 1.47 million 2.81 million 1.48 million 1.49 million
Butadiene (tpy) 357 000 358 000 347 000 774 000 373 000 326 000
Euro VI diesel (bpd) 0 0 74 500 94 265 0 106 000
Fuel oil (bpd) 54 000 25 000 20 000 36 935 0 8500
Anode coke (tpy) 0 0 0 0 194 000 0
H2 required (ft3/d) 167 million 251 million 379 million 665 million 282 million 417 million
Required percentage of H2 39 26 18 22 24 16
from cracker
Natural gas required (tpy) 596 000 777 000 1.01 million 1.87 million 794 000 992 000
Chemical yield on crude (%) 58 70 49 57 83 45
Total project cost 6954 7995 8910 14 173 8492 9285
(US$ million)
%IRR 14.6 22.4 24.4 33 21.4 25
Residue quality 3%S HSFO 1%S LSFO 1%S LSFO 1%S LSFO Anode coke 0.1%S ULSFO
Notes:
All cases include hydrocracker and olefins conversion technology
All cases produce MTBE, butene-1, benzene, xylenes
3% HSFO is priced at US$21/bbl less than crude
%IRR is based on 70/30 debt/equity ratio

July 2018 32 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING

A
s refined fuel quality regulations tighten and as the
margins of difficult feedstocks widen, advantaged
hydroprocessing technologies are continually being
developed. Hydroprocessing technologies, in
particular hydrotreating technologies, are ubiquitous within
refining and petrochemicals facilities. Hydrotreaters remove
impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, metalloids and metals, and in
most cases saturate at least a portion of the unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Efficient operation of these units has a direct
effect on a facility’s on-stream availability, economics, and
flexibility for processing a variety of feedstocks. Seamless
operation of these units requires appropriate catalyst selection,
tailored for performance within the operating capability of the
process.
To quickly bring technical advantage and differentiation to a
hydrotreating unit, a unified approach to catalyst development
is necessary. This approach begins with a detailed understanding
of catalyst preparation and a comprehensive understanding of
catalyst performance in the intended application, with a variety
of feedstocks, over the course of the operating cycle.
Steven Zink, Honeywell UOP,
USA, explores a unified
approach to hydrotreating
catalyst development.
Key elements of a unified hydrotreating catalyst preparation
and application include:
„ Catalyst preparation and integrated manufacturing.
„ Catalyst activation.
„ Catalyst regeneration and rejuvenation.
„ Feed and products characterisation.
„ Catalyst loading/reactor internals.
„ Process simulation, modelling and product testing.
Catalyst preparation and integrated
manufacturing
Catalyst performance can be improved by appropriate
modification of the support chemistry. The catalyst support,
typically γ-alumina, has on its surface populations of bridging
and terminal hydroxyls and sites with Lewis and Brønsted
acidities. The support surface may be probed for these
features with temperature-programmed desorption and
infrared spectroscopy (Figure 1) to aid in developing an
appropriate surface chemistry for the intended metals
solutions.
HYDROCARBON 33 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 The porosity, pore volume, and surface area must be
appropriate not only for the delivery and proper dispersion of
the metals solution but also for the molecular size range of
feedstock intended for hydrotreatment. Applying mercury
intrusion, nitrogen adsorption, and electron microtomography
methods to comprehensively assess the pore structure and
surface of the catalyst support’s precursor (e.g. pseudoboehmite)
Figure 1. Characterisation of bridging and terminal hydroxyls
on alumina catalyst support.
Figure 2. Anatomy of metal sulfide complexes by
aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron
microscopy with X-ray elemental mapping.
Figure 3. AC STEM image with evidence of pore mouth
coking as catalyst deactivation mechanism.
July 2018 34 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
and the catalyst support itself (γ-alumina) ensures that the
support is properly prepared for its service. With the capability to
manufacture the alumina support precursor at the bench, pilot,
and commercial scales, there is generally more freedom to
develop catalysts that satisfy a wider range of performance
needs.
Careful consideration is also given toward the selection of
the size and shape of the catalyst support for bulk strength and
attrition resistance, bulk density as it relates to the fill cost and
allowable pressure differential, metals solution dispersion and
penetration, and mass transfer suitability for the feedstock
intended for hydrotreatment.
Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy are
applied toward the preparation of concentrated metals
solutions and the study of how such solutions have been
delivered to the catalyst support in terms of dispersion and
penetration. Applying these techniques and demonstrating
consistent reproducibility at multiple scales of manufacture,
with integrated manufacturing lines, helps to ensure that the
finished catalyst will meet or exceed performance
requirements and expectations within the intended range of its
application.
Catalyst activation
A fresh hydrotreating catalyst’s metal oxides are converted to
metal sulfides in the activation step. Hydrogen sulfide, the
precursor of which is typically an organosulfur molecule
doped into a straight-run diesel, is introduced to the catalyst in
a reducing, hydrogen-rich atmosphere at elevated temperature
and pressure. A hydrotreating catalyst’s active phase is
comprised of dispersed metal sulfides, and these metal sulfides
catalyse hydrotreating chemistries (e.g. hydro-desulfurisation,
-denitrogenation, -dearomatisation, -demetallation, etc.). To
monitor the progress of the activation and features of the
active phase, a variety of advanced characterisation techniques
are applied, such as raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetric
analysis with mass spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), temperature-programmed sulfidation with IR
spectroscopy, aberration-corrected scanning transmission
electron microscopy (AC STEM) with X-ray elemental mapping,
and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), which includes both
extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and X-ray
absorption near edge structure (XANES).
Figure 2 illustrates AC STEM with elemental mapping
showing sheets of the active metal sulfide (green) wrapped
around the promoter metal sulfide (blue), a feature often
observed in the most active hydrotreating catalysts. Density
functional theory may be applied to determine which
configurations are most active for hydrotreating, so that these
may be engineered in greater populations as needed.
Catalyst deactivation
To prevent rapid catalyst deactivation, activity and porosity
management is critical. Spent catalyst can be characterised to
assess the causes of deactivation, often some combination of
coking (by condensation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons) and
poisoning (by asphaltenes and porphyrins of Ni and V).
Figure 3 shows how pore mouth coking is a mechanism for
catalyst deactivation. The AC STEM image shows the pores of
the alumina support in black on red.
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 In the image, the coke is in green, superimposed over the
pores. This information supports the speculation that pore
mouth coking is a likely route for deactivation and can be used
to prepare a support with a lesser coking tendency.
By applying advanced analytical techniques to hypothesis
testing, more robust catalysts may be designed and more
effective methods for catalyst regeneration (oxidation of coke, S,
N) and rejuvenation (re-dispersion of metals, restoration of fresh
catalyst activity) can be developed.
Figure 4. Polarity and boiling point component sulfur
resolution of feedstock with 2D gas chromatography
(GCxGC).
Figure 5. Deep desulfurisation behaviour of least reactive
sulfur species in product concentration as shown by sulfur
GCxGC.
Figure 6. Coordinated, multi-platform testing of catalysts
for staged development.
July 2018 36 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Feed and products characterisation
To assess hydrotreater performance, detailed characterisations
of feed(s) and product(s) are needed. Such characterisation
methods include simulated distillation (hydrogen, hydrocarbon,
sulfur, and nitrogen), high-resolution mass spectroscopy
(FT-ICR MS), and comprehensive, 2D gas chromatography
(GCxGC). GCxGC, which resolves components by polarity and
boiling point, is used to determine concentrations of
hydrocarbon, sulfur, and nitrogen contaminants in complex
petroleum mixtures.
An example of a feedstock’s sulfur speciation by sulfur
GCxGC is shown in Figure 4. The sulfur species in this
feedstock range from the most reactive, thiophenes and
benzothiophenes, to the least reactive, hindered
dibenzothiophenes and phenanthrothiophenes.
By properly characterising the boiling ranges of a particular
feed being processed, porosity can be engineered to better
facilitate diffusion of the species, i.e. larger pores for heavy
distillates and smaller pores for lighter distillates, such as
kerosene and naphtha.
Figure 5 is an example that focuses on ultra-low sulfur
diesel (ULSD) production. This figure shows product
concentration information obtained by sulfur GCxGC. As the
total product sulfur approaches zero, the heaviest substituted
dibenzothiophenes and phenanthrothiophenes become a
greater portion of the total product sulfur and the lightest
substituted dibenzothiophenes become a lesser portion of
the total product sulfur. Such information is applied in the
formulation of hydrodesulfurisation kinetics.
Catalyst loading and reactor internals
For a catalyst’s performance to meet or exceed
representations, it must be fully utilised in the reactor. A
loading strategy is devised such that the flowing feed
components and hydrogen-rich treat gas contact the catalyst
in plug flow fashion through each catalyst bed, at the desired
temperature. Multiphase flow is the most challenging context.
Generally, accomplishing this requires contemporary reactor
internals, a dense catalyst loading, a well-controlled and
uninterrupted activation, and a smooth startup with a
straight-run feedstock. Reactor internals such as UOP
UniFlowTM typically consist of a reactor inlet elbow with inlet
diffuser, a rough distribution tray that traps entrained metal
scale and other large foulants, one or more vapour/liquid
distribution trays (e.g. vapour lift type or hybrid vapour lift
type), one or more catalyst support grids, one or more quench
mixers, and a reactor effluent collector.
Process simulation, modelling and
product testing
Accurate representation of catalyst performance in the
hydroprocessing unit under actual process conditions requires
kinetic model development and process simulation using
software such as Honeywell UniSimTM Design. Computational
fluid dynamics models and physical models may also be
needed to guide the process design and prepare the fluid
property and dimensionless number correlations that are
useful for scale-up. Integrating the sub-models within a
process simulation and thermodynamics package is the final
step of performance representation tool development.
 Inputs consist of specific process and equipment Demonstrations of this unified approach to catalyst
commercialisation used to develop the Honeywell UOP UnityTM
specifications, feed characterisation, and product quality and
Catalyst Portfolio are presented in Figures 7 and 8. HYT-6219 is a
cycle length requirements. The process specifications consist of
throughput, temperature and pressure, the provision for supported NiMo catalyst that has been used in diesel
hydrotreating units producing ULSD and as the pre-treat catalyst
hydrogen, and any process design and/or equipment limitations.
in hydrocracking units (HCPT).
To validate the assumptions made in catalyst preparation and
computer modelling, testing of the catalyst’s performance is In Figure 7, the HYT-6219’s drop-in performance is compared
with performance from the prior cycle with the former catalyst.
done in a variety of pilot scales and configurations (Figure 6) with
The diesel hydrotreater is now reliably producing EURO V quality
capabilities for varying number of reaction stages, recycle gas
diesel (e.g. <10 ppm sulfur), with improvements to other product
flows, and options for single-pass or recycle of unconverted oil
for full conversion (hydrocracking context). With quality specifications such as cetane and specific gravity, and is
presently doing so at 10% greater throughput than the previous
customer-specific feedstocks and operating specifications, real
catalyst-in-process performance may be observed. cycle. Figure 7 also indicates the benefits of having technical
support advisors on-site, who found shortly after startup that a
Small-scale, high-throughput catalyst screening is done at
reactor pressure differential instrument equalising valve had been
the bench scale to test many experimental materials at once,
left open after routine maintenance. Closing the bypass helped
such as in 16 parallel reactors with 0.5 cc of catalyst each. The
scale-up of materials with promising performance is done inthe customer fully realise the benefits of the catalyst change.
larger pilot plants, with reactors that can accommodate up to In Figure 8, the HYT-6219’s drop-in performance is shown in a
new hydrocracker (designed by others) loaded with Unity
0.5 l of catalyst as whole pills (extrudates, spheres, beads, etc.). It
hydrotreating and hydrocracking catalysts. The feed is a 30/47/23
is at this scale that multiple hydroprocessing configurations and
conversions can be evaluated. blend of coker gas oil, atmospheric gas oil, and vacuum gas oil
with 2.2% sulfur, 2400 ppm nitrogen, and specific gravity of 0.93.
In this case, the product diesel yield and quality
(exceeding EURO V quality) specifications are being
met or exceeded, and the two-year cycle length target
will be exceeded by at least 15%.
Discovery, scale-up and commercialisation of high
performance hydroprocessing catalysts requires
expertise in every aspect of manufacture, from the
alumina support synthesis, to the extrusion, to the
finishing, all the while testing the catalyst in situ from
benchtop-scale through the pilot plant-scale, and
finally to commercial-scale equipment. The Unity
Portfolio catalysts for demetallation, clean fuels, and
pre-treatment were developed using a disciplined,
unified approach comprising capabilities in catalyst
Figure 7. Benefits of reloading with new HYT-6219 hydrotreating preparation and integrated manufacturing, catalyst
catalyst vs former catalyst. activation, catalyst regeneration and rejuvenation, feed
and products characterisation, catalyst loading and
reactor internals, process simulation, modelling and
product testing. These capabilities produced the
expanding Unity hydrotreating catalyst portfolio.

Figure 8. Benefits of reloading with Unity hydrotreating
(HYT-8119, -6219) and hydrocracking catalysts (HC-140, -150).
Conclusion
The demand for more active, more robust, and more
durable hydrotreating products is more urgent than
ever, given tightening fuel quality standards and more
frequent revisions to refiners’ economic strategies.
Satisfying that demand with every new product
requires a well-defined, unified approach that is
supported by hydrotreating specialists – including
chemists, chemical engineers, microscopists, and
others – and the latest modelling and analytical tools.
The details underlying each element of that approach
evolve and mature with each advancement, but the
elements themselves remain more or less the same.
Consistent with this approach, Honeywell UOP has
developed hydrotreating catalysts for everything from
naphtha to VGO services, which will evolve to meet
the demand.

July 2018 38 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Bart de Graaf, Ray Fletcher, Herman van den Bold,
and Niels van Buuren, Inovacat B.V., the Netherlands,
explain how new naphtha conversion technologies can
help address increasing demand for propylene.

W
orldwide naphtha supplies are increasing. In
North America, this is largely being caused
by an increase in light tight oil (LTO)
production, which is anticipated to rise
further due to a combination of efficient recovery
methods and the (partially) recovered oil price. These
LTOs contain more naphtha than conventional oils
(Figure 1).1 With increased production levels, an
oversupply of naphtha is likely to occur when steam
crackers in the US have made a major shift from naphtha
to NGLs such as ethane and propane. Ethane is preferred
as it is inexpensive and has the highest selectivity
towards ethylene, the most valuable component in the
product slate of a steam cracker.
The European naphtha market strikes a delicate
balance. Europe has switched from being a major
exporter of gasoline to the US to being a net importer
of naphtha.2 This is due to the shutting down of 10% of
Europe’s refining capacity in the past 10 years.3 Most
European export refineries, especially in the UK, have
suffered from the increase in refining capacity in the US.
This is excabarated by slow economic recovery in Europe
suppressing demand. Finished motor gasoline produced
in Europe is now predominantly exported to West
Africa, the Middle East and Asia (where Europe produces
too much gasoline, diesel production is insufficient,
requiring substantial imports from Russia and the Middle
East). Various European refiners are moving away from
motor fuels to petrochemical production to increase
profitability.
In 2020, a major worldwide shift in marine fuels will
occur. The International Convention for the Prevention

HYDROCARBON 39 July 2018

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Composition of various crudes.1 Eagle Ford
LTO contains more light straight run naphtha than
other crudes.
Table 1. Selectivities of cracking normal- and
iso-pentanes and -hexanes
Normal- Iso- Mix
Pentanes (C5) 28% 46% 37%
Hexanes (C6) 35% 44% 40%
Figure 2. The effect of time on stream on single pass
normalised conversion of an olefinic light naphtha
for a single reactor at constant conditions for two
different catalyst systems. Cat 1 contains a high acid
site density catalytic system, while Cat 2 contains a
lower acid site density system.
of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) regulation4 will
substantially reduce the use of high sulfur fuel oil in
marine bunkering, from 3.5 wt% to 0.5 wt%, and force
the use of marine gasoil (or a blend of low sulfur fuel oil
and marine gasoil). This will increase refinery utilisation
rates, as well as naphtha supply.
Propylene demand
The propylene market has grown by 4% in the past
decades5, and it is expected to continue to do so for the
foreseeable future. Where propylene was previously
made predominantly by steam cracking and fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC), on-demand propylene
technologies have steadily gained market share. The
propylene market is typically local, as shipping
propylene is challenging. In 2003, the worldwide
propylene to ethylene ratio from steam crackers was
0:41. This decreased to 0:34 in 2017 due to changes in
July 2018 40 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
feedstock. Only the increase in throughput has allowed
the propylene production from steam crackers to
increase from 39 million tpy in 2003 to 48 million tpy in
2017, an increase of 1.5% per year where the propylene
market grew at 4% annually.
In North America, there has been a major shift in
propylene supply from steam crackers due to the shift in
feed, from naphtha that typically makes around 15%
propylene, to ethane that makes a negligible amount of
propylene. This change in steam cracker diet to ethane
and other NGLs is driven by their decreasing cost due to
abundant supply from shale gas production. Propylene
production has shifted to FCC and the addition of major
size propane dehydrogenation (PDH) units of Flint Hills
Resources in 2010 and Dow in 2017. In January 2018,
Enterprise’s PDH unit in Mont Belvieu, Texas, US, was
planned to start up.
In Europe, steam crackers and FCC still produce most
of the propylene. Refinery production of propylene has
been cut back due to the closure of various refineries.
However, plans for various new units in Belgium and
Poland have been announced.
Asian economies continue to exhibit robust growth.
Where Western Europe faces a rapidly ageing population
in a fairly stagnant economy, Asian household
consumption continues to grow rapidly. Concurrent strong
and continued growth in propylene demand therefore
needs to be met by regional supply.6 A rapid expansion of
propylene-on-demand technologies has mostly emerged
in Asia. The most important of these technologies are
PDH, coal-to-olefins/methanol-to-olefins, and metathesis.
Coal-to-olefins puts a heavy burden on environment, both
because of its extensive water usage and because it
produces 10 – 20 t of CO2 per t of propylene. Due to high
methanol prices, methanol-to-olefins is currently not
economically feasible. Metathesis economics depend
severely on butylene prices.
Therefore, by far the most important current
propylene on demand technology is PDH, driving most
of the recent Asian growth in supply capacity.
Worldwide, there are 31 PDH units, with a typical
capacity of 200 000 – 750 000 tpy of propylene, of
which two-thirds are located in Asia (most in China and
Korea). PDH is an established process – the first unit
started up in 1990 in Map Ta Phut, Thailand. The
selectivity for propylene in the PDH process is very high.
The cash costs are dependent on having access to cheap
propane. This was assured in the US with NGLs.
Increasing demand and export can result in an increase
in propane prices. The newest PDH complexes that are
being built are typically large in both size and costs: a
750 000 tpy PDH unit constructed in Europe is thought
to cost approximately US$1 billion.7
A new process for propylene
production
The global oversupply of naphtha, combined with the
continuous growth in propylene demand, opens
possibilities for novel naphtha conversion processes
with high selectivity towards propylene. There is a place
in the market for a propylene production process that
does not demand the large economy of scale of a PDH
unit, especially when it comes with an attractive

SUBMERGED MOTOR
product slate next to propylene.
Naphtha consists of various components, with

CRYOGENIC PUMPS
olefins being the easiest to crack. Per definition,
aromatic cores are not crackable, though aromatic side

FOR LIQUEFIED GASES

chains can be cracked. Aromatic removal from naphtha
is an established process, offered by various licensors.
Naphthenes can be cracked with a bit more effort.
However, paraffins are the most difficult to crack.
Currently, thermal steam cracking is the only
commercial process to crack gasoline range paraffins.
Cracking pure olefinic feedstocks is easy and
straightforward. In this process, butylenes and
amylenes are dimerised and subsequently cracked into
propylene. Reported propylene yields is 47.3 wt%,
which includes a recycle of unreacted butylenes. The
balance is 8 wt% of ethylene, 29% of C4 hydrocarbons

GLOBAL LEADER IN DEVELOPMENT,

and 13% naphtha (of which one-quarter is aromatics).
This process highlights the ease of cracking olefinic
naphthas. Olefinic naphtha is very reactive, and

ENGINEERING AND TESTING

butylenes and amylenes can be readily reacted to
larger olefins that can be neatly cracked into
propylene.
Cracking paraffins is more challenging. For cracking
paraffins, it is important to create either a carbonium
or a carbenium ion. The easiest route for this is to strip
hydrogen from the paraffin, forming an olefin.
Subsequently, the olefin can be cracked into smaller
olefins. For maximising propylene when cracking
paraffins, both the size and the shape of the paraffin is
important (Table 1). This data is obtained testing pure
components at low conversion. At low conversion,
initial selectivities are reflected as reactions destroying
the products are negligible. The data shows that
cracking C5 and C6 normal paraffins yields
substantially lower propylene selectivities than for the
iso-paraffins. Though iso-paraffins show a higher
selectivity towards propylene, the iso-paraffins
Superior Reliability
showed to be more refractory than the normal
paraffins. Table 1 shows that selectivities towards
propylene are lower for paraffin cracking than for Full Range of Cryogenic Pumps
olefin cracking, as expected.
The Gasolfin process is capable of cracking olefinic ‡,QWDQNUHPRYDEOHSXPSV
feedstocks. Figure 2 shows the cracking of a light
olefinic feedstock under two different catalyst
‡9HVVHOPRXQWHGSXPSV
systems. For catalytic system 2 (Cat 2) the acid site ‡)L[HGPRXQWHGSXPSV
density is lower than that of catalytic system 1 (Cat 1).
The graph shows that initial conversion for Cat 2 is Low total cost of ownership
somewhat lower, but deactivation throughout the run
is less severe. Figure 3 illustrates a change in
selectivities. The yields for both systems show a total No shaft seals - maximize safety,
LPG olefin selectivity of approximately 90 wt%. Single with low maintenance costs
pass results suggest that Cat 1 is more propylene
selective while Cat 2 is more butylene selective. For
Unparalleled quality
Cat 1, the propylene selecitivity is 50%. This is in line
with the propylene selectivity reported for the
butylenes and amylenes conversion technology.8 Note Exceptional pump-down capability
that, here, the approximate 50% of propylene ([WUHPHO\ORZ136+5

WWW.NIKKISOCRYO.COM

Figure 3. The effect of time on stream on single pass
LPG olefin selectivity of an olefinic light naphtha for a
single reactor at constant conditions for two different
catalyst systems. Cat 1 contains a high acid site
density catalytic system, while Cat 2 contains a lower
acid site density system. C3= shows the propylene
selectivity for the catalytic system, while C4= shows
the total butylenes selectivity for the catalytic system.
Figure 4. The effect of time on stream on single pass
normalised conversion of a paraffinic light naphtha
for a single reactor at constant conditions for two
different catalyst systems. Cat 1 contains a high acid
site density catalytic system, while Cat 2 contains a
lower acid site density system.
selectivity is based on single pass results, without
recycle of the substantial amount of butylenes formed.
When a recycle of butylenes is applied, as is carried out
in the Omega process, propylene selectivity for both
systems will increase to more than 50%.
Cycle length for cracking of olefins vs
cracking of paraffins
The cycle length for a single reactor is determined by
various factors, such as the activity and selectivity at
any point in time, as well as the effect of time required
for regeneration vs time on stream. For cracking the
olefinic feed under constant conditions, the single pass
propylene selectivity remains high, but decreases
slowly over time. By deactivation of acid sites by coke
deposition, Cat 1 starts to resemble Cat 2. The
reduction in acid site density in the catalytic system
increases the butylene selectivity. By decreasing acid
site density in the catalytic system, the chances for
oligomerisation of butylene forming higher molecular
weight olefins decreases. This effect reduces the single
July 2018 42 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
pass propylene selectivity. By recycling the butylenes
to the reactor, the propylene yields can be increased
substantively.
When cracking paraffinic feedstocks (Figure 4) the
change in activity mostly occurs in the first quarter of
the cycle, whereafter activity remains fairly constant.
This is a different response than observed for the
olefinic feedstock (Figure 2), where the major change in
activity occurs in the first half of the cycle before
levelling out. For cracking a light paraffinic naphtha,
propylene selectivity is 37%. Moreover, butylene
selectivity is a steady 23%. For cracking a light straight
run type feedstock, a 60% LPG olefin selectivity is a
good result that cannot be obtained by thermal cracking.
Additionally, 8% ethylene is produced in this mode of
operation. The ethylene can be beneficial for an
integrated petrochemical complex, whereas a different
outlet might be required in a refinery.
Conclusion
There are very few suitable outlets for the increasing
supply of (low quality) naphtha that comes with
production of light tight oil, more fuel efficient cars and
the shifting feed slates of steam crackers, which had
been the outlet of choice for these naphthas. This
occurs at a moment when various refiners are
considering moving towards petrochemicals, due to
anticipated decreases in fuel consumption going
forward. Propylene demand is expected to increase in
the foreseeable future. There are commercial processes
for cracking olefinic naphtha, but except for steam
cracking, there are no processes for cracking light
paraffinic naphthas.
The Gasolfin process can produce double the
propylene yield compared to the most-frequently
applied naphtha conversion technology: the steam
cracker. The increasing demand for propylene and the
glut of low octane paraffinic naphthas can be addressed
by using new naphtha conversion technologies.
References
1. KEMP, C., ‘Light Naphtha Supply and Demand – When Push
Comes to Shove’, Argus Condensate Conference Presentation,
(30 October 2015).
2. KEMP, C., ‘Changes to America’s Gasoline Pool’, Platts North
American Refined Products Conference, (17 May 2016).
3. FLANAGAN, M., MARS, T., STEED, P. and FIORUCCI, M., ‘European
Refining – Part 1 Historical Perspective and Assessment
Opportune’, (5 December 2016), available at: https://opportune.
com/content/uploads/2016/12/2016-12-05-EU-Refining_
Part-1_Historical-Perspective-3.pdf
4. ‘Tighter marine fuel sulfur limits will spark changes by
both refiners and vessel operators’, US Energy Information
Administration, available at: https://www.eia.gov/
todayinenergy/detail.php?id=28952
5. GREEN, R., ‘Propylene, the journey from orphan to riches?’,
ACI 4th Maximising Propylene Yields Conference, Frankfurt,
Germany, (7 December 2016).
6. BISWAS, R., ‘Global Outlook and Implications for APAC’, ARTC,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, (April 2016).
7. LOPEZ, J., ‘INEOS plans $2bn capex for Europe PDH unit,
cracker expansions’, ICIS, (12 June 2017), available at: https://
www.icis.com/resources/news/2017/06/12/10115080/
ineos-plans-2bn-capex-for-europe-pdh-unit-cracker-
expansions/?redirect=english
8. DHARIA, D. and LIM, N., ‘Increase Propylene Production with
TechnipFMC FCC and OMEGA’, 5th Maximising Propylene Yields
Conference, Barcelona, Spain, (January 2018).
 Ch. Chau, Y. Jeong, R. Hu, and
M. Federspiel, W.R. Grace & Co., USA,
discuss how to boost resid-to-propylene
with premium FCC catalytic solutions.
P
rocessing residues and opportunity feedstocks
remains a technical challenge in the face of volatile
markets and an ever more competitive economic
environment. The upcoming International Maritime
Organization (IMO) 2020 regulations on marine fuels will
further drive refiners to convert residue to more valuable
products. Market dynamics, the gasoline/propylene spread
and a growing demand for plastics such as polypropylene will
support additional propylene production. This challenging
context is a real opportunity for operators of resid fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) units.
This article illustrates the incremental value provided by
Grace at a commercial resid-to-propylene (RTP) FCC, by
implementing a tailored catalytic solution to optimise product
selectivity and convert low quality residue feeds to maximise
propylene and thus enhance refinery profitability.
Propylene – growth driven by
petrochemicals demand
Propylene demand continues to grow strongly, driven by
increased demand for derivatives, particularly polypropylene.
Propylene produced by FCC units and steam crackers do not
meet growing demand, especially in Asia and the Middle East,
even though traditional production has been complemented
in the last 10 years by propane dehydrogenation (PDH),
coal-to-liquids (CTLs) and methanol to olefins (MTO) in Asia.
The propylene demand and supply imbalance, as well as the
‘propylene gap’, are key components of the market landscape.
Increased complexity and petrochemical integration are key
for refiners to compete and take advantage of the growing
value of propylene. Propylene recovery and the flexibility for
refiners to switch their production to maximise propylene
yield depending on the economic conditions (product
demand and pricing) constitute a real asset. In Asia, for
example, almost all refineries recover propylene from their
FCC units to produce primarily polymer-grade propylene,
which continues to enjoy favourable pricing over gasoline.
Propylene demand growth is projected to reach 3.5 – 4%
annually from 2018 to 2032, which will largely be met by
refiners in Asia and the Middle East. More steam crackers and
PDH units will be started up in the US and Europe. Asia’s share
of global propylene capacity and production has progressively
increased from 40 – 42% in 2010 to 55% in 2017. Propylene
trade flows in Asia have also reversed direction from net
importing to exporting. In this context, propylene constitutes
a strong economic opportunity in today’s economy with
petrochemicals driving product demand.
Driving propylene value from low
quality feeds
In this case study, the RTP FCC converts difficult heavy feeds
containing high levels of contaminant metals. Feeds that are
HYDROCARBON 43 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 typically processed are hydrotreated atmospheric residues
with 4 – 5 wppm of nickel and 7 – 15 wppm of vanadium. The
unit objectives are to maximise the residue throughput and
optimise the resulting propylene, gasoline and light cycle oil
(LCO) yields. Given the lower heavy fuel oil value, upgrading
bottoms to minimise residual slurry is also a primary objective.
The RTP FCC operates close to multiple limits, in terms of feed
rate, downstream LPG (C3 and C4) separation and catalyst
Figure 1. Grace's customised catalyst delivers
enhanced propylene yields in the commercial RTP
FCC.
Figure 2. ACHIEVE® delivers high propylene yields,
as confirmed by E-cat pilot plant testing (ACETM
evaluation).
Figure 3. Grace’s ZSM-5 functionality achieves higher
propylene yields at higher catalyst to oil ratio (C/O).
July 2018 44 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
regeneration. The reaction severity demands a high catalyst
circulation rate, thus requiring a high attrition resistant catalyst.
The RTP FCC is equipped with a catalyst cooler, which is
constrained by the heat removal duty. With high concarbon
and metals impurities, the low-quality feeds processed
generate relatively higher coke yields.
Through pilot testing, the Grace ACHIEVE® catalyst
technology platform (1-2) was selected and performance
projections were made using KBC FCC Sim/Profimatics
software and other modelling tools. This methodology is used
to fine-tune the catalyst formulation and support refineries for
performance improvement. Figure 1 illustrates the impact of the
changes to the Grace catalyst formulation on the propylene
yield vs the incumbent catalyst, a high matrix catalyst supplied
by another vendor. The impact of the catalyst on the propylene
yield was apparent during the transition phase at moderate
catalyst change-out, with approximately 1.2 – 1.4% incremental
propylene yield. At 70% and complete change, the propylene
yield continued to increase.
Driving propylene yield
Grace’s catalyst incorporates ZSM-5 functionality to maximise
propylene yield. Both the high propylene selectivity and the
intrinsic activity of the ZSM-5 crystals enable the catalyst to
reach higher propylene yields at comparable content, as
shown in Figure 2. E-cat samples from the RTP FCC unit were
tested under the same conditions using Advanced Catalytic
Evaluation (ACETM) pilot testing with the same feed. At
comparable P2O5 level, the catalyst delivers higher propylene
yields than the incumbent catalyst.
This propylene benefit is also confirmed when increasing
the reactor severity at higher catalyst to oil ratios (Figure 3).
With this catalyst, the influence of catalyst to oil ratio (C/O)
in laboratory evaluation on representative E-cat from the
commercial RTP FCC unit is more pronounced. The higher the
C/O, the higher the propylene advantage. This was also
demonstrated in the commercial unit.
The catalyst’s fluidisation properties have enabled it to
achieve a higher catalyst circulation rate at the same slide
valve opening and pressure drop. The RTP FCC can also
achieve a significant propylene gain, which impacts the unit
profitability favourably.
Deeper bottoms upgrading at premium
coke selectivity
As catalyst change-out progresses, the catalyst demonstrates
effective bottoms cracking capability compared to the
incumbent catalyst. The matrix porosity, combined with
alumina active sites, favours cracking of the bulkier molecules
into smaller size hydrocarbons. The catalyst zeolite to matrix
activity and surface areas were adjusted to provide a high
conversion level with a good coke selectivity. The residual oil,
or slurry, decreases with higher catalyst replacement in the
commercial unit’s inventory (Figure 4).
The RTP FCC runs against the catalyst cooler constraint.
The better the coke selectivity, the higher the unit flexibility
to process at higher severity. The benefit brought by the
selective matrix directly influences the coke selectivity.
Indeed, the metals-trapping functions help to mitigate the
detrimental effect of nickel and vanadium on coke selectivity.
 ProMax ®

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Process Insight: Oil

Process Insight: Air
Air Emissions ModelingAdvances
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A perfect storm has dramatically changed the way oil

and gas production facilities are designed and permitted for air
quality compliance.
Air quality regulations have been strengthened due to
rule changes in the Clean Air Act (40 CFR 60, Subpart OOOO),
drastically reducing the allowed emissions of VOCs from well
sites. These changes were made along with new regulations
of Green House Gas emissions (40 CFR 98, Subpart W). Due
to the more stringent and complex permitting regime, it is now
important to accurately predict VOC emissions rates from oil
and condensate tanks. More complex well site designs which
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compressors are now commonplace. This calls for design-class environment is closer coordination between well site
process simulation tools. facility design, air permitting, and air quality compliance
Along with more stringent rules, the shale revolution personnel. Air quality parameters are considered in
has caused the number of wells drilled in the US to sky-rocket. early design phases and now typically drive the design
Each of these new wells requires a permit with emissions process. The resulting process simulation is then used by
estimates, dramatically increasing the work load for compliance. air permitting and compliance functions throughout the
Along with the calculation requirements for permits, annual life of the well. Use of a design-class process simulation
inventory reports are also required for a variety of emissions tool helps bring the work of these two groups together in
sources and contaminants. Examples include Greenhouse Gas seamless fashion.
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typically vented to the atmosphere. (See Figure 1)
With the new regulations, a comparable well is now
equipped with additional features designed to mitigate,
recover, or convert VOC’s in gases that were previously
vented. Designs similar to Figure 2, in conjunction with a
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emissions. To achieve such designs, a high-quality process
simulator like ProMax is necessary for evaluating and
RSWLPL]LQJWKHYDULRXVVFKHPHV
ProMax brings these new and necessary capabilities
to the design, permitting, and compliance teams.
Additionally, an EPA AP-42 Working, Breathing, and
Loading Loss calculation tool has been added to ProMax so
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Figure 4. The active speciality alumina matrix
substantially reduces slurry vs the competitor grade
(commercial performance).
Figure 5. Better coke selectivity enables the RTP FCC
to operate with lower cat cooler (commercial data).
Figure 6. At isoconversion, ACHIEVE demonstrates
premium coke selectivity over the incumbent (DCRTM
evaluation on Ecat).
Specialty aluminas are included in the catalyst to mitigate the
dehydrogenation effect of nickel and rare-earths are
incorporated to trap vanadium. The effectiveness of the
‘V trap’ in the commercial unit performance has been
confirmed by SEM-EDX microscopic observation, with
vanadium selectively associated with the rare earth
throughout the catalyst particle. The positive impact of the
catalyst on performance is depicted in Figures 5 and 6.
Representative E-cat samples from different periods –
with the incumbent catalyst, transition phase, and fully
changed out inventory – were collected from the commercial
RTP FCC. These E-cat samples were tested in the Davison
July 2018 46 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Table 1. ACHIEVE catalyst formulation
performance
Product yields (wt%) Incumbent Grace catalyst
Dry gas (wt%) Base -0.2
Total LPG (wt%) Base 0.9
C3= (wt%) Base 1.1
Gasoline (wt%) Base -0.8
LCO (wt%) Base -0.2
Slurry (wt%) Base -0.25
Coke (wt%) Base -0.3
Conversion (wt%) Base 0.5
Unit profitability Base US$0.76/bpd
Circulating Riser (DCRTM) pilot plant with the customer’s feed.
The improvement in bottoms upgrading and higher
mid-distillate yields were confirmed through this evaluation.
The premium coke selectivity is highlighted in Figure 6.
Compared at isoconversion, the coke yield was about 1 wt%
lower with the Grace catalyst, which could be attributed to its
porosity and metal traps to mitigate the coke formation
induced by nickel and vanadium.
Value delivered
The process and economic objective is to promote residue
conversion into more valuable products. The total liquid swell
is a strong indicator for the commercial RTP FCC. As the
catalyst inventory evolves, the liquid volume gain is improved.
A representative set of economic data has been used to
assess the impact of the product yield patterns. The product
values correspond to market pricing or relative refinery
economics for propylene, LPG, gasoline, LCO and slurry oil,
respectively. The operating expenses include the catalyst costs.
With the performance improvement and incremental propylene
yields, the RTP FCC profitability is significantly increased
(Table 1). The value creation amounts to almost US$0.76/bbl of
feed. For a RTP FCC of similar objectives with a capacity of, for
example, 65 million bpd, the yearly profitability improvement
will reach approximately US$18 million.
Conclusions
When developing a catalyst for RTP commercial operations,
optimised catalyst features promote residue conversion, metal
tolerance and bottoms upgrading to drive refinery profitability.
A specialty alumina matrix, with tailored pore-size distribution
and intrinsic activity, fosters bottoms upgrading towards higher
mid-distillates and lower residual slurry oil without coke
penalty. Metal trapping functionality mitigates the poisoning
effect of contaminant metals such as nickel and vanadium.
In the commercial RTP FCC outlined above, Grace’s
catalyst increased unit profitability in the range of
US$0.76/bbl. With dynamic market conditions, growing
demand in propylene, tailor-made FCC catalyst technology
opens further opportunities for the refinery to capture
additional value.
Bibliography
1. 'Achieving Advantages with State-of-the-Art FCC Catalyst Solutions',
Grace Catalysts Technologies, Digital Refining, (June 2015).
2. 'A Great Achievement', Hydrocarbon Processing, (November 2015).
Carl Keeley, Vasilis Komvokis,
Fernando Sánchez Arandilla and
Modesto Miranda, BASF, Europe,
introduce a new catalyst for heavy
resid feedstock applications.
R
efiners are challenged to respond to continually
changing market economics, which has led to
them processing heavier feeds in their fluid
catalytic cracking units (FCCUs) with more
contaminants. This has been proven through the analysis
of equilibrium catalyst and operating data from over
200 FCCUs globally.1 Furthermore, a survey conducted at
a recent event for the downstream industry revealed that
the top priorities for most refiners include improving FCC
bottoms upgrading, distillate production, conversion and
olefins production.2 Consequently, there is strong demand
for improved bottoms cracking and metals passivation
technologies, which unlock the operational flexibility to
achieve a range of FCC targets.
The needs of each FCCU are unique. Close inspection
reveals important differences in feed quality, unit
configuration, objectives, and constraint, meaning that
tailor-made solutions are required for each refinery. New
catalysts have recently been introduced to address these
individual challenges; including units processing moderate
to heavy resid feedstock, refiners wanting lower hydrogen
and coke yields, or those that desire deep bottoms
conversion and higher overall product yields. When
designing a catalyst, it is important to consider that heavy
feeds bring in more contaminant metals.
Contaminant metals in heavy feeds primarily comprise
of iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and vanadium (V). Sodium (Na) can
also be deposited from the feed. In this article, the three
key features in managing contaminant metals are
outlined. These are: pore architecture for iron
contamination, activity retention for sodium, as well as
nickel and vanadium passivation.
HYDROCARBON 47 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 






'
##"







'
##"
flexibility, so are effective for use in applications
 






 with high added iron.4


 


 

 
Activity retention
In addition to catalysing dehydrogenation
 
reactions, vanadium and iron participate in
  catalyst deactivation. When there are high levels
         
of vanadium in the feed, vanadium trapping
Figure 1. Refinery A reduced coke and gas factors using materials are typically added to the catalyst to
Fortress™ NXT. passivate the vanadium and mitigate the negative
effects on catalyst activity. Acidic vanadium

 


 
'
#'! #"
compounds are highly mobile in the regenerator
 
 


 
'
#'! #" 



and react with sodium to form sodium hydroxide
  




 (NaOH), which then attacks the catalyst. Sodium
  




is either deposited on the equilibrium catalyst by

 
the feedstock or present from catalyst
  manufacturing. The result is catalyst deactivation
  and selectivity changes as the catalyst
          zeolite-to-matrix ratio decreases.5 The in-situ
manufacturing process produces catalysts with
Figure 2. Reduced coke and gas factors were observed at the lowest sodium on fresh catalyst, thereby
refinery B after using the new BASF catalyst.
improving resistance to deactivation via added
sodium and vanadium.3

&







Improved contaminant metal
passivation
 






 
Figure 3. Reduced slurry yield at refinery B with the
new BASF catalyst.
Pore architecture for iron
contamination
Destruction of slurry and maximisation of liquid yields
remain top priorities for the FCCU. To minimise slurry
and improve FCC yields, the importance of engineered
catalyst pore architecture cannot be underestimated.3
Features of a highly-engineered pore architecture
include suitable pore dimensions, pore volume
distribution and connectivity between pores. A catalyst
with high surface porosity and engineered pore
architecture is typically best equipped to mitigate the
effects of iron. Added iron (i.e. organic iron deposited
on the catalyst by the feedstock) can block catalyst
pores, which hinders access to and from the catalyst
sites. In severe cases of iron poisoning, the catalyst
activity significantly decreases.
Examination of catalysts exposed to high added iron
shows iron nodules on the surface. Thus, a catalyst with
high surface porosity is necessary to provide iron
tolerance. Other effects of iron poisoning include
dehydrogenation reactions, carbon monoxide combustion
promotion and increased sulfur oxide emissions. BASF’s
catalyst technologies provide high surface porosity and
July 2018 48 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
In addition to iron, heavy resid feeds often contain high
amounts of nickel and vanadium. It is well known that
nickel, vanadium and iron catalyse dehydrogenation
reactions in the FCC riser, producing contaminant gas
and coke. As gas and coke are low-value products,
unpassivated metals contamination results in reduced
   FCC profitability. Technologies exist to aid metals
passivation, providing flexibility to refiners processing
moderate and highly-contaminated feedstocks.
Antimony compounds are sometimes used to passivate
feed nickel, depending on operating conditions.
Specialty aluminas are also used in resid-FCC catalysts,
and these are effective at trapping nickel. However, since
nickel is typically concentrated on the outer-surfaces of
a resid-FCC catalyst, it can only be trapped by alumina
when it is in sufficient proximity. The lack of both an
active alumina trap and nickel mobility within the
catalyst particle limits nickel passivation by this method.
A way of addressing this limitation is optimising the
specialty alumina that provides nickel passivation.
Following research efforts, BASF employed a new
specialty alumina with improved crystalline structure,
which offers the potential to passivate nickel more
effectively.
There are options available to address specific needs,
and the selection of specific metal passivation
technologies depends on individual refinery operations.
For refiners that desire even lower hydrogen and coke in
their yields, an innovative solution to passivate nickel is
boron-based technology (BBT), which has been
previously reported in detail and commercially
demonstrated.6 Boron functionality is complementary to
specialty alumina materials, and provides an added
benefit.
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&


 Commercial trial two


 A trial of the catalyst was also conducted at a large
 

 resid-FCCU in Europe (Refinery B), whose objectives
 were to maximise atmospheric resid feed rate and
 gasoline yield, while minimising slurry. The FCCU’s main

constraints were high regenerator temperature and high
dry gas yield. Thus, a catalyst with low coke and gas and

    
deep bottom conversion was requested. Refinery B
decided to complete laboratory testing and evaluation
Figure 4. Refinery B increased gasoline yield using of BASF’s latest innovation. Catalysts from several
the catalyst. suppliers were deactivated using a cyclic metals
deactivation unit (CMDU) and were tested using a
circulating riser unit (CRU). Following a positive outcome
Table 1. Catalyst performance at Refinery B from the tests, the refinery selected Fortress NXT for a
Trial key Trial result Fortress NXT commercial trial.
performance BASF worked closely with the refinery to design trial
indicators protocols to ensure a smooth catalyst changeover. As the
Gas factor Reduced by Improved metals new catalyst entered the unit, an immediate reduction of
7 – 8% passivation and over 10°C in regenerator temperature was observed, which
reduced coke and moved the unit away from the former regenerator
Coke factor Reduced by 18%
gas: refinery increases temperature constraint, and allowed the refinery to
Percentage of resid Increased by 10% percentage of resid in
in the feed (unit the feed
increase the proportion of atmospheric resid in the feed.
data) This benefit was enabled by a clear reduction in catalyst
Bottoms yield Reduced by 4% Improved pore coke and gas factors (Figure 2). Even with more
(slurry%; ACE data) architecture and atmospheric resid in feed during this trial, the refinery
Gasoline Increased by 2%
bottoms upgrading: reduced its slurry yield (Figure 3) and increased its
refinery improved gasoline yield (Figure 4) as a function of catalyst
production (%; ACE
product yields conversion (FACT) demonstrated via advanced cracking
data)
evaluation (ACE) results. Furthermore, improved yields
were achieved at a slightly lower catalyst addition rate.
FCC catalysts The trial performance is summarised in Table 1.
The latest catalyst innovation from BASF is FortressTM
NXT for heavy resid feedstock applications. This catalyst Conclusions
has been engineered to deliver efficient metals Because every FCCU is unique, new catalyst technologies
passivation and increased liquid product yields. It that are tailored for different FCCUs have been developed
employs specialty alumina and vanadium trapping and implemented. Two refinery trials were highlighted in
technologies and is suitable for FCCUs requiring high this article. In the first case, the Fortress NXT catalyst
metals passivation for lower hydrogen and coke yields. A demonstrated improved nickel passivation performance.
carefully-engineered pore architecture provides iron As a result, the refinery could process variable quality
tolerance and the potential for both improved slurry feed, while maintaining good bottoms conversion and
destruction and higher liquid yields. Furthermore, low sustain desired product yields. In the second trial, the
sodium on fresh catalyst improves activity retention trialled catalyst demonstrated improved metals
when vanadium levels are high. This catalyst has been passivation compared to the resid catalyst. This new
successfully used in commercial trials. technology allowed the refinery to significantly increase
the atmospheric resid feed rate and improve bottoms
Commercial trial one conversion and gasoline yields.
Refinery A, based in Europe, was already using the
previous generation of the company’s catalyst. The Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Steve Challis, Ahmed Al Sibani and
refinery wanted to evaluate a new catalyst to improve
Kitty Cha for their contributions and help preparing this article.
its flexibility to process variable quality feeds, and
selected Fortress NXT for a catalyst trial. During the References
1. POPE, J., CLOUGH, M. and SHACKLEFORD, A., ‘Lessons from FCC
trial, this refinery processed several different feedstocks
History’, PTQ Catalysis, pp. 37 – 45, (2017).
with varying levels of contaminants (nickel and 2. ERTC, 22nd Annual Meeting, Athens, Greece,
vanadium). Improved economic performance was (13 – 15 November 2017).
3. KOMVOKIS, V., TAN, L., CLOUGH, M., PAN, S. and YILMAZ, B.,
apparent shortly after the change to the FCC catalyst. At ‘Zeolites in Sustainable Chemistry’, Springer, pp. 271 – 296,
similar equivalent nickel, coke and gas factors were (2016).
4. SHACKLEFORD, A. and CLOUGH, M, ‘Iron poison investigations
significantly reduced (Figure 1). Despite deteriorating the enable opportunities for success’, AFPM-17-49.
feed quality, the refinery maintained deep bottoms 5. XU, M., LIU, X and. MADON, R., ‘Pathways of Y-Zeolite Destruction’,
Journal of Catalysis 207, pp. 237 – 246, (2002).
conversion and sustained good LPG and gasoline yields.
6. KEELEY, C., KOMVOKIS, V., SHACKLEFORD, A., et al., ‘Catalyst
The refinery continues to use this catalyst. Technologies for Improved FCC Yields’, PTQ, 4Q17, pp. 31 – 25.

July 2018 50 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Miray Genç, Aytaç Gül, Eda Bayraktar Dalgıç, and Şeyma Avcılar,
Tüpraş, along with Tom Ventham, Johnson Matthey, map out
the path that the Tüpraş İzmit Refinery took when exploring the
subject of fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) NOX reduction.

T
emperatures in the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
regenerator are insufficiently high to produce
thermal NOX from nitrogen in combustion air.
However, in units with CO boilers that are
typically found on partial burn FCC units (FCCUs), the
introduction of direct firing will result in thermal
nitrous oxides (NOX) being produced downstream of the
FCC regenerator. This is particularly true in cases where the
CO boiler has not been fitted with low-NOX burners.
Feed nitrogen that has been converted to coke in the
reaction section can leave the process as NOX in the flue
gases when said coke is combusted in the regenerator.
Approximately 40% of feed nitrogen will partition into
coke. Nitrogen in coke will not automatically fully convert
to NOX. Many different reaction paths exist. 75% of
nitrogen in coke is converted to inert nitrogen (N2), which
leaves as a harmless inert. The remaining 25% will be
converted to NOX (NO, NO2, N2O) or a reduced nitrogen
species, such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) or ammonia (NH3).
Reduced species will tend to form when available free
oxygen is sparse; this is strongly the case in partial burn FCC
regenerators and some full burn regenerators where radial
mixing between spent catalyst and air is non-uniform.
Reduced nitrogen species are readily converted to NOX
when they come into contact with oxygen, either in more
oxygen-rich sections of the catalyst bed or vapour space,
plenum, flue gas ducting or in the presence of excess air
injected into the CO boiler.
Oxygen is a key factor in determining if nitrogen in coke
forms N2 or NOX in the FCC regenerator. A surfeit of oxygen
will push the reaction further in the direction of NOX rather
than N2 in the oxygen rich environment of the downstream
CO boiler. Similarly, a lack of oxygen will increase the
formation of reduced nitrogen species, which terminates as
NOX rather than N2. The theoretical ‘sweet spot’ of oxygen
would be the point between full burn and partial burn,

HYDROCARBON 51 July 2018

ENGINEERING
 i.e. close to zero excess O2 and ppm levels of CO in the
flue gas. Although it is not a feasible regime to operate an
FCC regenerator in a stable manner, combustor-type units
and counter-current regenerators aim to be close to this
sweet spot in key areas of the regenerator. Hence, these
units tend to have lower levels of NOX emissions from the
outset. There may be separate drawbacks to this type of
regenerator design in terms of other environmental
emissions, but this discussion is not in the scope of this
article.
In partial burn units, a higher CO/CO2 ratio implies
more reductive atmosphere, which pushes nitrogen in coke
through pathways leading to reduced N-species, such as
HCN and NH3. These reduced species become fully
oxidised to NOX with surplus oxygen in the CO boiler.
Platinum (Pt) complexes that are present in CO
promoters and antimony are strong catalysts in the
generation of NOX from nitrogen in coke. Although it is
plausible that the presence of CO can act to reduce NOX to
N2 (2CO + 2NO --> 2CO2 + N2), this may be very localised
Figure 1. Platinum decay during NOX reduction trials
at Tüpraş İzmit Refinery.
Figure 2. NOX emissions during reduction trials.
Figure 3. The relationship between NOX emissions at
excess O2 in the refinery's FCCU.
July 2018 52 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
and heavily outweighed by the aforementioned significant
generators of NOX.
CO promoters are used in FCCUs, more commonly in
full burn than partial burn operations, to reduce afterburn.
‘Afterburn’ is defined as the positive temperature delta
between the dilute phase of the regenerator and dense bed
phase. This difference forms as a result of excess CO
slipping from the dense bed, meeting an excess of O2 in the
upper regenerator and fully oxidising through to CO2. The
CO oxidation reaction is highly exothermic and the low
density or heat capacity of the vapour space limits how
much of this heat of combustion can be absorbed.
Traditionally using platinum as the active material, CO
promoters catalyse this final oxidation reaction within the
dense bed, where the temperature is more effectively
buffered by the surrounding catalyst.
CO promoters can be poisoned by lead and antimony.
Lead (Pb) can irreversibly poison platinum CO promoters at
a ratio of 100:1 Pb/Pt. Promotion activity may be reduced
by 50% when using antimony. The amount of CO promoter
required for a given operation to maintain effective
afterburn control is conventionally termed ‘the level of
promotion’. A fully-promoted system is when the amount
of CO promoter in use results in 2 ppm of platinum present
in the total circulating inventory at steady state. Units that
find it challenging to maintain control of afterburn can
increase this level. Other units may be able to achieve good
control with less than 1 ppm of platinum.
Optimisation of the FCC
The push to minimise CO promotor use is prudent. Not
only does it save on OPEX as precious metal containing
additives are naturally expensive, but NOX emissions can be
reduced significantly by limiting the amount of platinum or
palladium added to the FCCU.
The first action to take is optimising the operation to
minimise excess O2 in full burn applications and reducing
the CO percentage in partial burn applications. The next
step for decreasing FCC NOX emissions is adding the CO
promoter separately rather than pre-blending it with the
catalyst. If the CO promoter is pre-blended with the
catalyst, the control available to the operator to carefully
optimise actual CO promoter requirement is made
redundant. There is also concern if the CO promoter is
truly ideally mixed with the catalyst and if the fresh
catalyst addition system can add batches of catalyst in the
accurate and semi-continuous way for the required
application. With these factors acting against the
pre-blended approach, progressive refiners often realise
that separate addition with a reliable and accurate addition
system is critical for reduced NOX emissions.
Refiners that pre-blend will find that CO promoter
addition rate is set conservatively in an effort to overcome
the issues during unstable operation. Moreover, transient
high afterburn events can occur, particularly during a
start-up, resulting in the need to inject additional promoter
for a short period of time. If promoter is wholly
pre-blended and there is no capability to add extra
material, the pre-blend level may even be set for this
worst-case/start-up operation, resulting in an
over-addition of promoter in the vast majority of the
operation.
Constantly changing the proportion of promoter
included in the pre-blend catalyst is also unfeasible. Firstly,
there is little way of checking the accuracy of this variable
concentration due to the inability to accurately measure
low levels of Pt. Also, the long-decay period of platinum in
the catalysis of NOX and the short-decay period for CO
promotion reactions means that targeting continuous
optimal operation in a dynamic unit, such as the FCC, is
almost impossible, especially when catalyst hopper Figure 4. NOX vs excess O2, focusing on operation
turn-over and delivery times extend the lead time that with COP-NP when platinum concentration has
needs to be taken into account. decayed to a low level.

NOX reduction in full

burn FCC
Following the optimisation of the
FCC operation, the separation of CO
promoter addition and the
optimisation of promoter addition

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HYDROCARBON 53 ©Zeeco,
July 2018
Inc. 2018
ENGINEERING
 selective catalytic reduction (SCR) are among these
technologies.
In SNCR, NH3 or urea nozzles are installed in the
convection section of CO boilers. These nozzles are used
to atomise NH3 at temperatures of 850 – 1030°C. NH3 will
react with NOX species through to N2. NH4HSO4 and
(NH4)2SO4 salts can form as byproducts, causing plugging
and corrosion downstream. NH3 slip can reach as high as
20 ppm in the stack gas in an SNCR process, depending on
the quality of NH3:NO ratio control in the reaction section.
In the SCR process, a V2O5 or WO3 based catalyst aids
the formation of N2 from NOX, using air and NH3 as
reactants. Optimum operational temperature is between
300 – 400°C and the catalyst life is typically between four
to six years. The catalyst is mounted in a CO boiler or
separate vessel. Salts can also cause plugging of the
catalyst in this process.
Figure 5. Cross-plot of afterburn vs excess O2.
Figure 6. Daily average afterburn in the base period
using 2 ppm platinum-based CO promoter in fresh
catalyst and Johnson Matthey non-platinum promoter.
Figure 7. NOXGETTER addition protocol through the
trial phase.
July 2018 54 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
NOX can be decreased by 40 – 75% by the SNCR process
and 70 – 90% by the SCR process. In wet gas scrubbers, NOX
is converted to N2O5 and then to HNO3 by ozone. Nitrogen
leaves the process as NaNO3 through reaction with NaOH.
NOX removal is above 98% by WGS, but this is highly costly
in terms of initial investment and operating cost. In addition,
treatment of NaNO3 and NaSO4 enriched steams is typically
required. Otherwise, crystallisation units are required to
remove salts from the purge streams, resulting in further
capital and operational costs.
Case study
Tüpraş investigated NOX mitigation methods when
challenged on this subject in 2011. The following section
details the company’s experience when implementing its
chosen technologies.
Tüpraş İzmit Refinery has an FCCU that is designed for a
feed rate of 1750 m3/d of HVGO/HCO/naphtha recycle.
The unit is a UOP side-by-side configuration with a
bubbling bed regenerator operating in full burn, a riser
disengaging system with rough cut cyclones and feed
injection at the bottom of the riser. The unit’s current
operating capacity is 2250 m3/d.
The refinery began using Johnson Matthey’s
non-platinum COP-NP CO promoter in April 2013, replacing
a traditional platinum-based CO promoter that was
pre-blended with the FCC fresh catalyst to a level of 2 ppm
platinum. A later trial of the company’s NOXGETTERTM
additive began in November 2013. An addition rate of
3 kg/d of COP-NP was required for this unit with 80 t of
circulating catalyst inventory.
After the CO promoter switch, any platinum remaining
in the inventory will continue to generate NOX long after
the CO promotion capabilities have diminished. Therefore,
Tüpraş calculated a platinum decay profile based on a CSTR
model (Figure 1). Based on this calculation, it takes more
than 200 days to decrease platinum to a level below 1 ppm.
There was a further interruption to the normal decay when
catalyst pre-blended with platinum had to be loaded to
the inventory in June 2013. This introduced a small
deviation in inventory platinum concentration. However,
towards the end of the period and by the start of the
additive trial in November 2013, the platinum concentration
had fallen to a low background level. The platinum decay
profile approximates the turnover of the unit as a function
of daily addition and withdrawal rates and the catalyst
inventory of the system. Therefore, the fall in NOX at
Tüpraş İzmit Refinery followed the platinum decay curve
after changing to non-platinum CO promoter (Figure 2).
While it is generally expected that NOX emissions will
follow the platinum decay curve, moving from 2 ppm to
1 ppm platinum concentration is still a large amount of
platinum present in the inventory. Moreover, despite being
aged, it is still highly active in producing NOX. After the
platinum-containing batch of catalyst had been consumed
in June 2013, NOX began to decay with the platinum
concentration. The platinum concentration also reduces
below 1 ppm for a sustained period at this point (Figure 3).
At fixed excess O2, Johnson Matthey’s CO promoter was
found to reduce NOX emissions by 32% in the latter part of
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Figure 8. NOX vs Ecat platinum concentration through
the additive trial.
Figure 9. NOX vs excess O2 during the additive trial.
Figure 10. NOX vs feed nitrogen during the NOX
analysis period at the refinery.
Figure 11. NOX vs excess O2 over the whole NOX
reduction period.
July 2018 56 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
the test when platinum in Ecat has decayed to a lower level.
However, it appeared that NOX emissions were continuing to
decrease in line with further reductions in platinum
concentration. Based on the final days of operation before
the start of the next trial, NOX could be concluded to be
54% lower than the baseline. This is more in line with NOX
reduction levels of ~60% that are expected when switching
to an effective non-platinum CO promoter (Figure 4).
An important differentiator for Tüpraş when exploring
low-NOX CO promoters is the ability to maintain good
afterburn control with a reduced amount of platinum or
platinum alternative. Commercial data showed that
COP-NP can provide effective afterburn control without
the use of platinum. During the Izmit testing, no discernible
difference in afterburn was observed when switching from
platinum CO promoter to the replacement non-platinum
CO promoter (Figures 5 and 6).
To determine the potential for further reductions in
NOX in the İzmit FCCU, a trial of separate NOX reduction
additive was performed.
The trial strategy was to perform additions to attain 1%
concentration in the FCC inventory and then towards 2%.
Steady-state concentration was not achieved but over the
course of this 25-day trial enough useful data was collected
to analyse the additive effects (Figure 7).
Up to the start of the additive trial, further declines in
the residual platinum concentration in the FCC inventory
appeared to still dominate NOX generation. The additive
proved to reduce a further 31% NOX emissions at constant
Ecat platinum concentration (Figure 8).
The comparison at constant excess O2 is not as strongly
correlated but still indicates significant NOX reduction with
NOXGETTER, independent of the main driver of FCC NOX
generation observed in full burn FCCUs (Figure 9).
Based on previous experience, it is not anticipated that
feed nitrogen has a significant effect on FCC NOX
generation. This is because the sensitivity of NOX emissions
is primarily located in the regenerator in terms of the skew
of reaction pathways to either N2 or NOX. Therefore,
throughout the Tüpraş İzmit NOX trials, no sensitivity with
feed nitrogen was observed. Also, feed nitrogen was
maintained in a similar range of 600 – 1200 ppm through
the entirety of the base case and trial periods (Figure 10).
Conclusion
Working alongside Johnson Matthey, Tüpraş embarked on a
comprehensive study of the possibilities for reducing NOX
emissions from the İzmit FCCU. A NOX reduction of almost
75% was realised and a stepwise procedure was followed to
achieve this reduction. A significant reduction in NOX was
observed when switching to a separately added
platinum-free CO promoter that is effective in afterburn
control. This helped reduce NOX by almost 60%. A
subsequent trial with an additive used reduced NOX to the
point that the overall reduction was 74% on a constant
excess O2 basis (Figure 11).
Feasibility studies of this kind can help companies
approach current and future changes to environmental
emission standards, following learning derived from the
performance of short but rigorous plant trials.
 Bradford M. Cook, Sabin Metal Corp.,
USA, explains how effective precious
metal management can help to
maximise returns for refiners.
A
cross the globe, in nearly every region and
market, manufacturers and producers in the
petroleum and petrochemical industry are
increasingly focusing on best practices and
driving out waste.
Wise stewardship of precious metal catalysts must be
part of every producer’s strategy. This article will share
aspects that are crucial to best practice in precious metal
catalyst management. The company wishes to stress not
only the importance of proper sampling and analysis of
precious metal catalysts and purchasing and procurement
guiding principles, but also those facets that usually remain
‘invisible’, that is, unknown to most clients and users.
Most petroleum and petrochemical processors use
some sort of catalyst containing precious metals
(platinum, palladium, ruthenium, and rhodium; commonly
referred to as platinum group metals or PGMs). Some of
these PGM catalysts also contain another valuable
precious metal, rhenium, which is typically used in
combination with platinum for reforming naphthas.
Regardless of their precious metals composition, all PGM
and rhenium bearing catalysts must eventually be
replaced with fresh catalysts (or ‘changed-out’) to restore
efficacy to the process or speed process reactions. The
spent catalysts are then sent to a precious metals refiner
to recover the value contained.
Metal recovery methodology
Traditionally, precious metal catalyst refiners recover PGMs
and rhenium by dissolving the spent catalysts in strong
caustics or acids. This hydrometallurgical recovery process
is commonly referred to as ‘digesting’.
With the exception of aluminosilicates (or zeolites),
digestion serves well to recover precious metals from spent
process catalysts in most cases. However, certain events
and circumstances encountered over the life of the catalyst
can create many problems when trying to digest:
„ Overheating during operation can harden substrates
(gamma alumina converting to theta or alpha alumina),
rendering them insoluble to even powerful solvents.
HYDROCARBON 57 July 2018
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Catalyst (lower left) and pure platinum
sponge.
Figure 2. Fire assay bead collection.
„ Excessive fines or carbon content can prevent the
exposure of the catalyst surface area to the solvents.
„ Metals that are present in the feed or additives
introduced to extend catalyst life can create chemical
imbalances and interfere with the desired chemical
reaction.
Individually, each of these factors can reduce precious
metals recovery and, in combination, these effects can be
vast. In some cases, as much as 20 – 30% of the rhenium
contained can remain insoluble. Should the insoluble
materials still hold precious metals, the hydrometallurgical
refiners must send them out to a copper smelter to recover
the platinum group metals, but the rhenium is lost.
A refiner that uses pyro-metallurgical technology, such
as Sabin’s Pyro-ReTM process, can recover virtually all of the
rhenium from spent catalyst lots, maximising the return
value because catalyst owners are paid based on the total
precious metals content.
It is important to ensure that the values being returned
are based on the total precious metals contained and not
on acid-soluble precious metals content.
July 2018 58 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Fundamentals of quality
‘Purchasing 101’ dictates that there must be a balance
between the performance and quality of what is being
bought and the fairness of the price. Unfortunately, in the
world of precious metal catalyst recycling the essentials of
quality often remain completely hidden.
Most critical is the honesty and integrity of the
precious metals reclaimer. Customers are encouraged to
exercise a high level of diligence in selecting a PGM
recycler: financials, regulatory and legal entities, and both
industry and traditional media, should be consulted to
ensure a proper investigation. Requesting records and
certifications for safety, environmental and other
regulatory adherence is imperative.
Secondly, even the most honest PGM refiner must
achieve accurate sampling and analysis. It is always highly
recommended that the customer audits the precious
metals refiner, and also attend the PGM catalyst weighing
and sampling process or hire a reputable third-party to
witness on their behalf. A second pair of eyes and ears
on-site helps to eliminate the human error factor and
provides valuable corroboration of the calibration of
machinery, data gathered, and that all processing and
sampling proceeded precisely as intended.
Mistaken purchasing priorities
The obvious and typical metrics (processing fees, shipping
costs, speed of turnaround and metals accountability)
represent a small fraction of the precious metals value. And
yet, nearly all companies base their decisions regarding PGM
refining contract awards on these outward appearances. An
example to illustrate the false economy: platinum is valued
at US$1000 per ounce, and a petroleum refining company
releases a request for quote (RFQ) to reclaim 50 t of spent
catalyst. The company can save US$0.10/kg on processing
charges by recycling with ‘Brand X’ instead of ‘Brand Z’. So,
they save US$5000 – the same as five ounces of platinum.
A typical petroleum catalyst would hold approximately
0.3% platinum, so this translates to approximately
100 ounces troy platinum in every tonne or US$100 000.
The total shipment described is therefore worth
US$5 million and holds approximately 5000 ounces of
platinum. Now consider how the following renders this
imagined US$5000 ‘savings’ completely null and void:
Five ounces of platinum in 5000 ounces is 1/1000th and
would not register on the analytical result, i.e. if
5000 ounces contained 0.3% of platinum and 4995 ounces
contained is 0.29965%. Since assays are exchanged at the
third decimal place, the five ounces (US$5000) becomes
invisible and irrelevant in the big picture. Improper or
erroneous processing, sampling and/or laboratory work at
Brand X could easily put hundreds of thousands of dollars
at risk. The critical nature of accuracy therefore grossly
outweighs the perceived discount on the processing fee.
Contract details
The typical life expectancy of a precious metal catalyst
batch is two to five years. Unfortunately, this means that
most of the people in charge of purchasing and procuring
PGM-related products and services will only see one or
 two catalyst change-outs before they are promoted or
moved to a new area of responsibility. Many companies are,
therefore, unaware of the more technical aspects of some
contractual details, several of which can lead to major
losses of revenue, including the following:
Agreed variation in assay
The agreed variation in assay is also known as the ‘splitting
limit’. Once the buyer and seller have their analytical results
in hand, the splitting limit defines the maximum acceptable
difference. If the two parties’ assays are within the splitting
limit, the average of the two is calculated and the money
can change hands. If the two assays are further apart than
the splitting limit, a control sample is sent to a third-party
laboratory to act as ‘umpire’ and settle the dispute.
Standard industry practice on PGM catalyst would dictate a
splitting limit of 1% relative, which not only minimises the
amount of risk, but helps confirm the analytical accuracy as
it forces the two laboratories to reproduce each other’s
results. Beware of precious metal refining contracts that
use 2 or 3% relative splitting limits as this is tantamount to
doubling or tripling a company’s risk.
Limiting the total monetary value
Limiting the total monetary value that is represented by
each assay lot provides another level of control and risk
management. It is in no one’s best interest to have too
much money riding on any one assay, because standard
deviation and repeatability must always be taken
Level Measurement
■ Visual Level Indicators VLI
■ Tank Level Instruments TLI
■ Meets the design standards of the oil & gas,
petrochemical, hydrocarbon and LPG/LNG industries
■ Pressures from vacuum to 500 bar
■ Densities down to 0,27 g/cm³
■ No maintenance (fit and forget)
■ More than 50 years of experience
■ Certified according CE, EAC, Pattern Approval,
ABS, BV, DNV-GL, LR, RINA, RMRS ...
Oil & Gas Industry
Petrochemical Industry
Chemical & Pharmaceutical Industry
Power Industry
Shipbuilding & Marine Industry
Water Management
ARCA Flow Group worldwide:
Competence in valves, pumps & cryogenics
into account. It is important to ensure that a precious
metal refiner creates a large number of small-value (for
example US$500 000) assay lots rather than a lesser
number of large-value lots.
Penalties
The penalties that some PGM reclaimers apply for fines
content, carbon content and other elements can exceed
US$40 000 per instance if the client is not well-educated in
such hidden risks.
Sale vs refining
Lastly, some companies believe that they know the value of
their assets and sell their catalyst by the kilo to a broker to
‘save money’ and avoid the sometimes-complicated export
paperwork or vendor qualification process. However, there
is no way of determining precious metal content or values
without weighing, processing, sampling the entirety of the
spent catalyst, and then running complete, full-quality
analysis. As such, sale by the kilo can result in 30 – 40% of
the precious metal value being lost.
Conclusion
In summary, due diligence in precious metal management
takes the form of investigation first, vigilance during the
process, and attention to detail throughout. If companies
avoid the lowest-bidder mentality and the invisible pitfalls,
they can maximise their precious metals returns, which is
where the real money will always reside.
sit us
Please vi te:
o u r w e bsi
at
ka-ag.ch
www.we
WEKA AG · Schürlistrasse 8
CH-8344 Bäretswil · Switzerland
Phone +41 43 833 43 43
Fax +41 43 833 43 49
info@weka-ag.ch · www.weka-ag.ch
 Mike Minnerly and Taylor Birckbichler,
Elliott Group, USA, discuss how a rerate
of a refiner’s poorly performing hot gas
expander resolved its reliability issues.

July 2018 60 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
H
ot gas expanders have long been used in fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) applications to convert
thermal energy to mechanical energy which, in
turn, can be used to drive the main air blower or
an electric generator. This system is ideal for refineries
operating in regions with high power costs. However, the
abrasive nature of the FCC flue gas has led to problems
with expander reliability, forcing unplanned outages to
address the effects of catalyst erosion and/or deposition.
This article examines the rerate of a poorly performing
hot gas expander operated by a US refiner. Elliott Group
was contracted to retrofit a flow path that would resolve
the reliability issues of the non-Elliott expander, and allow
the refiner to operate the FCC for the desired five year
campaign. Elliott ultimately developed a solution that
combined proven flow path technology, while maintaining
many of the existing expander components and auxiliary
systems, to minimise capital cost. The expander was
installed during a planned outage to reduce any schedule
impacts.
Expander rerate case study
The original hot gas expander in this case study was
installed at the refinery in 1979, and was completely
replaced by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) in
2000. Following five years of reliability issues, including
primary erosion, severe secondary erosion/disk cutting, and
piping acoustic vibration, a third-party supplier redesigned
the unit in 2005. After two unsuccessful operating
campaigns for the redesigned expander, Elliott was
contacted in 2011 to consult on unit vibration, and to repair
the disk secondary erosion.
As a first step, the company conducted a finite element
analysis to evaluate the disk stresses and determined that
the disk was viable for weld repair. It recommended shape
milling of the damaged areas to provide a uniform welding
surface, laser welding of the disk tenons using a Waspaloy
filler metal, machining of the tenon tips to maintain the
original geometry, and coating of the tenons to help
mitigate future cutting. The refiner elected to forego the
weld repair option and instead opted for a more
comprehensive rerate of the expander to prevent similar
damage from occurring in the future. The damaged disk was
blended to remove any stress risers and coated for use as
an emergency spare.
Elliott evaluated the rerate to optimise the flow path of
the unit by incorporating an Elliott TH-100 expander design
(Figure 1). Several of the expander’s existing components
were reused, including the exhaust casing, seal housing, and
bearing pedestal. New components included the inlet
casing and support, stator assembly, rotor, diffuser, bearings
and seals, and baseplate.
Inlet casing and support/stator
assembly
The new inlet casing assembly incorporated the TH-100
flow path design (Figure 2). The inlet casing consisted of a
one-piece forged outer barrel that removed
HYDROCARBON 61 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 pressure-containing welds, four canted struts to help
reduce strut cracking, and a new inlet casing support.
Elliott also integrated an expansion joint into the inlet
casing assembly for the rerate. The difference between the
Figure 1. Rerated TH-100 expander as received after
the first five year run.
Figure 2. TH-100 expander intake casing assembly as
received after the first five year run.
Figure 3. TH-100 rotor blades as received after the
first five year run.
July 2018 62 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
inlet and exhaust gas temperature, and the resultant
variance in thermal expansion, are significant sources of
reliability issues that could eventually lead to expander
failure if left unchecked. The expansion joint absorbs
deflection to the thermal growth from both the exhaust
casing and the inlet casing. This minimises the stresses on
the attachment bolts and flanges, thereby preventing bolt
failure, and reducing flange distortion and flue gas leaks.
Elliott’s boltless stator assembly was secured to the
casing with locating keys and shear rings. This design
removes expensive, high-temperature bolting that can
fracture during operations and lead to machine damage.
High-temperature hardware also has the potential to seize
during disassembly, complicating equipment maintenance
and repair.
The company’s stator vane is an aerodynamic, tapered,
twisted free vortex design that is matched to the tapered,
twisted rotor blades. The blade shape minimises erosion of
the airfoils caused by conservative stator exit velocities,
while maintaining efficiency. The stator assembly
distributes gas flow and entrained catalytic particles more
evenly along the entire height of the blades and eliminates
secondary erosion at the platforms of the rotor blades.
Rotor
Elliott’s rotor assembly has blades and disks that can be
manufactured from high-performance superalloys such as
Waspaloy or the RK1000 superalloy, which has excellent
corrosion resistance and is particularly effective against
sulfide penetration that promotes hot corrosion. For the
rerate application, Waspaloy blades and disks were used
(Figure 3). A sacrificial chrome carbide coating was applied
to the airfoils to aid in preventing erosion of the base
material.
The TH expander rotor design incorporates an axial
spline to attach the rotor disk to the shaft rather than the
radial pins and rabbet fits typical of other designs. The
spline design contributes to rotor reliability by maintaining
concentricity and avoiding the stresses incurred by rabbet
shrink fitting. The TH design also features a reliable blade
root. The enhanced fir tree design features four lands
instead of three, reducing stress at the blade root and
extending blade life. A no-stress locking rivet removes the
need to peen the blade root in position, and thus
eliminates the stress on the metal that peening can cause.
To be able to reuse the bearing pedestal, Elliott
matched the shaft dimensions of the OEM rotor, forgoing
the longer, more stable rotor assembly that is typical for
the TH expander product line. The rerated expander, as
packaged, also included new bearings, seals, diffuser,
exhaust transition piece, and a new baseplate.
Benefits
In addition to the individual benefits offered by each of the
new components, the combined TH-100 flow path changes
produced a power output 20% greater than the OEM
design. Blade containment was improved with the
increased material thickness over the rotating blades, and
the reduced throttling at the inlet butterfly valve lowered
the inlet piping noise.
Q Customer:
Refinery, Louisiana, USA.

Q Challenge:
Increase reliable, on-site power generation
within the plant’s existing carbon footprint.

Q Result:
An Elliott 36 MW FCC hot gas expander-generator
converts refinery waste gas to electrical power.

They turned to Elliott

for “green,” reliable power.
The customer turned to Elliott because of our 50 years of experience and nearly 500 MW
of installed capacity in FCC power recovery. Elliott TH expanders routinely operate 5 years
and more between shutdowns, extending FCC maintenance cycles and reducing
maintenance costs. Who will you turn to?

C O M P R E S S O R S Q T U R B I N E S Q G L O B A L S E R V I C E The world turns to Elliott.

www.elliott-turbo.com
 Rerate results
All of the design changes for this refiner were implemented
in 2012, and the new flow path operated without issue until
a planned outage in October 2017, a five-and-a-half-year
run. This was the longest operating campaign to date for
this refiner.
Elliott performed both the field service and unit
overhaul for the outage. During the 30 day turnaround
window, the unit was removed from the refinery and shipped
to the company’s service centre in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
US. The inlet casing assembly was disassembled, and the
casing and nose cone underwent non-destructive testing
(Figure 4). No cracking was found on any of the four nose
cone struts, and following a pressure test of the expansion
joint, the casing was accepted for reuse.
The stator assembly was replaced with the
customer-supplied spare part to minimise the
Figure 4. TH-100 nose cone struts after cleaning and
non-destructive testing.
Figure 5. Cleaned and partially reassembled TH-100
expander.
July 2018 64 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
overhaul schedule. A visual inspection of the spent stator
assembly, however, revealed no signs of cracking or erosion.
Similarly, the spare rotor and bearing pedestal were
used as part of the build. The rotor blades, which had
previously seen severe primary and secondary erosion,
survived the operating campaign with only some tip wear
that has been attributed to catalyst buildup on the rotor
shroud ring. This type of wear is repairable and the blades
are expected to be returned to service.
Elliott will perform more detailed inspections on the
spent components and make any needed repairs to ensure
the refiner has adequate parts in the event of an
emergency. Based on the operating campaign, Elliott and
the refiner are currently evaluating a complete conversion
to the TH-100 expander design.
Other FCC expander rerates
Hot gas expander flow path improvements can be
implemented in any FCC application to improve overall
expander reliability as evidenced by other expander
upgrades to similar units.
Recently, a refiner in Spain experienced considerable
casing distortion in components coming out of service
after a four year run. The plant’s existing inlet casing
assembly consists of the inlet casing, a separate
intermediate casing, and a separate nose cone floating on
pins inside the inlet casing. Elliott replaced the
intermediate casing with a drop-in expansion joint to
absorb some of the casing stress and eliminate some of the
resulting casing distortion. The equipment was
commissioned and went into operation without issue in
mid-April 2018.
For another Spanish customer with an existing expander
roughly equivalent to an Elliot TH-85 expander, the
company developed a special hybrid replacement inlet
casing. The hybrid design consists of a one-piece forged
outer casing with a nose cone that is welded in place using
eight struts. The eight struts are canted backwards from the
nose cone to the outer casing to help prevent cracking of
the strut welds, a common maintenance issue with
non-Elliott hot gas expanders. The new inlet casing,
scheduled to be installed in autumn 2018, is designed to be
dropped into place with minimal field machining required.
As with the refiner in the case study examined here, the
changes implemented should extend the maintenance
cycles for these two plants and the overall life of their
upgraded equipment.
Conclusion
In the case study outlined in this article, Elliott was
contracted to retrofit a flow path that would resolve the
reliability issues of a non-Elliott expander, including primary
erosion, severe secondary erosion/disk cutting, and piping
acoustic vibration, which allowed the refiner to operate the
FCC for the desired five year campaign. The company
developed a solution that combined the Elliott TH-100 flow
path technology, while maintaining many of the existing
expander components and auxiliary systems, to minimise
capital cost and reduce any schedule impacts by installing
the expander during a planned outage.
Ipek Öztürk, Kurita Europe GmbH,
explains how chemical treatment
programmes can help boost the
efficiency of wastewater treatment.

P
etroleum refineries and petrochemical plants are
examples of facilities that generate significant
amounts of wastewater with a complex set of
oxygen-demanding materials during crude oil
refining. Therefore, wastewater treatment is necessary in
advance.
Due to the many kinds of dissolved, suspended
solids, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), toxic metals and organics
content of the effluent, suitable water treatment
methods have to be selected according to the water
quality that needs to be treated. Wastewater treatment
methods are generally classified in three categories:
mechanical, chemical, and biological treatments.
Modern wastewater treatment plants include a
combination of the three treatment processes, and are
designed to both comply with all legal requirements and
bring smooth plant operation.

HYDROCARBON 65 July 2018

ENGINEERING
 Mechanical methods for water and
sludge treatment include screening,
settling, floatation, filtration and
centrifugation. Mechanical treatment
units are often American Petroleum
Institute (API) oil-water separator,
corrugated plate interceptor (CPI),
dissolved air flotation (DAF) and
induced air flotation (IAF) plants.
Chemical treatment is applied to carry
out mechanical treatment methods
more efficiently. It is also used to
support the treatment in case
mechanical treatment is insufficient.
For this reason, emulsion breakers,
coagulants, flocculants and
Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical wastewater treatment antifoaming agents can be seen as key
plant. performers for efficient and smooth
wastewater treatment through
supporting mechanical treatment. This
article will evaluate these chemicals and their
functions. Figure 1 shows the schematic
representation of a typical wastewater treatment
plant with possible chemical application points.

Coagulants and flocculants

Figure 2. Comparative models of coagulation processes with
inorganic and organic coagulants.
Figure 3. Destabilisation mechanisms of an emulsion
system.
Coagulation and flocculation treatment methods are
used to remove inorganic suspended solids (SS) from
wastewater. In the case of petrochemical effluents,
including organic SS, coagulation and flocculation
can be used for pre-treatment or post-treatment of
the activated sludge processes.
Coagulation and flocculation can aggregate fine
particles and colloids, dispersed stably in water, and
create large flocs that can be easily separated from
water through settling, flotation processes and
others. Fine or colloidal particles in water have
electrical charges on their surfaces or are covered
with hydrophilic substances. Thus, they are stably
dispersed because of their repellent forces.
Coagulants adsorb or react with these particles, and
neutralise their electrical charges on the surfaces. As
a result, their repellent forces weaken and the
particles are brought together. This function is called
‘coagulation’ or ‘electrical charge neutralisation’.
Organic, inorganic or a material mixture can be
used as coagulant. Coagulants neutralise the
electrical surface charges of particles and break their
stable dispersion in water. Organic and mixed
products are effective at a wide range of pH levels.
Moreover, they do not increase salinity and reduce
sludge generation. Additionally, they perform better
in applications with oil, fats and surfactants.
Comparative schematic models of coagulation
processes with inorganic and organic coagulants are
shown in Figure 2.
Furthermore, flocculants are used to make
macro-flocs by bridging micro-flocs together.
High molecular weight, anionic, cationic or non-ionic
polymers are usually used as flocculants. They can

July 2018 66 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 be synthetic or nature-based polymers. Typical
functional groups of them are carboxyl group (-COOH)
and amide group (-CONH2). These flocculants adsorb on
the micro-flocs by using their functional groups.
Carboxyl groups adsorb on the micro-floc by the
electrostatic attractive force and the ionic bonding
force with the metallic atoms, such as aluminium and
iron, on the floc surface forming large flocs. Thickeners,
flotation units, filters, etc., are used for separating those
flocs from the wastewater.
Separation and sedimentation of macro-flocs
generate sludge that includes a large number of organic
matters. Since that sludge includes the high
concentration of organic matters and are highly
hydrophilic, the dewatering of them is very difficult
compared to inorganic sludge. There are many process
steps for the treatment of the sludge as thickening,
stabilisation, conditioning and dewatering. Cationic
flocculants are used for sludge dewatering at petroleum
refineries and petrochemical plants. The dewatering
process of sludge is important in relation to the
subsequent sludge treatment and disposal methods.
Dewatering efficiency is affected by the sludge contents
of total and suspended solids, organic matter, colloid
equivalent, sticky substances and acid soluble metal.
Selecting the right dewatering agent permits not only
the reduction of the volume of dewatered sludge (cake)
but also improve dryness, subsequently reducing the
weight of the cake and the fuel consumption for the
incineration or cake drying process. In the sludge
thickeners, the concentration of solids generally varies
between 0.5 and 5%. After the dewatering process, the
solid concentration is raised up to 20 – 35%.
Figure 4. Foam stabilisation by surfactants.
Figure 5. Foam breaking process by antifoaming agents.
July 2018 68 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Emulsion breakers
Mixtures of oil and water are thermodynamically not
stable. However, some chemical components, known as
‘surfactants’, can stabilise mixtures. These compounds
combine both a polar and a non-polar group in their
molecular structure. This chemical duality allows them
to interact with oil and water at the same time, creating
kinetically stable emulsions due to their surface activity.
Further stabilising factors are high pH values, suspended
solids, and high agitation that reduces the diameters of
oil droplets. Therefore, oil recovery through proper oil
and water separation is a fundamental step in
wastewater treatment of petroleum refineries and
petrochemical plants.
Emulsions’ ability to resist changes in its
physicochemical properties over time is described as
‘emulsion stability’. Mechanisms such as phase inversion,
flocculation, gravitational separation
(sedimentation/creaming), particle coarsening and
coalescence (Figure 3) are examples of emulsion stability
breaking. Additionally, compositional materials and
processing conditions of emulsions yield different
characteristics of droplets that are effective on emulsion
stability. Crucial characteristics of droplets are their
concentration, size, charge, interactions, and rheological
behaviour.
Emulsion breakers, also known as ‘emulsion splitters’
or ‘demulsifiers’, are used to break stabilised water-oil
emulsions or oil-water emulsions due to their charge
compensation effects. They adsorb on the oil film
surrounding water droplets and break the oil film. The
water droplets then aggregate to form large water drops
to gravitationally separate them from oil. Emulsion
breakers are normally cationic-charged substances that
will neutralise the effects of the surfactants. To
reduce environmental impacts, nature-based
emulsion breakers can be introduced into the
treatment programme.
The main advantage of these products is that
their use allows a better separation between the
organic and the aqueous phases that form the
emulsion, compared to the one obtained by
simple acidic or alkaline processes. Moreover, the
dosage of acid and alkaline agents in those
applications can be minimised or totally
eliminated, which is an advantage from a safety
and handling point of view, while minimising
sludge generation. Separated oil sludge treated by
organic emulsion breakers is also suitable for
incineration, which is one of the key points for
sustainability.
Antifoaming agents
Foam generation takes place when a gas is
surrounded by a thin liquid film. Even in the case of
demineralised water, foams are generated by
blowing air, but they soon disappear. However,
when some substances are present in water, they
stabilise the foam films (Figure 4). Foaming may
become a challenge as it can reduce total
production capacity, increase operational costs and
cause safety hazards. The following substances generally
accelerate foaming: surfactants, water-soluble high
molecular weight compounds, suspended solids, and
inorganic salts.
The functions of antifoaming agents are divided
into two categories: foam-breaking and foam-inhibiting
actions. Their effectiveness strongly depends on their
capability to penetrate the gas-liquid interfacial barrier
and disrupt the liquid film that is formed by the foam.
Figure 5 shows a typical proposed mechanism for the
foam-breaking action of antifoaming agents. Some
parameters, such as biodegradability, COD or organic
content, silicon acceptance, foaming medium
composition, aquatic toxicity, pH and temperature of
the application, application form (spray, dispersed), as
well as potential interactions with other chemicals, are
considerations for antifoaming agent applications.
Kurita offers a range of special antifoaming agents
for effective foam control, without negatively impacting
the oxygen supply in the aeration basin. Online foam
sensors can also be used for automation of the
antifoaming agent dosage, resulting in increased plant
operating capacity.
Conclusion
The success of wastewater treatment is crucial for the
smooth and successful operation of petroleum
refineries and petrochemical plants. To support
mechanical treatment and boost the efficiency of total
treatment, chemical treatment programmes, (including
emulsion breakers, coagulants, and flocculants and
antifoaming agents), play an important role. With
well-designed and efficient chemical treatment
programmes, it is possible to increase the ratio of water
recycling, yielding water savings and reductions in the
total cost of operation. Additionally, with increasing
awareness of environmental protection, human safety
and the development of environmentally friendly
technologies has become a hot topic. It is possible to
structure a wastewater treatment programme with
nature-based products instead of synthetic-based
products.
Bibliography
1. HU, Y. T., TING, Y. HU, Y. J. and HSIEH, S. C., ‘Techniques and
methods to study functional characteristics of emulsion
systems’, Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, Vol. 25,
pp. 16 – 26, (2017).
2. EBRAHIMI, M., KAZEMI, H., MIRBAGHERI, S. A. and
ROCKAWAY, T. D., ‘An optimized biological approach for
treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater’, Journal of
Environmental Chemical Engineering, Vol. 4, pp. 3401 – 3408,
(2016).
3. EL-NAAS, M. H., SURKATTI, R. and AL-ZUHAIR, S. ‘Petroleum
refinery wastewater treatment: A pilot scale study’, Journal of
Water Process Engineering, Vol. 14, pp. 71 – 76, (2016).
4. HAYDER, G., RAMLI, M. Z., MALEK, M. A., KHAMIS, A. and
HILMIN, N. M., ‘Prediction model development for petroleum
refinery wastewater treatment’, Journal of Water Process
Engineering, Vol. 4, pp. 1 – 5, (2014).
TARGETED
DELIVERY
Concetta Sapio, SUEZ Water Technologies & Solutions, Italy,
recalls how microbiological growth and sulfate-reducing
bacteria levels were controlled at a refinery in Italy.

P
etroleum refineries represent one of the most challenging
water treatment situations. Several heat exchangers, many
with high heat fluxes and low velocities, potential
process leaks, poor water quality (water-reuse) and
pressure on operational costs, require chemical treatment to
operate under stress conditions. Poor cooling system
performance can impact asset reliability and increase total costs.
For this reason, a chemical treatment with high flexibility is
required to manage any kind of variation (primarily relating to
water quality) and to address cooling system problems quickly.
In a refinery’s evaporative cooling system, one of the most
critical aspects to control is microbiological growth. This is for
several reasons, including:
„ Process leaks can provide a food source for microorganisms.
„ When the make-up source is surface water or wastewater,
variable and high microbiological contaminants arrive in the
cooling system.
„ Extensive distribution piping can create dead legs where
there is increased risk of bacterial growth.
„ Heat exchangers with a low velocity promote microbial
adhesion to surface and biofilm growths.

HYDROCARBON 71 July 2018

ENGINEERING
 and control depended on a series of operational parameters,
such as the percentage of wastewater reuse, cycles of
concentration, heat exchangers with low water linear velocity,
process leaks, etc. The refinery had a challenging system that
  needed to manage variable conditions relating to the water
quality that frequently has stress conditions (high turbidity and
suspended solids, ammonia and iron contamination, etc.).

 Figure 1 presents a simplified configuration of the
refinery’s two cooling systems (CTW1 and CTW2). The CTW1
 



 cooling tower has a surface water (S in Figure 1) as make-up,
without any pre-treatment. This tower needs to manage
seasonal variation and its blow-down is recovered in the


 CTW2 has a mix of different water sources, including:

Figure 1. Cooling systems scheme.
Figure 2. Kit test result for SRB that show the initial
contamination.
When sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) is part of the
problem, the system’s reliability can be impacted
dramatically as SRB are responsible for significant corrosion
of equipment. SRB can be found in superficial water riches of
microbiological material (bacteria); their growth is favoured
by anaerobic (oxygen free) conditions and they can obtain
energy from the anaerobic reduction of sulfate compounds
to hydrogen sulfide, which is a highly corrosive compound.
Simply isolating SRB in a cooling system and/or a system
that is at risk of localised corrosion tends to be an
inadequate method of biocontrol as these bacteria are
widely credited for playing a significant role in
microbially-influenced corrosion (MIC) and reduced heat
transfer efficiency. The deterioration of metal by corrosion
processes that directly involve microorganisms has gained
enormous attention recently. This is due to the fact that they
are thought to be responsible for the majority of pipeline
system failures in refinery cooling systems.
The scope of a proper biocide treatment can reduce the
harmful impact of biofilms and SRB presence.
A challenge
In a refinery in Italy, with wastewater reuse and cooling towers
operating on ‘cascade mode’, microbiological growth levels
July 2018 72 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
CTW2 cooling tower.
„ Blow-down of CTW1 (BD1).
„ Surface water after clarification process (C).
„ Wastewater after sand filtration and chlorine dioxide
disinfection (W).
The percentages of the diverse sources in the total
make-up of CTW2 depend on the quantity and quality of
each. Limits were fixed, primarily on the suspended solid and
ammonia concentration in recovered wastewater to
minimise deposits and the bacteria’s tendency to grow in
recirculating water. Notably, ammonia has double negative
effects to add nutrients for bacteria and reduce hypochlorite
disinfection activities due to chloramines formation.
For both of the refinery’s cooling systems, sodium
hypochlorite is used for microbiological control with
automatic dosage in the towers’ basins, which is a
cost-effective approach. The dosage of hypochlorite is
regulated with an oxidation reduction potential (ORP) or
redox probe for each cooling system. A supplementary shock
of non-oxidant biocides and biodispersant are applied
according to the monitoring activity on microbiological
contamination when required.
In the summer months, SRB contamination was obvious
in the recirculating water in both cooling towers. A clear
indication of MIC was confirmed using corrosion coupons.
The SRB were also found in a deposit sample of a heat
exchanger during a maintenance operation during the same
period (a typical black layer was evident under the deposit).
Despite a continuous dosage of bleach being in place
correctly, the overall contamination alarmed the refinery’s
technical team, indicating fouled systems and poor
microbiological control. The possibility that there was a
common root cause, responsible for the contamination of
both systems, required additional investigation to identify
the source. However, a SRB bio-monitoring field plan was not
in place in the refinery’s previous service programme, so it
held no information on previous contamination.
Samples and culture tests confirmed the presence of
SRB, not only on recirculation rates, but also on the make-up
waters, which had been identified as the main origin of the
contamination. It was evident that SRB contaminated the
system throughout the make-up waters, creating the right
conditions to proliferate (temperature, residence time,
fouled surfaces, and anaerobic conditions).
Figure 2 shows the results of the field test on the SRB,
the make-up (S, C, and W samples), and recirculation rate
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W W W . C R I C A T A LY S T. C O M

Figure 3. Mechanism of liposome attack on biofilm.
Figure 4. Kit test result for SRB after the first step of
disinfection.
Figure 5. Kit test result for SRB after the second step
of disinfection.
(CTW1 and CTW2 samples). The estimated level of
contamination with the kit (MPN; most probable number of
SRB) was 106 colony forming units (CFUs)/ml – this can be
classified as heavy contamination.
Taking the impact of the SRB on corrosion into
consideration, the refiner requested that the cooling system
be decontaminated quickly to minimise the consequences of
corrosion.
A solution
Despite the continuous hypochlorite dosage in the
refinery’s systems, oxidisers have difficulty penetrating the
deposits and biofilms that harbour SRB. There are specific
non-oxidising biocides that have active ingredients, making
them highly effective against SRB. However, the strategy
applied in this specific project was to use actives that kill
aerobic bacteria, sheltering SRB and disrupting the
environment (biomass) in which the SRB proliferate.
SUEZ Water Technologies & Solutions provided a
complete action plan – a ‘clean-up programme’ that was
based on its chemicals and bio-monitoring solutions. The
company recommended a disinfection procedure that
included the dosage of a new, patented targeted delivery
and biofilm-penetrating biocide, Spectrus* TD1100E,
designed for open evaporative cooling systems. This
biocide incorporates technology that permits direct
targeting of bio-fouled surfaces and facilitates biocide
penetration of biofilms attached to wetted and submerged
surfaces.
The technology includes small lecithin spheres where
actives will encapsulate to a certain extent, keeping neat
July 2018 74 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
biocide actives inside and not mixing with the bulk system
water. Only when in contact with biomass, lecithin spheres
will collapse and release the concentrated biocide. Thus,
the product is delivered directly to bio-fouled surfaces. In
addition, the encapsulated biocide contains synergistic
actives mix, effective over a wide pH range, without foam
production (Figure 3).
The action plan for this project included:
„ Maintain hypochlorite dosage continuously at
0.5 – 0.6 ppm of Cl2 free for two weeks.
„ Shock dosage of Spectrus TD1100E at 50 ppm on total
volume, two times per week for two weeks.
„ Evaluate the impact of each shock on SRB
contamination.
The bio-monitoring activity was fundamental to
validate the proposed plan and measure the progress.
The results
By implementing this plan of action, the refinery kept
microbiological growth and SRB levels under control in
two weeks, even with contamination of the make-up (both
surface and clarified water). After two shocks of the
biocide, control was recovered on CTW1, as depicted in
Figure 4.
The CTW2 cooling system is more complex and larger,
meaning that recovering control of the SRB contamination
required four biocide shocks. The results of this cooling
tower are shown in Figure 5.
Managing variations in the quality of the make-up water
and potential contamination are key for an effective
biocide programme. Because of the continuous SRB
contamination on the refinery’s make-up waters, in addition
to the sodium hypochlorite continous dosage, the
company preventively maintained a weekly shock of its
biocide at 25 ppm on the water volume.
Finally, this combination of oxidising and non-oxidising
biocides has minimised SRB contamination in both systems’
recirculating water (CTW1 and CTW2).
This project has demonstrated the following:
„ The opportunity to minimise/avoid the need of
biodispersants for biofilm removal without any
foaming issue.
„ Spectrus TD1100E can penetrate and remove biofilm.
„ An encapsulated biocide increases biocidal active
concentration, achieved at bio-fouled surfaces, without
applying a similar high concentration to the entire
water volume. This requires less chemical handling and
has a lower environmental footprint.
„ Reduction in the cost of disinfection for similar
contamination, routinary managed with biodisperdant
and high concentration of non-oxidising biocides that
are specific to SRB.
„ Effective approach to control biofilm and its impact on
heat transfer efficiency.
In addition, it was evident that an effective
bio-monitoring plan is fundamental for identifying
contamination in its early stages.
Note
*Trademark of SUEZ; may be registered in one or more countries.
Jens-Uwe Schröter, LAR Process Analysers AG, Germany,
discusses how online total organic carbon analysis can
help optimise and control water-steam cycles in the
downstream oil and gas industry.

S
team and hot water are crucial for crude oil refining.
The production of these raw materials and supplies is
energy intensive and of vital importance for the
operation of many types of petrochemical facilities.
High pressure steam is used for generating electrical power,
utility pumps and for process heating. Medium pressure steam
is typically used for heat transfer to refinery products via heat
exchangers, and low pressure steam is used for a variety of
purposes, such as pipe tracing and process heat exchange.
Since the smallest impurities could harm the entire
water-steam-circuit, monitoring water quality is inevitable.
Total organic carbon (TOC) analysers are an effective choice,
especially for monitoring organic pollutions.

Analysis
To reduce operating costs and prevent damage to a plant’s
equipment due to high TOC concentrations, the response time
of the total monitoring TOC analyser system (e.g. the time span
between a real spill event and analyser TOC limit alarm) should
be as short as possible. Response time is influenced by the
sample transportation delay, adsorption and absorption effects,
as well as the measurement time of the analysis itself.

HYDROCARBON 75 July 2018

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Position of the sample probe according to
the latest VGB-Standard S-006-2012 (source: VGB
PowerTech).
Figure 2. With the Batch method of LAR’s
QuickTOC-series, contamination peaks throughout the
course of the day can be detected reliably.
Experience has shown that low concentrations of
hydrocarbons (such as TOCs) are hard to extract from the
process. These hydrocarbons are then transported via sample
lines to the process TOC analyser and will be easily absorbed
and adsorbed to all wetted parts. Some hydrocarbons are more
‘sticky’ than others, e.g. oil, phenols, formaldehydes. This
phenomena results in a significant extension of the installation’s
total response time. The following correlation holds true: the
lower the TOC concentration, the higher the response time.
July 2018 76 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Furthermore, there is a risk of contaminated return
condensate being pumped back into the boiler drum before
being detected. After a spill, it can take hours before the
measured TOC concentration is back to normal low level
due to sticky components being absorbed on all wetted
parts. During that period, the TOC analyser will report an
increased TOC reading. Expensive uncontaminated steam
condensate or return condensate will be flushed through the
drain. After severe contamination, it could be necessary to
strongly flush sample lines with steam to clean out the
hydrocarbons.
Until now, there were no extensive regulations or
standards regarding ‘sample taking’ (i.e. its implementation,
handling and design). This led to cases where samples have
simply been taken in incorrect ways. Among other mistakes,
sample lines were not made of inert materials or the rotation
speed was far too low, resulting in long response times and
sedimentation.
The new VGB-Standard S-006-2012 deals exclusively with
the issue of sample taking and monitoring of steam circuits. It
offers decisive basics and provisions for the optimisation of
sample taking (Figure 1). The standard describes in detail how
to take a representative sample. When taking the sample,
there should be at least 10 mm distance between the probe
tip and the inner wall of the pipe. This ensures that particulate
ingredients are removed from within the homogeneous zone.
Furthermore, in horizontal pipes, the sample probe should be
installed at the side of the pipe. This side installation
guarantees that a representative sample can be taken without
any particles, such as rust, even if the sample line is not
completely filled.
Measuring system
As mentioned above, the total response time (including the
sample taking point) is of special importance and should be
optimised to minimise expensive pure and hot water losses.
The online TOC analyser has to correspond to these high
measurement requirements. However, many TOC analysers
suffer from memory effects, meaning that contaminations that
do not exist are measured. Memory effects lead to the
discharge of expensive pure water that is not contaminated
and subsequently results in an emptying of the reserve tank.
Either more make-up water needs to be used or the steam
plant has to be shut down.
One of the most important aspects of this requirement is
the correct TOC measurement, e.g. the complete oxidation or
determination of the TOC, including all particulates of organic
nature. Water-steam circuits can only be optimised by the use
of online measurement techniques that truly measure the
TOC. For measurements in steam pressure plants, the
maximum TOC concentration for boilers operated at a higher
pressure should be 0.1 – 0.2 ppm of carbon (C). Boilers with
lower pressure allow a TOC contamination of up to 0.5 ppm C.
In practice, there are different oxidation methods. One
such method is the widely-used UV oxidation at 185/254 nm.
For the operator, this method seems to be easy and free of
chemicals. However, it cannot measure any particles. This
method is based on the determination of the conductivity
before and after oxidation. Based on the difference, the
correlation of conductivity to TOC will be impacted.
 Another well-known method is UV Persulfate oxidation.
This method is based on the use of chemicals (oxidants),
whereby here particulates are rather hard to measure as well.
For water-steam circuit applications, the conductivity as well
as the infrared detection are used. A method that detects
most of the particulates, as well as many ingredients, is the
thermal-catalytic oxidation method at temperatures of
680 – 850°C. This thermal digestion method, however, needs
an expensive catalyst. The catalysts gradually wear off, which
leads to fluctuations of the detection limit and an increased
need for calibrations. Furthermore, the reactor is stressed
quite a lot and a high amount of wetted parts leads to
analytical problems.
Common TOC analysers and typical
analytical problems
Conventional TOC oxidation techniques
suffer from physical phenomena such as
adsorption, memory effects and carry
over effects. These phenomena cause
the analyser to respond slowly and
measure incorrectly and inaccurately:
Adsorption/absorption
Traces of organic carbons, especially the
sticky types and long chain molecules,
easily stick to or penetrate into wetted
surfaces, which significantly slow down
the measurement.
digestion of all sample ingredients, including particulates.
Moreover, these TOC analysers are equipped with a
multi-loop injection system, which means that
contamination of the sample due to CO2 entering from the
ambient air is impossible. The injection loop has a constant
volume and tends to contain a 400 microgram sample per
injection. If the sample concentration is low, a multi-loop
injection is used. No pumps are used in the sample stream.
Peristaltic pumps use flexible tubings, which cause
absorption effects. The pump in the company’s system is
situated downstream in the circuit where absorption effects
are not of interest any more. The special thermal oxidation
method oxidises all hydrocarbons to CO2, resulting in 100%
hydrocarbons analysis of the sample. The lowest detectable
limit is approximately 2 ppb C.
info@hallwoodmodular.com
hallwoodmodular.com
+1 337 393 2575

Memory
After monitoring a TOC-peak (such as a
heat exchanger breakthrough), it can take
more than one hour for the measured
TOC value to go down to the correct
value. This phenomena is called
‘memory effect’.

Carry over
Components that are hard to oxidise
lead to hysteresis effects. If the TOC
concentration changes step-by-step,
high TOC values are measured too low,
while low TOC values are measured too
high. This, in turn, leads to incorrect
Providing Solutions
TOC measurements, which is a
significant concern, especially if the
TOC analyser is used to monitor
That Safeguard Life
multiple sample streams or a series of Blast and Ballistic Resistant Buildings up to 10 PSI 200 MS
grab samples.

High temperature
combustion
LAR Process Analysers AG’s TOC
analysers for purified water are
Expandable Stackable Single Guard
equipped with a high temperature
Modules Modules Modules Houses
combustion method at 1200°C. This
temperature offers strong oxidation
power for online measuring systems as
it allows for a complete oxidation or
Operator Restroom Custom Blast
& Control Modules Designs Resistant
Buildings Doors

Figure 3. QuickTOC analyser for purified water using
a certified test gas.
Batch-Principle and
continuously-working systems
In condensate return applications, it is decisive that the
online measuring system used is fast and detects the true
TOC value. Continuous measuring systems are mostly
equipped with thin tubings, in which the sample to be
measured moves slowly. Additionally, the various wetted
parts increase the risk of memory or carry over effects
significantly. Such continuous analysers usually work with
the wet-chemical oxidation method, whereby the sample is
constantly, drop-by-drop, led into the reactor, where it
reacts directly or indirectly with the reagents. This principle
leads to high reagents consumption and to high wearout of
the pumps that are constantly running. However, a key
disadvantage of these continuous systems is that the
samples do mix within the reactor. Contamination peaks in
the course of the day cannot be detected with this method.
Hence, there is a risk of polluted waters getting into the
circuit – a situation that should be prevented (Figure 2).
If the Batch-Principle or discontinuous measuring method
is combined with the high temperature combustion at 1200°C,
response times of less than 3 min. for the TOC mode can be
reached. In these cases, only single samples’ contaminations
are measured and the real contamination grade is detected
(T100 value). This process control works without any catalysts
and uses only inert materials. When the sample is lead in its
original composition into the ceramic reactor for oxidisation,
its temperature can be up to 90°C. Within a few minutes,
concentration peaks are detected and it is possible to ensure
the timely diversion of the polluted streams, their controlled
discharge or storing in an emergency tank, and a fast restart of
operations.
July 2018 78 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
In LAR’s analysers, the sample is only in contact with
inert materials such as glass and Teflon. Prior to injection, all
wetted parts are conditioned by rapidly flushing them with
the fresh sample. Absorption, memory and carry over effects
are eliminated due to the 1200˚C thermal oxidation
technique. Within minutes, traces of impurities in the sample
will be oxidised, which is suitable for multiple analyses of
condensate return streams. Wet standards are not needed
and they have an inlet for a wet standard for those who
want to evaluate or calibrate the TOC analyser regularly. For
potentially explosive areas, the measuring system is also
available with explosion-proof housings in accordance with
the latest ATEX and IECEx standards.
Automatic calibration and validation
For various methods, it is necessary to provide liquid
standards for calibration and validation, which requires high
expenditure and long fall-out times (Figure 3). Moreover,
standards for the concentration levels of normal drinking
water are perishable and the calibration or validation has to
be carried out directly on the unit while it is shut down. LAR’s
calibration method consists of a specific test gas, which is
long-lasting and stable for months. It is used by flushing and
filling the injection loop with the certified gas mixture, such
as carbon dioxide/nitrogen or methane/nitrogen. The loop
content is then injected into the reactor. The TOC analyser
responds with a repeatable reference measurement. By use of
the multiple loop injection technique, several reference
points will be measured. The gas validation routine can be
triggered by pushing a specific button or via remote control.
With this routine, a series of up to 10 results are measured.
The software then calculates the mean concentration and the
deviation.
Summary
For monitoring potential TOC contaminations in steam
processes and boiler feed water, short response times and
simple and fast validations of the measuring results are
required. To do this, the complete analysis system has to be
optimised. Analysers that are suitable for this task work with
high temperatures, and can be validated and calibrated easily.
Accurate and fast detection of contamination peaks
throughout the day, high availability of over 98%, long
lifetimes, as well as low operational costs, are aspects that
an optimal online analyser has to fulfill.
For an exact monitoring of contaminations, it is
important to pay close attention to the whole purified water
circuit and to the necessary measures to be taken in the
event of a spill. Furthermore, correct installation of the
sample taking equiptment and of the analyser itself is
significant for exact measurements. Innovative measuring
methods and analysers that are specifically built for the
applications’ support significantly minimise expensive losses
of purified and hot waters.
Bibliography
1. NAGEL, R., ‘TOC in the water/steam cycle of power plants’,
VGB Conference, Hamburg, Germany.
2. LEIDICH, F-U., and RZIHA, M., ‘VGB-Standard S-006-2012: Sampling
and monitoring of water and steam cycles’, VGB-Konferenz,
Chemistry in Power Plants 2012, Hamburg, Germany.
 A. M. Derevyagin, G. A. Derevyagin,
S. V. Selesnev and P. C. Lyon, Vympel,
introduce the next generation of
chilled-mirror hygrometers.
T
he 21st Century has already witnessed some
significant developments in the natural gas
industry, such as the emergence of LNG as a
major factor in global gas distribution, the
increased interconnection of natural gas transport
networks, and the imposition of increasingly stringent
quality control standards, to name just a few. These recent
developments mean that gas quality control measurements
are more important than ever. However, these same
developments have led to an increasing number of
situations in which the gas to be measured is extremely dry,
which presents a challenge.
HYDROCARBON 79 July 2018
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Bureau of Mines type tester.
Figure 2. Basic layout of an automatic chilled-mirror
hygrometer.
The best method for any required measurement is based
on first principles. Outside of a laboratory setting, the most
suitable first principle method for accurate and repeatable
measurement of the humidity or water content in natural gas
is by means of a chilled-mirror hygrometer. The challenge
presented by recent developments is chilling the mirror to a
temperature that is low enough in order to directly measure
the dew point of extremely dry gas.
Most automatic online devices are simply not capable of
achieving the necessary degree of temperature depression.
One or two analysers are able to employ supplemental
cooling to successfully measure at these lower temperatures,
but this adds cost and complexity to the system.
This article will introduce a new analyser that features
increased cooling performance without the need for
supplemental cooling. In order to appreciate the
implications of this achievement, it may be worth taking a
closer look at chilled-mirror technology in general.
Chilled-mirror technology
Anyone who has ever enjoyed a glass of an ice-cold beverage
on a hot summer day is familiar with the process that is at
the heart of a chilled-mirror hygrometer. The droplets of
water condensation that form on the outside of the glass are
July 2018 80 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
a manifestation of exactly the same process that occurs
when a gas sample is exposed to the surface of the
temperature-controlled mirror inside the hygrometer.
The formation of water condensation on a cold surface
is influenced by three factors: pressure, temperature and
humidity. For a given sample of air or natural gas, assuming
the pressure is stable, the warmer the temperature, the more
water vapour the air can hold. At the temperature where the
air is unable to hold any more water vapour, the air is said to
be saturated. The saturation temperature is also known as
the dew point. A given dew point temperature at a given
pressure correlates directly to a given amount of moisture in
the gas. Therefore, by measuring the dew point, one is also
measuring the water content.
Humidity
On that hot summer day, the humidity can be high. When
the air comes into contact with the cold glass, the layer of
air adjacent to the glass is cooled. As the temperature of this
layer decreases, the amount of water it can hold also
decreases. This forces the excess water vapour to condense
onto the surface of the glass, forming those familiar droplets.
A similar situation is happening in a chilled-mirror
hygrometer. The sample gas is exposed to a surface that is
slowly chilled to a level below the saturation temperature.
As a result, the water vapour that is present condenses out
of a gaseous state. In this case, however, the conditions are
controlled and the temperature of the surface is carefully
modulated and monitored. In this way, the specific
temperature at which condensation first occurs can be
established. Here, again, the term for this temperature is the
dew point.
Gas that is too wet can result in a number of problems, so
gas humidity is carefully regulated, either by law, by contract
or both. Penalties for failure to meet these standards can be
significant, so accurate, reliable measurements are necessary.
Condensation is determined by the inherent properties
of the gas, so direct measurement is considered to be a first
principles measurement. This type of measurement is
considered preferable to methods that require calculation to
arrive at the dew point. Moreover, measurements made using
a chilled-mirror hygrometer are reliable and repeatable.
It took several years to develop a reliable method for
measuring the humidity of natural gas, and longer still to
develop reliable automated measuring devices. A variety of
different types of hygrometer were tried, but all of these
devices had been developed for measuring atmospheric
humidity and most were unsuitable for natural gas
applications.
Fortunately, the chilled-mirror hygrometer could be
made robust enough to withstand the specific challenges of
measuring the dew point of natural gas under pressure. The
Bureau of Mines dew point apparatus, often called the
‘Bureau of Mines type dew point tester’, was the first device
to fulfil all of the necessary requirements for “(1) precision or
reproducibility of determinations, (2) accuracy, (3) safety, and
(4) suitability for use with natural gas under pressure.”1 This
device from 1938, shown in Figure 1, is virtually unchanged, as
presented in the current ASTM D 1142 standard, where it is
described and illustrated as the recognised example of a
device that conforms with the ‘Standard Test Method for (thermometer), a light source, a condensation mirror, and a
Water Vapor Content of Gaseous Fuels by Measurement of photo sensor. The basic layout is shown in Figure 2.
Dew-Point Temperature’.2, 3 The performance of a thermoelectric battery is subject
to the limitations of the materials from which it is made. In
Cooling addition, the thermal exchange between the thermoelectric
Of course, at the heart of any chilled-mirror device is thebattery and the mirror is limited by the conductive efficiency
cooling component. In the Bureau of Mines device, this of the components and the way in which they are joined.
component is an amalgam of several elements, including a Traditionally, a measurement range from -30 to 30°C has
refrigerant gas, a ‘chiller’, a copper cooling rod soldered to
been the standard. This correlates well to the temperature
the polished stainless steel mirror, and a bulb thermometerdepression of 60°C below the ambient temperature that is
located in a well in the cooling rod. By stopping the flow of
achievable by most analysers.
the refrigerant gas, the cooling rod warms up again in However, operators increasingly require specific
response to the ambient temperature. information about moisture levels that correspond to much
While this system is effective
at actively cooling the mirror,
warming the mirror is limited to
passively allowing the temperature
to rise again. This limits the
operator’s ability to control the
mirror’s temperature. In addition, it
Exceptional Support for Your
is a manually operated device that
requires a skilled and experienced
Environmental Challenges
operator to produce satisfactory
results. Environmental regulatory requirements are complex and
Measurement ever-changing. That’s what makes us tick but it may not be
In order to automate the process your thing.
of measuring the dew point, a
method to heat the mirror in a
controlled way is required. A Contact Trinity today for help with:
Peltier element (also known as a > Environmental permitting
thermoelectric battery) uses the
thermoelectric effect to produce > Compliance management
both cooling and heating. This > Regulatory reporting
effect is the result of passing a
direct current (DC) through the > EHS information management
junction of two dissimilar
conductive materials. Whether the
device heats or cools is dependent
We will lighten your load and ease your mind.
on the direction of the flow of the
current. These devices can be
configured into multi-stage
coolers that achieve significant
temperature gradients.
Similarly, a thermocouple is
used instead of a bulb
thermometer in a modern
automatic hygrometer. A
thermocouple consists of two
dissimilar conductive materials,
usually metal, that are connected
to form an electrical junction.
When this junction is exposed to a
temperature change, a voltage is
created. Based on this electrical
current, it is possible to calculate
the temperature.
An automated hygrometer is
comprised of a thermoelectric
battery, a thermocouple For a complimentary
consultation, contact us
at +1 (972) 661-8100.
trinityconsultants.com
North America | Europe | Middle East | Asia

Figure 3. Interior of the FAS-W measurement cell: 1) polarised
laser (light source), 2) condensation mirror (dielectric), 3)
photosensors for registering water condensation, 4) photosensor
for registering hydrocarbon condensation.
lower dew point temperatures. As a result, alternative
technologies that are not limited by the performance of a
thermoelectric battery are being marketed. In particular,
capacitance-type sensors (often based on aluminium oxide or
‘alox’), tuned diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS)
analysers, and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) devices
have been developed to measure dew point at temperatures
of -80°C or below.
While capacitance sensors are inexpensive, they can
drift, and lower temperatures only exaggerate this
phenomenon. These devices require regular recalibration,
which means removal and system down time. TDLAS
analysers do not drift, but they are often sensitive to
fluctuations in gas composition. Recalibration for new
conditions can be expensive and time-consuming. In
addition, measurements using TDLAS technology must be
made at pressures at or below 1 bar, far from the actual
conditions of the pipeline gas. QCM devices operate on the
principle of addition or subtraction of water molecules to a that this type of device will continue to play a key role in
quartz crystal resonator. This type of device requires
recalibration every two to three measurement cycles, so a
recalibration system is built into QCM devices. Such a
system requires a reference gas stream, so a bottle of
calibration gas is also necessary. The complexity of the
system and the requirement for consumables add expense
to QCM analysers. This technology is also limited to very
low pressures of 3.5 bar or below. This, again, is not actual
pipeline conditions in most cases.
These devices are more suited to reporting the presence
of water in terms of ppmv or ppbv, and they do not take first
principle measurements or measure the dew point. This, in
itself, is not a problem. However, where dew point values are
required, a calculated conversion is necessary.
July 2018 82 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Is there a better solution?
Vympel has designed a new chilled-mirror analyser,
the FAS-W. Constrained by the limits inherent in the
architecture of any chilled-mirror hygrometer, as well
as the requirements imposed by proprietary
technologies, Vympel engineers based their new
device on the same technology used in earlier dew
point analysers, such as the CONG Prima 2M.
However, for the FAS-W, the company took advantage
of newly developed materials and methods, to deliver
a performance level that was previously unattainable.
For example, the mirror has been made 60% smaller,
which reduces the amount of energy required to
achieve the same level of cooling. In addition, thermal
isolation of the mirror/thermoelectric battery
composite was upgraded, which achieved a significant
improvement in cooling efficiency, and the
thermoelectric battery was improved to deliver higher
baseline performance. An image of the inner layout of
the FAS-W measurement cell is shown in Figure 3.
Whereas the previous standard measurement
range was -30 – 30°C, the new chilled-mirror analyser
has a range of -80 – 65°C. In addition, the mirror can
be heated to a temperature of 80°C between
measurement cycles, to ensure that any condensation
(water or hydrocarbons) will be evaporated from the
mirror. Previously this temperature had an upper limit
of approximately 60°C.
The engineers also upgraded the electronics and outfitted
the analyser with a dedicated port for inputting pressure
data, so that water content can be reported in terms of ppmv
or mg/m3.
Customers should now be able to look forward to a new
generation of chilled-mirror analysers that are designed to
meet the ever more demanding requirements of the global
natural gas industry.
Conclusion
While natural gas is a cleaner source of energy than coal or oil,
still more ecologically friendly alternatives are predicted to
emerge in the future. One of these is hydrogen. In the coming
decades, the next frontier for dew point analysis may well be
to measure the moisture content of hydrogen flowing through
what used to be natural gas pipelines. Since chilled-mirror
hygrometers provide a first-principle measurement, it is likely
monitoring moisture content. There is no reason to doubt that
the engineers and designers responsible for future
technological developments will continue to deliver new
solutions to meet new challenges.
References
1. DEATON, W. M. and FROST, E. M., Jr, 'Bureau of Mines Apparatus for
Determining the Dew Point of Gases Under Pressure', Bureau of Mines
Report of Investigation 3399, (May 1938).
2. DEREVYAGIN, A. M., SELEZNEV, S. V., STEPANOV, A. R., AGALTSOV, A.G.
and ISTOMIN, V. A., 'A New Approach for Measuring Water and Heavy
Hydrocarbon Dew Points of Natural Gases by using a Three-channel
Laser Interferometer', Materials of the 23rd World Gas Conference,
Amsterdam, the Netherlands, (2006), Report No. 99.16.
3. ASTM D1142-95, 'Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Content of
Gaseous Fuels by Measurement of Dew-Point Temperature', ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, US, (2012).
 Eric Benson, HollyFrontier, Steve Cox, Fluid Components International (FCI),
and Scott Anderson, LaTech Equipment, USA, review a case where flow meters
helped a refinery to measure flare gas for safety and environmental compliance.

W
hen HollyFrontier’s Woods Cross Refinery,
near Bountiful, Utah, US, needed mass flow
meters to measure flare gas to the main flare
header, the team drew on its past metering
experiences for this difficult application.
The team realised a need for additional flare gas meters
to maintain the clean, safe operation of its facility (Figure 1).
The refinery is located in an area with a population of
43 000 that is within commuting distance of metropolitan
Salt Lake City.
The feedstock is primarily from Western Wyoming,
Utah, and Canadian Oil Sands. Refinery production
includes gasoline and diesel products for the Utah, Idaho,
Nevada, Wyoming, and Eastern Washington markets.
The challenge
New environmental regulations presented the plant team
with multiple requirements, including hydrogen sulfide
monitoring and flare gas flow measurement. The team
needed to measure gas flow on multiple feeder lines
extending to the main flare header in order to monitor relief
gas flow from each particular process within the refinery.
A sudden increase in metered flow can be used to
quickly locate the source of any process upset

Figure 1. Woods Cross Refinery

overview plant photo.

HYDROCARBON 83 July 2018

ENGINEERING

Figure 2. Installed ST100 flow meter at the refinery.
automatically. Therefore, operations staff members do not
need to physically check each safety relief valve to
determine the vent location. Instead, immediate action can
be taken at the plant to pinpoint any problems and take
corrective action.
Typical flare gas issues
Flare gas applications in general present a number of flow
measurement challenges to process and instrument
engineers in refineries working on selecting a flow meter
solution. They can include any or all of the following
problems:
Low and high flows
Sensitivity to low flow conditions is required to identify
and measure leaking valves and the normal low flow
associated in day-to-day operations. The capability to
measure very high flows is needed during system upset
conditions. Consequently, a meter needs to be able to
measure flow accurately over a wide turndown range.
Meter calibration
This application requires the calibration of flow meters
specifically for hydrocarbon composition gases. Matching
to actual process conditions is essential.
Large line sizes
As pipe sizes increase, the number of effective and suitable
flow meter sensing technologies decreases.
Available straight-run
All velocity based flow meter technologies have pipe
straight-run requirements, upstream and downstream from
July 2018 84 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
the meter, in order to achieve accurate flow measurement.
These straight-run requirements may not be available in
crowded production sites and process plants.
Limited access
Access and re-access to piping for installation, maintenance
or servicing is frequently difficult. For example, spool-piece
flow meters can require prolonged process shut-downs and
extensive on-site labour costs to install and continuously
maintain the system as opposed to insertion style meters
that can be easily inserted into or retracted out of the
process through a ball valve.
Agency approvals
When installing meters in hazardous (Ex) locations, the entire
flow metering instrument should carry agency approval
credentials for installation in environments with potential
hazardous gases; enclosure only ratings are inadequate.
The solution
The Woods Cross Refinery plant team was seeking in a
reliable mass flow meter that would require minimal
maintenance and is easy to install. They had previously
used an ST98 Thermal Mass Flow Meter from
Fluid Components International (FCI) for flare gas
measurement, commissioned 18 years earlier, which was
still in operation and working well.
The thermal mass flow meter was located in a flare
gas line with potentially heavy sulfur content. Periodic
inspection after 12 years showed some residue fouling to
be present, but not enough to impact the meter’s rugged
‘S’ sensor design for wet, dirty gas applications. The plant
team determined that the meter was still trending well
against the refinery process data, but had drifted to a
slightly higher flow indication over the years. After
recalibration and re-installation, the meter continued to
perform like new.
This long service record without any problems or
maintenance led the plant team to contact the flow
meter manufacturer’s representative firm, La Tech
Equipment, for recommendations. The next generation
ST100 Mass Flow Meter was recommended due to its
performance in flare gas applications (Figure 2). This meter
is a thermal dispersion technology gas flow meter that
combines feature- and function-rich electronics with
proven flow sensor technology for exceptional accuracy
and reliability.
As part of the refinery’s efforts to minimise flaring, six
of the new thermal mass flow meters were installed
alongside the existing original meter, totalling seven
feeder lines to the main flare unit. The new insertion style
thermal mass flow meters include a leak-proof packing
gland hot-tap process connection, and are mostly top
mount in horizontal 8, 6, and 4 in. flare gas lines.
Isolation gate valves upstream from the new meters at
the plant support safe installation and removal as needed.
All meters are installed to the manufacturer’s
recommended upstream and downstream straight pipe
requirements to meet the customer’s expected accuracy
requirements. The meter’s standard accuracy range is
 HIGH STANDARD
VALVES FOR
NON-STANDARD
CONDITIONS.

TRI-CON TRI-CHECK TRI-BLOCK

WWW.ZWICK-ARMATUREN.DE

Figure 3. Thermal dispersion technology illustration.
±0.75% reading, ±0.5% full scale, with a temperature
accuracy of ±2°F (±1.1°C)
Each meter provides a 4 – 20 mA output signal for flow
and a second 4 – 20 mA output signal for temperature.
They are installed at the plant with remote
transmitter/displays in addition to the user interface
provided by the data collection system to provide a local
flow indication in the field. The meter’s graphical display
shows comprehensive information of the process
measurements.
In addition to the traditional 4 – 20 mA analogue
output configuration chosen by the refinery team, the new
meter is also available with frequency/pulse or digital bus
communications such as HART, Foundation Fieldbus,
PROFIBUS PA, or Modbus. The bus communications are
certified and registered with HART and Foundation Fieldbus
to meet refinery software requirements.
The meter’s standard turndown is 100:1 with an optional
1000:1, and the insertion probe design offers little pressure
drop. Developed for rugged industrial processes, this meter
is suitable for operating temperatures from -40 to 850˚F (-40
to 454˚C). With a SIL 1 rating, it is certified for hazardous area
operations with agency approvals that include FM, FMc,
IECEx, ATEX, Inmetro, EAC, NEPSI, CPA and others.
Flare gas sensing technologies
Three flow meter sensing technologies are commonly
considered in flare gas measurement applications: thermal,
ultrasonic and optical. Each have their advantages and
disadvantages, dependent upon the full application
conditions and criteria.
Thermal dispersion
All of FCI’s mass flow meters are designed with thermal
dispersion sensing technology that provides direct mass
flow measurement. It places two thermowell protected
July 2018 86 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
temperature sensors in the process stream. One RTD is
heated while the other senses the actual
process temperature. The temperature difference between
these sensors generates a voltage output, which is
proportional to the media cooling affect and can be used
to measure the gas mass flow rate without the need for
additional pressure or temperature transmitters (Figure 3).
With this direct mass flow sensor technology, the new
thermal meter selected by the refinery plant team also
includes built-in real time temperature compensation. This
capability ensures repeatable and reliable measurement
even in applications where wide process temperature
variations are present.
With no moving parts to plug or foul, the thermal mass
flow meter chosen for the refinery already had a proven
record of performance and maintenance. Cost savings for
the flare gas feeder lines at the refinery were also an
objective. This meter provides gas flow measurement
essential for safe and dependable refinery operations at the
lowest lifecycle costs.
Ultrasonic
Flow meters designed with ultrasonic flow sensing
technology rely on ultrasound and the Doppler Effect to
measure volumetric flow rate. In ultrasonic flow meters, a
transducer emits a beam of ultrasound to a receiving
transducer. The transmitted frequency of the beam is
altered linearly by particles or bubbles in the fluid stream.
The shift in frequencies between the transmitter and
receiver can be used to generate a signal proportional to
the flow rate. Although ultrasonic provides accurate
measurements, since detector alignment is so critical, they
are produced in spool-piece sections that are expensive
and costly to install. Furthermore, for service or
maintenance, they require an additional bypass piping
design to be added to be able to extract the meter from
the process.
Optical
Flow meters designed with optical sensing rely on laser
technology and photo detectors. This technology requires
the presence of particles in the gas stream. These particles
scatter the light beam, and the time it takes for these
particles to travel from one laser beam to the other laser
beam can be used to calculate the gas velocity and
volumetric flow rate. These meters have good accuracy and
wide turndown, but are traditionally very expensive.
Conclusions
The refinery’s original thermal mass flow meter performed
reliably on a flare gas feeder line with heavy sulfur content
for 18 years with little maintenance, and it continues to
operate today. This performance gave the refinery team the
confidence to select the manufacturer’s next generation
meters for future projects. The installed flow meters
continue to perform accurately over the required flow
range. Flow meters can help to provide the flow data that
is needed to help plant teams meet their operational and
company objectives.

Dr Alexander Horch, HIMA Paul Hildebrandt GmbH, Germany, explains
why safety and security in refining and processing needs rethinking.
T
he future of the downstream oil and gas sector is
digital, and this trend is being driven worldwide
under the banners of Industry 4.0 and the Internet
of Things (IoT). Digitisation creates many
opportunities for plant operators to enhance efficiency,
increase flexibility and make their plants future-proof.
However, people often overlook the fact that there is also a
downside – increased threats to plant security are arising
from digitisation, especially as a result of rapidly growing and
increasingly sophisticated cyber criminality. This article
explains why the downstream sector needs to switch from a
passive to an active defence mode with regards to
cybersecurity and what it must do to ensure plant security in
the digital era.
Oil refineries and gas processing plants rely heavily on
industrial control systems to maintain smooth, safe
operations. Advances in sensor technology, processing power
Figure 1. Modern refineries and gas processing plants
are no longer autonomous, but are instead increasingly
linked to the outside world. This linkage creates a
fundamental risk of external attacks by cyber criminals.
and remote operational capabilities can unlock value by
eliminating redundancy, increasing uptime, and efficiently
allocating feedstocks, plant utilities, and products, while
reducing costs. However, while modern control
infrastructures bring opportunities for increased productivity
through smarter system management, they also increase
security risks through their connected systems.1
These concerns are well-founded, as hackers have
initiated hundreds of cybersecurity incidents targeting US oil
and gas control systems, many with real world impacts. A
2014 cyberattack on a German steel mill is also noteworthy:
the attack affected furnace controls, the systems that
typically interface with equipment in many downstream
operations, which led to loss of control of a blast furnace,
causing significant damage to the plant.2
A similar attack could easily target a refinery, leading to
tank overflow, vessel rupturing, or even an explosion.
HYDROCARBON 87 July 2018
ENGINEERING

Figure 2. Complete security is an illusion. Work processes and
organisational deficiencies are by far the most common targets
for successful cyberattacks (source: ETH).
Figure 3. Both the safety standard and the
cybersecurity standard prescribe separate protection
levels.
While health, safety and environmental risks are naturally at
the front of the mind, companies face financial risks as well,
beyond cleanup and lawsuits. A disruption in a pump
network might not lead to widespread damage but it could
require equipment replacement that would likely idle both
staff and plant. There could be a long tail of lower-impact
events in the oil and gas industry, particularly for
downstream operations, as refining relies heavily on
automation, sensors, and controls systems.3
In another incident during 2017, the industrial control
system (ICS) cybersecurity specialist Dragos4, 5 announced
that a safety controller deployed in a process facility in the
Middle East had been targeted by a new malware attack and
hacked. The SIS was compromised and did exactly what it
was supposed to: it initiated a system shutdown. However,
July 2018 88 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
the importance of this incident cannot be
overestimated, because it was the first successful
attack on an SIS – which is the last line of defence
against a potentially catastrophic impact.
The concept of safety is changing
These incidents should serve as wake-up calls to
heighten cybersecurity awareness in the industry.
Future focus must be on the interaction of safety and
security. The safety instrumented system (SIS) in the
Dragos example differs from HIMA safety systems in
design philosophy and technology, so it is unlikely
that HIMA systems are also susceptible to the same
cyberattack. However, it is clear that no SIS
manufacturer can now or in the future promise a
solution that is absolutely and always safe from all
eventualities and risks.
That is primarily because work processes and
organisational deficiencies are still by far the most
common targets for cyberattacks (Figure 1). For
example, system interfaces that remain open during
normal operation can be used to alter program code, giving
attackers a potential access point. Plant operators are
strongly advised not to rely solely on cybersecure
components, but instead to define an integral security
concept for their own systems and consistently implement it
in cooperation with manufacturers.
Safety-oriented automation solutions in downstream
plants must now encompass not only safe emergency
shutdown (ESD) but also effective protection against
cyberattacks. This leads to a paradigm shift. Previously,
automated systems only had to be designed for safety and
then simply checked periodically to verify the initially
defined risk reduction. In the future, safety solutions must be
regularly adjusted and extended in the interest of security.
This shift affects providers and operators of components for
SISs equally.
This completely alters safety solution perceptions. A
core aspect of modern safety solutions must be the ability
to fend off cyberattacks to avoid costly shutdowns, which
means SIS is consequently an even more significant factor for
plant profitability.
Standards compliance and level
separation as a basis
Refining and processing companies are increasingly
recognising the importance of safety and security standards
for their plants’ safety and economic viability. However,
there are still companies that are not using fully
standards-compliant SISs. This means they run a higher risk
of lost production as well as harm to people and the
environment. To achieve maximum safety and security, it is
important for plant operators to implement the requirement
of the standards for functional safety and automation
security (IEC 61511 and IEC 62443) for physical separation
between SISs and basic process control systems (BPCSs).
Standards compliance is key to defence against
cyberattacks. According to IEC 61511, SISs and process control
systems can only be regarded as independent safety levels if
they use different platforms, development bases and
philosophies. In practical terms, this means that the system
architecture must fundamentally be designed to prevent the
simultaneous use of components of the process control
system level and the safety level without a detailed safety
analysis. Without clear separation, patches implemented in
the process control system could, for example, influence
integrated safety system functions – with possibly fatal
consequences. An equally problematic situation arises when
a cyberattack on the process control system via an
employee’s office PC compromises the integrated safety
system, so functional safety and basic cybersecurity are also
compromised. As evident from many of the abovementioned
examples of cyberattacks, the link between office IT and the
production system always represents an extreme weakness.
An attack on an integrated SIS/BPCS
system is thus considerably easier
than one on a stand-alone SIS.
There is much at stake in the
invested in cybersecurity, which is usually only a fraction of
the cost of a shutdown, is not wasted; instead, it safeguards
the entire plant’s productivity.
A user can opt for the best available defence by using
SISs with the fewest possible vulnerabilities. For example, a
dedicated operating system specifically developed for
safety-oriented applications runs on HIMA’s autonomous SIS
controllers. It includes all functions of a safety PLC and omits
all other unnecessary functions. With no software
components from third-party software packages and no
built-in back door, typical attacks on IT systems are rendered
ineffective. The controller operating systems are tested for
resistance to cyberattacks during the software development
process. This is also ensured by security certification of the

Bring on the freeze,

event of a successful cyberattack. In
the worst case it can impair plant
safety, with incalculable

Bring on the squeeze.

consequences for employee health,
the material assets of the company,
and the environment. Cybersecurity
insurance policies, which enable
companies to at least partially
protect themselves against financial
losses from cyberattacks, are now
emerging. However, the plant
operator’s insurance cover may not
be fully effective in the absence of
compliance with applicable
standards or if blatant security
deficiencies can be proven.
Cybersecurity insurance demands
clear risk assessments in plants,
based on applicable standards, as
otherwise insurance is not possible
or not financially viable. Plant
operation is only reliable when
operators systematically implement
cybersecurity measures like
separation of protection levels in The Bal Seal®
addition to functional safety. spring-energized seal
Proactive cybersecurity
is necessary
Rapidly growing and increasingly
professional cyber criminality
compels both manufacturers of The extreme low temperatures and high pressures of LNG/CNG valve
safety solutions and their users in service are chilling prospects for most seals.
the downstream sector to pursue But our seals are different.
proactive cybersecurity policies and
establish integral safety concepts. As Their advanced polymers, spring energizers, and locking rings are
part of their risk assessments, plant engineered to provide superior resistance to extrusion and shrinkage
operators must weigh the financial under cryogenic conditions, ensuring longer valve life and better,
expenditures for effective safety and more predictable performance.
security concepts against the costs Call or click today, and learn how a Bal Seal® spring-energized seal
of potential shutdowns, which can can elevate your valve design.
easily run into millions. The money

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www.balseal.com
 development process and by the development processes
necessary for functional safety, such as the two-person
principle.
However, for downstream plant operators it is not
enough to rely on standards-compliant hardware and
software. Cybersecurity is a never-ending task, and it must be
developed jointly by plant operators and safety specialists
during the conceptual design of new refining or processing
plants or prior to update measures. As a minimum
requirement, existing plants should collate an exact analysis
of potential cybersecurity weaknesses. Users must
implement organisational as well as technical measures,
because no existing technology can provide complete
protection against new forms of attack. Consequently, it is
necessary to perform periodic checking of internal networks
and communication systems, for example by penetration
tests performed by independent parties.
In other industries, it is now common practice to allocate
fixed budget amounts for recurrent safety and security audits.
In these audits, external specialists conduct threat tests to
thoroughly examine internal cybersecurity measures, with the
objective of identifying and eliminating weaknesses. This
amounts to proactively employing hackers to find potential
vulnerabilities that could be exploited by other hackers.
These test results should be used to boost safety
measures in the entire industry to a uniform and effective
level. Associations and the German Federal Office for
Information Security (BSI) can assist in this. The latter has
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already published helpful documents about cybersecurity in
industrial control systems from the perspective of
manufacturers and plant operators.
Good safety technology is not enough
The human factor is the most frequent source of cyber risks.
This includes not only targeted cyberattacks, aimed at
disrupting production processes or stealing industrial secrets,
but also includes disruptions that can arise from inattention.
For safety-oriented systems, the usual cybersecurity rules are
even more important because the SIS represents the last line
of defence against a potential catastrophe. Protection
against human penetration, whether intentional or
unintentional, is therefore especially important.
Consequently, a comprehensive security concept includes
aspects such as specific access protection, physical
safeguarding, or checking the plausibility of changes. Here,
technology can and must form the basis for taking the
pressure off people.
It is also important to constantly be aware of possible
means of manipulation and take them into account. In this
respect, safety-critical applications differ fundamentally
from other industrial PLC or office applications. Considerable
expertise is necessary to ensure security in safety
applications. This is a major challenge, especially for
relatively small enterprises. Consequently, maintaining and
constantly refining security often poses a nearly
insurmountable hurdle for plant operators.
It is therefore advisable – as with the previously
mentioned threat tests – to draw on the services of
experienced safety and security experts to jointly develop
and implement effective concepts. Currently, one of the
major threats is ‘spear phishing’ – the targeted spying out of
access data for protected systems. Once employee
passwords become known, launching a cyberattack is easy.
Nevertheless, plant operators should never regard their
employees as the weakest link in the cybersecurity chain.
Instead, they should engage all employees and encourage
them to become familiar with the issue of IT security and be
part of an effective, proactive cybersecurity strategy.
Loss or damage that arises from an employee action
should be considered a system issue. Such loss or damage
should demonstrate the necessity to fill knowledge gaps and
familiarise employees with threat scenarios such as known
social engineering strategies. Extensive programmes for
security training and increasing employee awareness are thus
an essential component of a proactive safety concept.
References
1. SLAUGHTER, A., BEAN, G. and MITTAL, A., 'Connected barrels:
Transforming oil and gas strategies with the Internet of Things',
Deloitte University Press, (14 April 2015).
2. ZETTER, K., 'A cyberattack has caused confirmed physical damage for
the second time ever', Wired, (8 January 2015).
3. SLAUGHTER, A, ZONNEVELD P. and SHATTUCK, T., 'Refining at risk –
Securing downstream assets from cybersecurity threats', Deloitte
Insights, (27 November 2017), available at: https://www2.deloitte.
com/insights/us/en/industry/oil-and-gas/securing-downstream-oil-
and-gas-assets-cybersecurity-threats.html#endnote-8
4. 'TRISIS Malware – Analysis of Safety System Targeted Malware',
Dragos, (14 December 2017), available at: https://www.dragos.com/
blog/trisis/
5. 'TRISIS Malware: Fail-safe fail – Research Saturday', Cyberwire
podcast, (6 January 2018), availabe at: https://thecyberwire.com/
podcasts/cw-podcasts-rs-2018-01-06.html
Sam Galpin, Bedrock Automation,
USA, explains how the use of
public key infrastructure can
enhance plant security.
T
he basic designs of the computer systems that
control refineries and other industrial processes were
created many years ago. The basic design assumption
when they were created was that the control system
was an isolated, fully trusted network. Developers worked hard
to provide robustness in the face of hardware faults and ensure
that noise-induced communication errors were properly
handled. There was, however, no effort to make the system
robust against deliberate malice. For example, corrupted packets
were expected, but the possibility of a correctly constructed
message from a malicious intruder was never considered.
Today, it is expected that control systems will be on a
trusted network segment that is isolated by a firewall. The
simplest case is typically a corporate network connected to the
internet with a firewall router and a control network connected
to the corporate network through a second firewall. This puts at
least two firewalls between the control system and the internet.
A refinery will likely have multiple segments of both enterprise
and control networks. An attacker seeking access to a refinery
control network will expect to cross a minimum of three or four
firewalls and face additional defensive measures. This defence
can be visualised as a castle with a series of concentric walls to
keep intruders out.
There are two basic weaknesses. The first is that
determined attackers are not amateurs. Firewalls are very
effective defences against casual attacks, but a team of elite
hackers will often find a way through these and will come to
know more about the target network than the owners. The
current expert consensus is that in today’s threat environment,
firewalls and related defences are no longer adequate against
advanced persistent attackers.
The second fundamental weakness is that the traditional
control system is inherently vulnerable. This is especially true
of the controllers that read the inputs and manage the
outputs. Send the controller a properly formed message or
series of messages and it will act on them. The controller has
no way of validating the authenticity of the messages so it
will trust any correctly formed message that gets to it.
Therefore, it is the task of the network defences to ensure
that only trusted messages are allowed. In the face of
HYDROCARBON 91 July 2018
ENGINEERING



 block is the signature. The complete signature record will
"!!
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also identify the signer, specify the cryptographic and
! ! 
summary algorithms used, and provide the public key. Any

third-party can replicate the computation of the summary,
and decrypt and verify the signature. A valid signature proves
two things: first, that the signed data has not been corrupted;
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second, that the signature was computed using the


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 Second, they are used to prove identity by a process called
Figure 1. The Bedrock Open Secure Automation system
embeds public key infrastructure (PKI) mechanisms to
prevent unauthorised code from reaching critical control
components.
pressure for continuously increasing connectivity, this
requires constant effort.
The intrinsic security difference
Intrinsic security allows a device to be responsible for its own
security. It no longer relies on a trusted network, and instead
uses a public key infrastructure (PKI) to provide a root of trust.
It does this using cryptographic mechanisms to prove identity
and provide secure communications. This adds an entirely new
level of depth to the defence. While elite hackers can bypass
firewalls, breaking properly implemented strong cryptography
is not a practical possibility. The attacker now faces a whole
new set of barriers as the controller has an immune system.
An introduction to PKI
PKI makes e-commerce on the internet possible. It is used
almost universally where security and confidentiality are
needed. The details are complicated but in the interest of
clarity, the description that follows is a simplified view.
Asymmetric cryptography
The first piece of a PKI is asymmetric cryptography. Normal or
symmetric cryptography algorithms use a single shared secret
key for both encryption and decryption. Asymmetric
algorithms use keys in pairs: one is normally referred to as the
private key and is used for encryption, the other is used for
decryption. The decryption key only works on material that is
encrypted with the matching private key. A PKI works by
making the decryption key public.
Digital signature
The second piece is digital signature. A block of data is digitally
signed using a two step process. The first step computes a
summary of the data using a one way compression function. This
summary is now encrypted with the private member of an
asymmetric key pair and added to the data. The small encrypted
July 2018 92 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
common are X.509 certificates defined by the Internet
standard RFC 2459. An X.509 certificate is a signed block of
data that binds the identity of the owner to a public key.
PKI uses certificates in three basic ways. First, certificates are
the standard mechanisms for distributing public keys.
authentication. Third, certificates are used to establish
secure channels of communication.
Certificate authority
The fourth component of a PKI is the Certificate Authority
(CA). This is the root of trust as it is where certificates get
signed, issued and managed. To prove identity, the certificate
that asserts the ownership of the public key must be signed by a
trusted party. That initial signature can, in turn, be verified with
other certificates that form a chain of trust. A valid chain must
always end with a signature, created with the private key of the
CA. The public key of the CA is normally provided by a
certificate that is distributed to all parties.
The mutual authentication handshake
Assume both parties have the CA’s public key and have been
issued certificates and associated private keys. The first step is
for the parties to exchange and validate certificates using the
CA public key. Assuming this succeeds, both can be certain that
the CA issued the certificate offered by the other. Offering a
valid certificate, however, proves nothing. The final step, which
is critical, is to require that each party proves they have the
secret key that matches their offered certificate. The details
vary but the essence requires each side to correctly encrypt a
random number that is provided by the other.
Intrinsic security and the root of trust
Intrinsic security is based on a web of trust, mediated by the
PKI mechanisms described above. The basic principles are
simple. All trusted parties have unique certificates that identify
them. The certificates also include data that defines each
party’s system roles and privileges. Certificates are issued and
managed by the CA. PKI mechanisms allow all members of the
trust web to recognise other legitimate actors and exclude
imposters. PKI mechanisms also provide secure communication
between members.
In the case of a controller module in an industrial control
system (ICS), this security makes it possible to know which actor
can be allowed to change the user programming, or whether an
operator should be allowed to change a setpoint. If the actor
has the proper certificate and matching private key, the
controller allows the action. If not, the controller blocks it. In the
context of ICS cybersecurity, it is a game changer.
 Breakthrough.
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 Flexware®
Turbomachinery Engineers Intrinsic security essentials
A Veteran & Employee Owned Small Business

Realising the promise of intrinsic cybersecurity in

TURBOMACHINERY TRAINING automation requires meticulous attention to an almost
endless array of details. Effective intrinsic cybersecurity
COMPRESSORS STEAM TURBINES protection must have at least the following
Vibration, Field Performance Analysis, Auxiliary Systems, Bearings, characteristics:
Seals, Case Studies, Troubleshooting & Problem Resolution „ Secure boot: this is the ability of a device to power
• Optimize Your Condition Based Equipment Reliability Program up in a way that ensures only authorised code is
• Maximize Plant Production & Reliability executed. This starts with features built into the
• &RQ¿UP2(03HUIRUPDQFH*XDUDQWHH
• Optimize Equipment Utilization processor silicon. Execution normally starts with on
chip masked read only memory (ROM) and special
provisions to install and protect the secret keys that
are needed to decrypt and validate each level of
software before it is executed. Without secure boot, a
device is vulnerable to unauthorised software changes
and cannot support a root of trust.
„ Powerful processors and hardware crypto
acceleration: the security cannot be allowed to
interfere with the control.
„ Hardware true random number generator (TRNG): a
TRNG is a source of random numbers. Many
TRAIN WITH THE BEST cryptographic operations rely on the unpredictability
EXPERT INSTRUCTORS WITH YEARS OF GLOBAL EXPERIENCE of random numbers. If the numbers are not truly
“Good Seminar. Improves my analytical knowledge. Will save the company money & time.” random, their predictability will weaken the security.
Sheridan Suleiman, Sarawak Shell
³'LI¿FXOWVXEMHFWPDGHHDV\WRXQGHUVWDQG— Excellent work!”
„ Strong algorithms with adequate key lengths: control
Showkath Ali K. C., Qatar Petrochemical Co systems have long lifetimes. Cryptographic algorithms
degrade over time as attackers’ computing power
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS SOFTWARE INCLUDED
increases.
ZZZÀH[ZDUHLQFFRP
VDOHV#ÀH[ZDUHLQFFRP
„ An ability to change the algorithms if they are broken
and replace keys that are compromised.
„ A robust, scalable and secure CA and key management
system. This must include a secure system at the
factory to provision devices at birth with embedded
certificates and keys that establish both the root of
trust and unique device identity. It must also issue
certificates to users in the field.

Moving Energy Forward „ A secure supply chain with mechanisms to prevent

counterfeit modules. Counterfeit hardware is now
common and almost impossible to identify. They are
normally financially motivated, but the devices can be
loaded with malware.
„ Physical resistance to tampering.
Ideal solutions for upstream, midstream and downstream
All of the above are properties that cannot be added
As an expert manufacturer of downhole and surface later. They must be built in at the very beginning.
pumps, we produce oilfield pump systems according to the
highest quality standards. The viscosity of your crude oil or Approaching total integrity
its percentage of gas or sand makes no difference to the Figure 1 shows the different secure paths implemented
NETZSCH progressing cavity pumps. within the system and throughout the product lifecycle,
capturing the overall scope of the cybersecurity problem.
Applying PKI to embed the root of trust in the control
We provide pump designs
system enables authentication across sensors, networks,
that have proven reliability,
operational safety and low
users and applications. This provides intrinsic and holistic
lifecycle costs. Please call cyber defence and a higher level of security. Equally as
regarding API confirmity. important, despite internal complexity, is that the
mechanisms are almost invisible to end-users during
normal operation
Although the overall security objective is to protect
the owner-operator’s intellectual and physical property,
refiners typically purchase automation systems based on
the control objectives. Intrinsic cybersecurity should
come with the package at no additional cost.

www.netzsch.com
 Hydrocarbon Engineering presents an overview of some
of the recent developments and technologies in pumps,
valves and seals for the downstream oil and gas industry.

ACD LLC With offices and service centres in 12 countries across

ACD LLC has been a leader in the design and manufacture of
cryogenic pumps and turbomachinery for over 50 years. The
company specialises in centrifugal and reciprocating pumps for
the LNG industrial gas and oil well service industries, as well as
turbines for air separation.
ACD has expertise in machinery designed to operate at
cryogenic temperatures of as low as -420˚F – the boiling point
of liquid hydrogen. Its diverse product lines include a variety
of cryogenic centrifugal and reciprocating pumps for L/CNG
applications, high pressure cylinder/storage filling systems,
trailer offloading, bulk transfer, bunkering applications and
storage tank filling. The company maintains its lead by
continually expanding its product range and enhancing
product features.
four continents, ACD has a global presence while able to
respond locally. Through its international network, the
company offers knowledgeable advice on product selection,
technical support and troubleshooting, pump installation,
overhaul and field repair. Its in-house pump training
programmes provide customers with training in product
operation and current technologies to ensure pumps are
operating at the highest efficiencies.
ACD is ISO 9001-2008 certified, ensuring that every
component produced meets the highest standards of quality in
the industry. The company continues to provide highly
engineered solutions to the most challenging problems in
cryogenic equipment design and operation, and develop
innovative solutions to meet tomorrow’s needs.

BAL SEAL ENGINEERING INC. demanding conditions in processing, liquefaction, loading, and
Valves have always played a key role in moving product transport stages, they are especially critical.
throughout the energy industry. But in LNG and CNG In LNG/CNG, valves can encounter temperatures of under
operations, where they manage flow under extremely -320°F (-196°C), and pressures of greater than 750 psi. They are

HYDROCARBON 95 July 2018

ENGINEERING

An experienced seal manufacturer can help designers
leverage a combination of jacket material, lip
geometry, energiser, and locking ring to significantly
improve cryogenic valve performance.
also subject to periodic temperature variations, which can
result in hardware expansion, shrinkage, and material stresses.
Impact of the seal
Few components have more influence on the performance of
a cryogenic valve than the seal. Unfortunately, at temperatures
below -150°C, typical polymer seals exhibit roughly 10X the
shrinkage of the metal hardware. Their tensile modulus can
increase by 4 – 7X, and yield strength can increase by 5 – 8X.
Elongation can drop by as much as 50X.
Considering this, polymers may seem a less-than-optimal
choice for cryogenic valve sealing. But with the right
formulations and designs, polymer seals can actually
BLACKMER®
Blackmer® sliding vane pumps were recently installed at one of
the largest storage tank farms, unloading facilities and
dispensing terminals, located in Arizona, US. The facility
utilises the company’s sliding vane pumps for gasoline
blending and sliding vane pumps for sidestream additive
blending. The pumps are utilised for low-volume blending of
additives, ethanol and biodiesel because of their ability to
provide accurate flow at lower volumes.
The sliding vane pumps feature operational characteristics
to improve the reliability, energy efficiency and overall
operational performance in an array of downstream oil and
gas applications.
Areas in the downstream oil and gas sector where these
pumps set the standard include railcar and barge loading and
unloading, petroleum bulk station transfer, refined fuels
pumping and the handling of LPG.
For more than 100 years, Blackmer’s sliding vane pump
technology has proven to be key for reliable performance due
to the pump’s unique design and method of operation. The
CONVAL
Plant personnel at a major petroleum company had a critical
and potentially dangerous relief valve situation to resolve.
July 2018 96 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
outperform metallic seals, elastomeric seals, and packings
– especially in dynamic applications.
Elements of success
In sealing for cryogenic valves, geometry is critical. A thin lip is
typically recommended on the outer diameter of the seal for
maximum flexibility, and a longer lip design can help increase
sealing area. A locking ring element can be employed to
minimise the effects of shrinkage and prevent the seal from
pulling away from the hardware.
Choosing the right seal material is also important. PTFE
(filled with polyimide or other polymers) and UHMWPE
materials are recommended for use in seal jackets. They offer
chemical compatibility, low friction, wear resistance, and
extrusion resistance, and exhibit good sealing effectiveness in
a broad range of temperatures.
An energiser element, which exerts a near-constant force
on the jacket to promote effective sealing and even wear, is
also recommended. Whether it is a canted coil spring,
close-coil canted coil spring, or helical ribbon spring, the
energiser should be chemically compatible with the media it
encounters. It should also resist corrosion and provide a
robust, but measured deflection force.
Partnering up
Successful seal design requires experience, so it helps to
involve an established seal manufacturer at the early stages of
a valve project. By partnering with them to review hardware
design, estimate a frictional outcome, perform computer
modeling and, most importantly, produce a custom solution
that meets all application needs, one will be able to offer a
more competitive product and improve speed to market.
pumps have a number of vanes that are free to slide into or
out of slots in the pump rotor. When the pump driver turns
the rotor, a combination of forces (centrifugal, mechanical
push rods and liquid), causes the vanes to move outward in
their slots and around the inner bore of the pump casing. This
forms internal pumping chambers and, as the rotor revolves,
the fluid flows through the suction port and into the pumping
chambers that are created by the vanes. The fluid is then
transported around the pump casing until the discharge port is
reached, at which point the fluid is moved into the discharge
piping.
The company’s sliding vane pumps can deliver highly
beneficial operational characteristics that are necessary for
effective fluid transfer within oil and gas applications. These
characteristics include: high suction capability, line-stripping,
dry-run capability, self-priming, volumetric consistency,
non-slip operation, effective product sealing, high or low flow
rates, easy maintenance, reduced energy consumption,
stationary, skid or truck mounting, and stainless steel,
ductile-iron and cast-iron construction.
They needed to safely, quietly and cost-effectively drop a
gas mixture, flowing at 52 800 lb/hr, from 1400 psig to
10 psig. The media had a density of 0.02 lb/ft3 at standard
temperature and pressure (14.7 psia at 60˚F) and a specific
heat ratio (k) of 1.385.
No standard solutions were available, so the company
enlisted Conval, manufacturer of high-performance severe
service valves, to develop a custom solution. In this instance,
the solution was a rugged four-stage, application-specific
Whisperjet made of 440˚C stainless steel.
With this valve, gas impinges itself to reduce pressure as it
flows through a series of multi-pressure reduction stages.
Because the gas does not rely solely on a tortuous path, there
is virtually no erosion of parts, which is commonly seen in
orifice plates or other pressure letdown devices.
Each Whisperjet stage has four to six orifices around its
perimeter. These orifices discharge inwards, which reduces the
gas pressure without causing component wear. Pressure is
reduced in stages, which prevents a critical pressure drop. Each
stage is progressively larger, allowing the gas to expand. The
EBARA INTERNATIONAL CORP.
With thousands of installations worldwide,
Ebara Cryodynamics® is a recognised leader for submerged
electric pumps and expanders in liquefied gas applications. For
over 40 years, Cryodynamics has been a key manufacturer of
both standard and custom cryogenic pumps and expanders,
delivering continuous advances in equipment design and
technology to customers globally.
The company’s equipment is designed to operate in
liquefied gases with temperatures ranging from ambient to
orifices are sized to keep the flow of gas below critical
velocity, significantly reducing noise compared with other
pressure letdown methods.
In developing this custom valve, Conval engineers used
advanced software to verify the sizing. To verify the
software, an assembly was manufactured, tested and
analysed using the software. The flow rates between what
the software calculated and actual test data agreed within
1.5%. Hydrogen gas was used to model the media, with an
R constant (gas constant used in ideal gas law) modified to
930 364 in.2/sec2-R.
The software was provided with an inlet pressure of
1400 psig and an outlet pressure of 10 psig. The software then
derived the flow rate of 52 200 lb/hr based on the geometry
of the ProEngineer supplied model. This software derived flow
rate of 52 200 lb/hr was then compared to the hand
calculated flow rate of 52 800 lb/hr to validate the results.
cryogenic. Its line of submerged cryogenic pumps includes
suction vessel mounted pumps, retractable pumps, cargo, spray,
emergency, and fuel pumps, and the CRYO-FuelTM gas pump,
designed specifically to maximise capacity range through
variable speed technology. All of the company’s pumps and
expanders feature Thrust Equalizing Mechanism (TEM® )
technology for increased bearing life and reduced maintenance.
Cryodynamics’ liquid expanders provide power recovery
benefits, reduced carbon emissions, and high return on
investment. The latest innovation in the company’s line of
HYDROCARBON 97 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 expanders is the upward flow, two-phase expander. These allow
the expansion of liquefied gases into two-phase mixtures
within its final stage. By harnessing the energy of two-phase
expansion, the expander’s generator output is increased,
boil-off losses are reduced, and the overall liquefaction process
is improved. Since 2016, Ebara Cryodynamics has partnered with
the University of Nevada, Reno, US, to study and advance
two-phase expander technology for cryogenic turbines used in
LNG liquefaction processes.
The company also offers complete aftermarket
support including 24 hr phone/email technical support,
FINDER
Finder, a brand of PSG®, a Dover company, is one of Europe’s
leading designers and manufacturers of pumps and systems
for use in the oil and gas industry. Its current catalogue of
pumps includes API 610-ISO 13709 and
ISO 2858-5199-compliant centrifugal pumps, positive
displacement API 676 twin-screw pumps, and positive
displacement triplex plunger pumps.
Specifically, the company’s API 610 centrifugal pump family
includes: the HPP Series, a traditional volute OH2 pump; the PEP
and Dual PEP Series low-flow/high-head OH2 pumps, all of
which are available in magnetic-drive configurations; the LHVN
Series single-stage vertical in-line overhung pumps in OH3 and
OH4 configurations; C2PO Series between-the-bearings, axially
split, double-suction, one-stage impeller BB1 pumps; HPE-HPD
Series single-stage, double-suction, radially split casing pumps,
and two-stage pumps with either a single- or double-suction
first-stage impeller in BB2 design; HPM two- and multi-stage
axially split volute-type pumps with single- or double-suction
first-stage impeller in BB3 configuration; and the HPV (VS4) and
HPVT, and CKVN (VS1 and VS6 version) Series vertical pumps.
FLEXITALLIC
Flexitallic’s ChangeTM gasket has maintained its position as a
key sealing solution globally, with continual growth in
applications in industry.
With more than 50 000 sold into sectors such as steel,
power, chemical, refining, and pulp and paper, this has
become a leading gasket-of-choice for an increasing number
of plant operators.
Demand for this gasket has been supported by
investments in Flexitallic’s production capabilities. It is now
manufactured in the UK and the US, which is enabling the
company to increase production in-line with industry
demand and meet shorter lead-times for Europe and the
Eastern Hemisphere.
Manufactured using proprietary equipment, Change has
proven its ability to perform in a variety of challenging
applications, especially in mechanical and thermal cycling
conditions.
OHL GUTERMUTH
OHL Gutermuth is a recognised specialist for shut-off and
regulating solutions, especially for high safety standards and
special requirements in temperature, pressure and diameter.
July 2018 98 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
guaranteed call-out support, site performance audits, spare
parts management, and training. Prior to delivery, its
equipment undergoes testing a large, sophisticated test
stand.
In response to changing oil and gas markets, the
company has expanded its product line to support
developing markets and applications such as fixed and
mobile fuel stations, small-scale marine and floating
projects, skids, and customised packaging.
Ebara International Corp., Cryodynamic Products, is a
wholly owned subsidiary of Elliott Company.
Finder also offers a complete range of ISO 2858-5199
centrifugal pumps, which are available in OH1 and VS4
configurations, to complement API lines.
According to API 676 standards, the RRLO Series twin-screw
pumps are self-priming and can convey fluids containing gas or
air. The range of API 674 reciprocating triplex plunger pumps
feature fixed strokes and are designed for extremely
high-pressure applications (from 50 barg to 1000 barg) and can
be driven by electric, diesel or hydraulic motors.
Some key downstream projects in which Finder’s pumps
were used in 2017 include:
„ ENI-Petrobel used API 610 and ISO centrifugal pump for the
Zohr Onshore Development Project.
„ ENI used API 610 and API 685 centrifugal pumps for
Raffineria di Gela.
„ KNPC used API 610 centrifugal pumps at the Al Zour
Refinery.
„ Karachaganak used API 610 and API 685 centrifugal pumps
for the KGD Project.
„ Al Watanya used API 610 centrifugal pumps for a bitumen
blowing unit project.
Originally developed in direct response to customers’
long-term heat exchanger sealing problems, Change is a
highly-resilient metal-wound gasket, designed to deliver
dynamic static sealing technology.
This gasket has significant recovery capabilities, without
comprising tightness, which is essential in high temperature
applications. This is achieved through the application of a
unique metal spiral profile, which is more advanced than
those found in standard gaskets. This profile, combined with
a laser welding process, facilitates the construction of a
robust and dynamic seal that has also earnt Change
independent industry accreditation from TA Luft.
Flexitallic’s gaskets can be supplied with exclusive
Thermiculite® gasket material, which was developed for use
in critical services applications, from cryogenics to
temperatures in excess of 1000˚C. This material is a critical
component in eliminating graphite oxidation, which limits
seal life and seal tightness.
The company’s product programme includes high performance
butterfly valves, control butterfly valves, dampers, hot gas
mixing valves, switching valves, as well as custom-made valves
with special requirements. The valves’ nominal diameters can
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11th ANNUAL
NATIONAL ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK
•
•
FREE T RA DE SH OW
Conference Sessions
Free Trade Show
CONFERENCE & TRADE SHOW • Co-Located Events
September 12-13, 2018 • Welcome Reception
• Cocktail Mixer on the
Moody Gardens | Galveston, Texas
Trade Show Floor
• Golf Tournament

NISTM
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR STORAGE TANK MANAGEMENT
www.NISTM.org | 800.827.3515
International 011.813.600.4024
 reach up to DN 4000, with pressure ratings of 200 bar for
temperatures from -196°C to 1400°C.
The valves fulfil TÜV-certified management requirements in
accordance with ISO 9001, ISO 14001, OSHAS 18001 and the
Pressure Equipment Directive 2014/68/EU Module H. All
products are certified under the Russian TRCU, Chinese TSG,
Indian boiler regulation or Canadian CRN or ASME standards.
The company has a Fire Safe Certificate in accordance with all
international standards, and is able to meet the strict
environmental requirements of ISO 15848, VDI 2440 or TA Luft.
Its butterfly valves with metallic sealing systems are
certified by Exida up to Safety Integrity Level 3 (SIL3).
OHL Gutermuth uses state-of-the-art, proven testing
facilities and equipment in the workshop, especially hydrostatic,
ROTORK
A typical installation of Rotork actuators and
gearboxes operating on tank farm manifolds.
With established manufacturing facilities and a global network
of offices and agents, Rotork is recognised as a leading
solution provider for the actuation, flow control and industrial
markets. It is the largest independent manufacturer of electric
and fluid power valve actuators and network control systems,
providing reliable and accurate solutions for on/off and
process control applications.
Fluid power actuators encompass pneumatic, hydraulic
and electro-hydraulic designs for applications including
emergency shutdown duties. These products are
complemented by comprehensive ranges of instrumentation
and precision control products for flow, pressure, temperature
and position measurement applications.
The company is also a specialist designer and
manufacturer of valve gearboxes and accessories, offering
SULZER
Traditionally, vertical sump pumps in the oil and gas industry
were often only considered on auxiliary or non-critical services.
Many sump pumps originated from low pressure ISO or ANSI
pump lines with minimal compliance to API 610 specifications.
Over the last five years, Sulzer has identified increasing
customer demand for an API 610 11th edition compliant design,
including additional product features that actually exceed API
July 2018 100 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
leakage, cryogenic, fugitive emission, sound and hardness tests,
as well as coating thickness, ultrasonic wall thickness and
roughness measurement, and positive material identification.
The testing equipment includes several test benches which test
medium nitrogen, air and water, according to EN12266, API and
ANSI, up to 1000 bar and diameters up to DN 2100. It also has a
cryogenic test facility with liquid nitrogen at -196°C and tests
medium helium according to BS6364, Shell MESC and other
international standards for diameters up to DN 2000.
OHL Gutermuth is a well-recognised supplier to a wide
variety of industries, such as oil and gas, petrochemical,
chemical, steel, power, incineration, shipbuilding, sugar mills,
solar and environmental engineering. In 2017, the company
celebrated its 150-year anniversary.
solutions ranging from light-duty industrial applications to
the harshest environments, including subsea.
Rotork’s products are used across the oil and gas industry,
including for offshore and onshore production, refining,
processing, transportation, storage and distribution.
Actuators in a refinery
The Karbala Refinery in Iraq has ordered large quantities of
IQ3 non-intrusive intelligent electric valve actuators from
Rotork. With diagnostic and asset management abilities, IQ3
actuators will facilitate reliable, efficient and safe operation
of the refinery. Comprehensive operational data, including
valve torque profiles stored in actuator dataloggers, can be
downloaded and analysed to enable predictive maintenance
and optimise plant performance.
For critical areas, actuator duties include a Safety
Integrity Level 2 (SIL2) emergency shutdown (ESD) function.
The SIL system identifies the requirements for a safety
instrumented system (SIS). IQ3 actuators are certified for use
in a SIS up to SIL2 for a single actuator or SIL3 for two
actuators in a redundant system.
Packaged pneumatic solutions for LNG
facilities
A project at Freeport LNG in Texas, US, is transforming an
import terminal into a natural gas liquefaction and LNG
export facility, which will be the largest in the US. Rotork is
supplying several hundred pneumatic actuators for valves
in sizes up to 1730 mm. Specifications include on-board
control panels for failsafe operation, partial stroke testing
and closed-loop feedback systems. These were designed
using products such as Soldo switchboxes, YTC and
Fairchild boosters and Midland-ACS filter regulators and
pilot valves.
standard, but are regularly specified by end-users to satisfy their
internal safety and emissions requirements.
Sulzer possesses several VS4 product lines within its global
portfolio. However, traditional API versions were custom-built
to order, leading to longer delivery times and higher cost due to
additional engineering. The company’s oil and gas product
development team therefore embarked on an enhancement
and rationalisation project of Sulzer’s API 610 type VS4 product
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 lines. The core aim of the project was to provide a robust,
state-of-the-art product specifically for the oil and gas market
with a high level pre-engineering and shared pump group
components to minimise response and delivery time to the
company’s customers.
The OCV/OCVL employs the design and technology from
Sulzer’s leading OHH/OHHL product line with thrust bearing
assembly shared with its vertical SJD-API range. Latest
investment casting technology ensures maximum casting
quality resulting in optimum efficiency and consistent
performance results.
UNION TECH
Union Tech is one of the leading manufacturers of
severe-service metal-seated ball valves (MSBV), rising-stem
ball valves (RSBV), and valve components since the mid-1980s.
To date, the company has engineered, manufactured, and sold
more than 100 000 MSBVs, both domestically and overseas,
as the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) for a number
of brands. Its valves are installed worldwide in critical
applications across the entire petroleum supply chain –
upstream, midstream, and downstream – for the world’s
major energy companies.
Union Tech’s world-scale manufacturing facilities encompass
a global footprint of more than 250 000 ft2 of manufacturing
space, housing hundreds of computer numeric control (CNC)
equipment, capable of 50 000 hrs of monthly machining
capacity. The company’s unique approach to engineering and
production – whereby product engineers and manufacturing
experts are paired in tandem, substantial components are
machined internally, and critical manufacturing processes are
performed in-house – differentiates it from the industry. As a
result, Union Tech’s methodologies and capabilities enable the
rapid development of bespoke sealing and isolation solutions
that are fit for purpose, at compelling value.
Examples of customised solutions supplied by the
company include:
„ Z2 valves, capable of critical operation in an extreme
temperature (1450°F) environment, were engineered and
manufactured for a petrochemical plant, which leveraged
VALCO GROUP
Valco Group France – Guichon Valves, Malbranque, SNRI, and
Valco Valve Services (VVS) – is a European manufacturer of
critical-conditions industrial valves for LNG, oil and gas, refining
and petrochemicals, chemicals, energy, nuclear and new
environmental-friendly applications.
Through its brands, Valco Group is able to provide a
complete valve package for several process unit, which makes it
a key supplier.
320 co-workers and employees are involved in worldwide
projects and are pleased to share their knowledge and expertise
on customer’s projects.
The SNRI and Malbranque team is leading on gate, globe
and check valve technology. Renowned as indestructible valve
solutions, the range is designed to operate at low temperatures
July 2018 102 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
As API 610 VS4 pumps are often purchased as part of a
larger process pump package, the use of shared components
can be hugely beneficial to customers with regards to spare part
holding and maintenance familiarity.
By listening to its customers, the company was recently
successful in winning two important project awards for more
than 50-off OCV pumps. These pumps will be delivered in a
lead time that is much shorter than was possible previously.
For Sulzer, product development is a continuous process
and its experienced global development teams work every day
to bring new or enhanced products.
the enhanced capabilities of exotic superalloy
components, i.e. Incoloy 800HT bodies and end
connections with Inconel 625 trim.
„ Over 250 Z2 valves (ranging from 2 in. to 6 in.) were
customised and produced for an oil refinery. The entire
order was delivered within 150 days to meet end-user
timelines.
„ Three 8 in. x 7 in.-900# 316SS Z2 valves with purge ports,
capable of injecting and releasing steam to keep the
media in a liquid phase, were developed and fabricated
for a petrochemical plant.
Union Tech’s Z-Series product line consists of both MSBVs
and RSBVs.
The Z1 Unibody Power Valve is a one-piece MSBV,
engineered for high pressure steam severe-service
environments, including power generation and critical on/off
applications.
The Z2 Two-Piece Isolation Valve is a two-piece MSBV,
engineered for severe-service environments for use in
customised and critical applications, including
chemical/petrochemical, refining, power, and mining
processes.
The Z4 RSBV employs a ‘tilt-and-turn’ design, enabling a
friction-free cycling, zero leakage, and low torque operation.
The valve is engineered for high performance applications
that require frequent cycling with positive shutoff, such as
molecular sieve systems for switching service and gas
transmission.
of -196°C, up to 600°C, with low or high pressure (CL2500) and a
wide range of nominal diameters.
Guichon Valves is dedicated to custom-made valve
solutions. Its know-how has been well known for almost
100 years in the valve industry, and its engineers can help
customers to design reliable valve solutions for highly
demanding application, using all available valve technologies
and exotic materials. Its manufacturing, assembling, testing and
commissioning teams then bring the design to performance.
Thus, each product is unique and safely made according to
process conditions and customer needs.
VVS employs 40 skilled technicians and engineers to go
on-site to take care of valve maintenance and perform repair
operations. Their goal is to optimise and make turnaround as
easy as possible.
 Sugar Land Marriott Town Square

OPEN FOR REGISTRATION

Register today to take advantage of early bird discount by visi ng: h ps://opportunitycrudes.com/houston2018/

Conference theme: Crude Disruptors: Accelera ng Changes in Global Refining

Change is not new in the refining world, but sudden shi s are disrup ve to steady opera ons. Geopoli cal tensions and sup-
ply fluctua ons add big risk premiums to the crude market, threatening feedstock delivery to global refineries. To name a few
disruptors, which have already created market vola lity and supply uncertain es:

x US announced to exit the Iran nuclear deal,

x Deteriora on in Venezuela's oil produc on and exports,

x Russia's pivot of oil shipments to Asia from Europe,

x OPEC/non-OPEC producers reducing medium sour grade exports to meet agreed quotas,

x Increasing US oil export to Europe, Asia, and La n America but trade tension could disrupt this trend.

Refiners also face shi ing product demand because of consump on (e.g. higher gasoline octane, increasing demand for petro-
chemical feedstocks) and environmental (e.g. ultra-low sulfur diesel and gasoline, IMO's 2020 low-sulfur bunker fuel) reasons.
Can refiners fight both changing feedstock and product ba les at the same me?

As in our previous mee ngs, this biennial conference has assembled a team of well-known business strategists and technolo-
gy gurus to help refiners tackle urgent challenges and iden fy excep onal opportuni es.

Join us in this highly produc ve and rewarding event, thanks to excellent speakers, mely theme, well-organized agenda,
and s mula ng atmosphere to encourage the exchange of ideas! The agenda of the 2-1/2 day event consists of five topical
sessions covering global crude supply and export trends, crude management and blending, processing light ght and residual
oils, and advanced refinery IOT applica ons.

This mee ng is coordinated with Crude Oil Quality Associa on (www.coqa-inc.org)'s fall mee ng to be er service our up-
stream, midstream, and downstream colleagues worldwide.

Media Partners: Sponsored By:

Hosted By:
Hydrocarbon Publishing Company
Transla ng Knowledge into Profitability®
info@hydrocarbonpublishing.com
HYDROCARBON 103 July 2018
ENGINEERING
 VALVTECHNOLOGIES
Implemented in 2016, the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) issued a Risk and Technology Review (RTR)
mandate on coke drum venting for petroleum refineries.
Components of the rule include:
„ New emissions controls for refinery storage tanks,
catalytic reforming units (CRUs) and delayed coker units
(DCUs).
„ Work practice standards to reduce emissions from
atmospheric pressure relief devices (PRDs) and flares.
„ Continuous benzene monitoring at the refinery fence line
to improve the management of fugitive emissions.
„ Elimination of exemptions to emission limits for
uncontrolled releases during start-up, shut-down and
malfunction.
The rule imposes monitoring and reporting of emission
releases from pressure relief devices to the atmosphere. The
regulation calls for a programmes of process changes and
pollution prevention, aimed at reducing visible emissions by
major pressure release devices. This change affects a wide
range of applications, including DCUs and its coking processes.
Older coker valves are challenged to meet the rule and,
because of this, refineries in the hydrocarbon industry must
modify their existing process.
To meet EPA standards, ValvTechnologies recently
installed zero-leakage coker valves in refineries in Texas and
Louisiana, US, ranging from 14 in. to 20 in. 300# ANSI, flanged
with HVOF RiTech® coating. The valves are composed of C12
and carbon steel body materials and, based on the plant’s
needs, designed with either pneumatic or electric actuation.
The company supplied these refineries with severe service
technology to extend the valve’s isolation capabilities,
improve its processes with minimal shutdown maintenance
and save operators thousands of dollars eliminating the need
to install expensive emission reduction technology. In
addition, ValvTechnologies’ engineered solution ensures plants
are in compliance with EPA’s strict air-quality standards.
ValvTechnologies is a leading manufacturer of
zero-leakage, severe service isolation valve solutions.
Employing more than 500 people worldwide, its offices are
located in the UK, mainland Europe, China, the Middle East,
India, Australia and South America. In addition, the company
partners with stocking distributors and independent
representatives to service customers globally.

Page Number | Advertiser

AD INDEX
103 | 6th Opportunity Crudes Conference 23 | Nalco Champion, an Ecolab Company
OBC | Albemarle 94 | Netzsch
29 | AMETEK Inc. 41 | Nikkiso Cryo
49 | Auma 99 | NISTM
89 | Bal Seal Engineering Inc. 99 | Paratherm
45 | Bryan Research & Engineering, LLC 31 | Quest Integrity
73 | CRI Catalyst Company 101 | Sabin Metal Corp.
67 | Criterion Catalysts & Technologies 04 | Saint-Gobain
OFC & 63 | Elliott Group 97 | S.A.T.E.
17 | ExxonMobil 18 | Selective Adsorption Associates Inc.
94 | Flexware, Inc. 93 | Sierra Instruments, Inc.
77 | Hallwood Modular Buildings 81 | Trinity Consultants
15 | Hexagon PPM 07 | Union Tech
09 | Hitard Engineering 37 | Veolia
IFC & IBC | Honeywell Process Solutions 70 | Wattco
02 | IPCO 59 | WEKA AG
55 | Johnson Matthey 13 | W. R. Grace & Co.
90 | LAR Process Analysers AG 27 | Yokogawa
69 | Merichem Company 53 | Zeeco, Inc.
35 | Metso 85 | Zwick Armaturen GmbH

July 2018 104 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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