Sensors and Actuators A 173 (2012) 102–107

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Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

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High temperature dynamic viscosity sensor for engine oil applications

Matthew D. Brouwer a,∗ , Lokesh A. Gupta b , Farshid Sadeghi a , Dimitrios Peroulis b , Douglas Adams a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, 585 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2088, United States
b
Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, 1205 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a new high temperature dynamic viscosity sensor for in situ condition monitoring
Received 15 July 2011 of engine lubricants. The sensor is used to measure the variation in the quality factor of a vibrating
Received in revised form 17 October 2011 piezoelectric cantilever beam due to viscous damping. The sensor was used to measure the dynamic
Accepted 21 October 2011
viscosity of various single and multi-grade engines oils up to 180 cP from 25 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C. The sensor is
Available online 28 October 2011
capable of detecting degradation and dilution of engine oil for both new and used samples of 5W-30 and
10W-40 and diluted SAE 30 engine oils. All of the viscosity measurements presented are within 0.13–9.8%
Keywords:
of the results obtained using the standard Walther equation at various temperatures. An equation relating
Dynamic viscosity
High temperature sensor
dynamic viscosity of an oil sample to the quality factor of the beam is presented. The quality factor
Piezoelectric beam measurement circuit presented in this research can be implemented in automotive applications for in situ
Quality factor condition monitoring of lubricant viscosity.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction dynamic viscosity. In engines, the density of the lubricant continu-

Presently, lubricants in land, marine and aerospace applications
are changed primarily on a time interval and not on a need basis.
This time interval is measured by the mileage driven by the vehicle
or by the time interval calculated using complex algorithms factor-
ing in temperature, engine revolutions, and driver habits [1]. The
time interval based on mileage varies depending on the vehicle or
manufacturer’s specifications, but typically a conservative value is
3000 miles. A more accurate and reliable method will be to mon-
itor the oil parameters using online sensors in direct contact with
the lubricant. By measuring the actual oil properties, the lubricant
can be changed on a need basis instead of a mileage or time basis
thus leading to significant savings in time and reduced waste. This
research presents a high temperature sensor for in situ monitoring
of the dynamic viscosity.
The film thickness of a lubricant in an engine is governed by
the oil viscosity. Over the lifespan of the engine oil, the viscosity
of the lubricant changes due to excessive heat, soot, engine debris,
and fluids such as antifreeze and fuel. Any significant change in the
engine oil viscosity if not detected can lead to unnecessary fatigue
and wear reducing the operational life of the engine.
Currently, the majority of viscosity measurement systems mea-
sure kinematic viscosity, which is proportional to density and
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 765 494 0308; fax: +1 765 494 0539.
E-mail addresses: mbrouwe@purdue.edu (M.D. Brouwer), lgupta@purdue.edu
(L.A. Gupta), sadeghi@purdue.edu (F. Sadeghi), dperouli@purdue.edu (D. Peroulis),
deadams@purdue.edu (D. Adams).
ously changes due to changes in particle content and temperature.
Hence, dynamic viscosity is the true indicator of oil quality. There
are very few systems such as the rotating cylinder viscometer that
can measure dynamic viscosity [2]. These instruments are large
in size and can be used only in a laboratory environment. Etchart
et al. have presented a viscosity measurement system using electro-
magnetically actuated vibrating fixed–fixed beam for oil dynamic
viscosity measurement at room temperature [3]. However, in this
case the measurements were taken with a laser doppler vibrome-
ter and lock-in amplifier which cannot be implemented in a vehicle.
The method based on measuring viscosity using piezoelectric mate-
rials has been proposed by [4–7]. The shift in the resonant frequency
of a wave traveling on the surface or in the bulk of a piezoelec-
tric crystal is proportional to the density and the dynamic viscosity
of the fluid. Unfortunately, the value of the density is required to
be known in order to determine the dynamic viscosity based on
the shift in resonant frequency. Wilson et al. presented a glass
cantilever beam with a piezoelectric layer to measure viscous prop-
erties of water mixed with glycerol [8]. This research presents a
dynamic viscosity sensor for engine lubricants in mobile form factor
that functions up to 60 ◦ C.
Piezoelectric cantilever beams when excited with an alternating
current vibrate with displacement proportional to the excitation
amplitude. For constant excitation voltage, the beam vibrates with
maximum displacement at the resonant frequency. Resonant fre-
quency of the beam is function of its dimensions and excitation
voltage. One of the most essential parameters of the vibrating sys-
tems is the quality factor. The relation between quality factor and
dynamic viscosity comes from the definition of the quality factor.

0924-4247/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sna.2011.10.024
 M.D. Brouwer et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 173 (2012) 102–107
Fig. 1. The piezoelectric beam is poled for parallel operation. This illustration shows
the beam dimensions and the arrangement of the beam in the glass vial.
Quality factor of an oscillating system is defined as energy stored
divided by energy dissipated per cycle. When an oscillating body
is subjected to viscous damping such as fluid medium, the energy
stored is proportional to oscillating body’s dimensions and material
while, the energy dissipated is directly proportional to square-root
of damping. Thus quality factor scales inversely to square root of
dynamic viscosity of the fluid for an oscillating body with constant
dimensions and material. In the case of the vibrating cantilever, the
quality factor (Q) is given by Eq. (1)
 Fig. 3. Measured quality factor of piezoelectric beam in air as a function of applied
k∗m
Q =
c very susceptible to external vibrations from large sound-waves. An excitation volt-
where c is the viscous damping, k is the spring constant and m is the
mass of the beam [9]. Quality factor can be approximated using the
half power method, which uses the ratio of the resonant frequency
and the bandwidth of the resonant peak. By applying a constant
amplitude frequency sweep across a vibrating piezoelectric beam
and measuring the current through the system, the quality factor
can be obtained. It is assumed that any change in the quality factor
is proportional to the dynamic viscosity of the surrounding fluid.
The paper is organized as follows. The dynamic viscosity sensor
and the measurement system are described in detail in Section 2.
A calibration equation is derived using a general purpose viscosity
standard from the Cannon Instrument Company [10] in Section 3.1.
This equation is validated by testing it with theoretical dynamic vis-
cosity values of new, used, and jet fuel diluted commercial engine
oil samples in Section 3.2.
2. Design and implementation
A commercially available piezoelectric beam from Piezo Sys-
tems Inc. [11] was selected for this investigation. The beam is a
bi-layer composite structure consisting of lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) reinforced with a brass center shim. The two layers of PZT are
poled for parallel operation. When an alternating signal is applied,
this configuration allows one layer to contract axially as the oppo-
site layer extends creating oscillatory bending motion as shown in
Fig. 1. The PZT is attached to a printed circuit board (PCB) that is
used as a mounting surface to which the lead wires are attached.
The PCB with the beam was fastened to a stainless steel holder
using screws which acts as a fixed support for the cantilever beam.
This holder is placed inside a glass vial. The cap is fastened to the
glass vial securing the holder and the beam. The glass vial served
as the holding container for the various test oils. The lead wires
were attached to a function generator and to an OPAMP based cur-
rent to voltage converter circuit as shown in Fig. 2. The function
103
Fig. 2. The piezoelectric beam is represented by a variable capacitor. An IC TL072
operational amplifier was used as a current to voltage converter circuit.
120
Quality Factor (Q)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Excitation Voltage (Vp-p)
excitation voltage. The quality factor at 100 mVp-p was 102, but measurement was
(1)
age of 500 mVp-p was chosen for all the measurement at all temperatures. A constant
500 mVp-p excitation also ensured that in high viscous environment nominal sen-
sitivity was achieved by the sensor.
generator was used to provide a constant amplitude sinusoidal
excitation to the cantilever. The current flowing through the beam
is proportional to the displacement amplitude of the beam. This
current was amplified and converted to an equivalent voltage by
the current to voltage converter. The first mode resonant frequency
of the beam in air as specified by the manufacturer was 275 Hz. The
function generator swept through a range of frequencies centered
on the resonant frequency. The frequency and resulting voltage
from the OPAMP circuit were recorded using a LabVIEW data acqui-
sition system [12]. The quality factor (Q) of the resonant peak was
calculated using the half power method given by Eq. (2)
f0
Q = (2)
f
where f0 is the resonant frequency and f is the bandwidth of the
resonant peak.
2.1. Optimal excitation voltage
Vibrating systems generally exhibit non-linear behavior, that
is the natural frequency, damping ratio, and ratio of vibration
response amplitude to excitation amplitude change as a func-
tion of amplitude. The quality factor of a vibrating beam is a
function of the excitation amplitude and the corresponding dis-
placement amplitude as can be seen by the measurements done
in air in Fig. 3. For higher excitation voltages, Q of the beam was
lower thus reducing the dynamic measurement range. For low
excitation voltage, the measured signals were low thus being sus-
ceptible to external noise. The quality factor at 100 mVp-p was 102,
but the measurement was very susceptible to external vibrations
from large sound-waves. Considering these trade-offs, an optimal
104 M.D. Brouwer et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 173 (2012) 102–107

Quality Factor (Q) 50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30

Immersion Length (mm)

Fig. 4. Measured quality factor as a function of the immersion length of the beam.
Fig. 5. Effect of the surface tension on the immersion length of the beam.
N14 reference oil was used for the characterization. The fluid had a dynamic vis-
cosity of 22.6 cP at a room temperature of 22 ◦ C. N14 was used so at fully immersed
conditions the quality factor could be measured. At full immersion, the quality factor Table 1
was 5.1. List of oils and their properties at 40 ◦ C used for calibration and validation of the
sensor [10].

driving voltage of 500 mVp-p was chosen in order to maximize the Oil Dynamic viscosity (cP) Density (g/cm3 )
quality factor while allowing for a noise free signal. Any variation N2 1.503 0.7513
in excitation amplitude may introduce small non-linearity in the N4 3.147 0.7835
system but this non linearity can be almost eliminated by imple- N7.5 5.943 0.7877
menting a closed loop system. The deflection of the piezoelectric N14 11.26 0.7994
S20 15.2 0.8495
cantilever was ±315 ␮m for excitation voltage of ±90 V as speci-
N26 20.85 0.8083
fied by the piezoelectric cantilever manufacturer. For 500 mVp-p N35 27.31 0.8543
excitation voltage, the measured displacement was ±32.5 ␮m in N44 35.74 0.8157
air. This measurement was performed using high speed, high mag- S60 46.84 0.8601
nification camera. N75 61.63 0.8208
N100 84.76 0.8676
N140 116.3 0.8254
2.2. Length of immersion SAE30 74.74 0.8645
0W-20 37.27 0.8354
The quality factor of the vibrating beam scales with the level of New 5W-30 54.27 0.8506
Used 5W-30 46.7 0.8329
the fluid in the glass vial. As the length of the immersed portion of New 10W-40 89.5 0.8598
the beam increases, the fundamental resonant frequency and the Used 10W-40 54.67 0.8422
quality factor decreases due to the drag forces experienced by the
vibrating beam [13]. There is a length at which the fluid will cre-
ate excessive damping effects, and, consequently, the quality factor maintain a consistent temperature. This bath was placed on a hot
cannot be measured using the half power method. This length is the plate, and the temperature was maintained via a feedback ther-
determining factor of the range of measurable dynamic viscosity mocouple sensor to within ±1 ◦ C. The beam was placed in each
values. Fig. 4 shows the quality factor as a function of the length of vial, and the frequency of the signal was swept around the reso-
piezoelectric beam immersion. At lengths greater than 10 mm, the nant frequency with a sweep time of 60 s. The beam was allowed
measurement range was greatly decreased due to the excess damp- to equilibrate in each fluid for 5 min before data was recorded. After
ing. Below 5 mm, it would be very difficult to maintain a constant the 5 min, four readings were taken for each fluid at 2 min intervals
immersion length for all the oil samples which would induce large
variations in the measurement. For all the oil samples, the average
immersion length was fixed at 5 mm, but due to surface tension,
the average immersion length was measured at 6.7 mm [Fig. 5].
In this investigation, the length of 6.7 mm resulted in a maximum
measurable dynamic viscosity value of 180 cP.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Dynamic viscosity sensor calibration

Twelve general purpose viscosity standards from the Cannon

Instrument Company [10] were used to calibrate the relationship
between the quality factor and dynamic viscosity at various tem-
peratures as summarized in Table 1. Each glass vial was partially
filled with its respective fluid and placed in the water bath as shown
in Fig. 6. Beam was specified with a maximum operational tempera-
ture of 70 ◦ C. Therefore, measurements were taken at temperatures
of 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, and 60 ◦ C. The vials were placed in test
tube racks and submerged in a water bath as shown in Fig. 6 to Fig. 6. Test setup for high temperature measurements.
 M.D. Brouwer et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 173 (2012) 102–107 105

a 35
25°C
30 30°C
Quality Factor (Q)
40°C
25 50°C
60°C
20

15

10

0
1 10 100

Dynamic Viscosity (cP)

b 40

20
Discrepancy (%)

-20

-40
25°C
-60 30°C
40°C
-80 50°C
60°C
-100
1 10 100

Dynamic Viscosity (cP)

Fig. 7. (Panel a) This plot shows the relationship between the quality factor and
the dynamic viscosity of a fluid. The quality factor of the system was measured for
each of the 12 reference oils at 5 different temperatures. For 25 ◦ C, oil samples N100
and N140 had viscosity value 200.6 cP and 253 cP, respectively. These samples were
highly viscous for the dynamic viscosity sensor hence, quality factor could not be
measured. Similar effect was observed for N140 sample at 30 ◦ C. The viscosity of the
oil samples reduced at 40 ◦ C and beyond, hence the quality factor was measured for
all the samples shown in Table 1. The curve fit resulted in a power equation with
an R2 value of 0.985. (Panel b) This figure shows the discrepancy in the measured
data points from the curve fit. Majority of the data points had discrepancy within
±40% of the curve fit. The discrepancy was higher for lower viscosity oil samples
and at higher temperatures possibly due to fluid expansion, small changes in beam
properties due to high temperature and small variation in immersion length.
with the average value of the quality factor recorded. After each
measurement, the fluid temperature was verified using an exter-
nal thermocouple sensor. Fig. 7(a) shows the measurement results
for the quality factor as a function of dynamic viscosity at various
temperatures The data was curve fit to a power equation resulting
in the form of Eq. (3)
  −0.52
Q = 45.7 ∗ (3)
cP
where Q is dimensionless and  has units of cP. Fig. 7(b) shows the
discrepancy in the measured data points from the curve fit.
3.2. Dynamic viscosity sensor validation with various oil samples
Eq. (3) was validated by comparing measurements of commer-
cially available motor oils, using the Walther equation with known
kinematic viscosities at both 40◦ and 100 ◦ C [14]. The Walther Eq.
(4) is
log(log( + 0.7)) = A − B ∗ log(T ) (4)
where  is the kinematic viscosity in cSt, T is temperature in Kelvin,
and A and B are constants which are determined with the known
Fig. 8. (Panel a) This plot shows the dynamic viscosity measurements using Eq. (3)
in comparison to theoretical values using the Walther equation. The sensor was able
of measuring dynamic viscosities up to 180 cP. The error bars at 60 ◦ C for the SAE 30
oil sample are not visible due to its small value in comparison to the vertical axis.
The error bars at 25 ◦ C are much larger than at 60 ◦ C due to the nature of the power
equation used to relate Q to dynamic viscosity. (Panel b) The measured dynamic
viscosity values varied from 0.13% to 5% in comparison to the theoretical values
from the Walther equation.
values of kinematic viscosity at 40 ◦ C and 100 ◦ C. The results from
the Walther equation were converted to dynamic viscosity using
the known density of the fluids. Various synthetic, single-grade,
and multi-grade engine, and synthetic engine oils were used to
verify the wide range of applicability of the sensor. Quality fac-
tor was measured for each of the new commercially available oil
samples as shown in Table 1 at temperatures of 25 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C,
50 ◦ C, and 60 ◦ C. The quality factor was used to obtain the dynamic
viscosity of lubricants using Eq. (3). Fig. 8(a) illustrates the temper-
ature dependence of dynamic viscosity measured using the sensor.
The measured dynamic viscosity values varied from 0.13% to 5%
[Fig. 8(b)] in comparison to the theoretical values obtained from
the Walther equation. These results are better than the results pre-
sented in [3] which had an average discrepancy of 14%.
To analyze the repeatability of the sensor, an uncertainty and
sensitivity analysis was performed at 25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C. From the
initial measurement shown in Fig. 8(a), the SAE 30 oil sample had
maximum discrepancy. Hence, this oil sample was selected for the
uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. Fifteen measurements were
taken at the two different temperatures, 25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C. The beam
was removed, cleaned, and reinserted into the vial after every
measurement. The mean and standard deviation of these values
were calculated. The mean values were 158.2 cP and 30.8 cP and
the standard deviations were 5.6 cP and 0.73 cP at 25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C,
respectively. The error bars shown in Fig. 8(a) were based on a 95%
confidence interval from their respective mean values, and the
106 M.D. Brouwer et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 173 (2012) 102–107

a 120
85
Piezo sensor

Dynamic Viscosity (cP)

New Sample Experimental
Dynamic Viscosity (cP)

75 Blackstone Laboratory
New Sample Theoretical
100
Used Sample Experimental
65
Used Sample Theoretical
80
55
60
45

40 35

20 25

15
0
0 5 10 15 20
20 30 40 50 60 70
Percent Dilution (%)
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 10. Plotted is the measured dynamic viscosity using Eq. (3) as compared to
b 200
values supplied from Blackstone Laboratories. SAE 30 oil was diluted with JP-8 + 100
fuel with different percentages and measured at 40 ◦ C. Various diluted oil samples
New Sample Experimental
Dynamic Viscosity (cP)

were sent to Blackstone Laboratories [15] for analysis with a standard viscometer.
New Sample Theoretical
160 Used Sample Experimental
Used Sample Theoretical comparison, the results varied from 0.9% to 6.3% of the Blackstone
120 Laboratories oil analysis report. The results for all of the different
dilution samples are presented in Fig. 10. At 20% dilution, there is a
80 significant decrease in dynamic viscosity that was detected by the
sensor. At these levels of dilution, extreme oxidation and corrosion
may occur. In a more realistic situation, the sensor was also able
40
to discern the difference between the fresh and the 1% diluted oil.
This is promising that the sensor can detect even small changes in
0 dynamic viscosity that may affect an engine’s performance.
20 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature (°C) 4. Conclusion

Fig. 9. Panel a and b show measurements for new and used 5W-30 and 10W-40
oils, respectively. The sensor was able to distinguish between new and used oils.
original set of measurements taken were included within this
range. Similar error bars apply to all the other data points in Fig. 8(a).
In order to test the sensor’s ability to detect degradation in oils,
used 5W-30 and 10W-40 oil samples were secured to measure and
compare their viscosity estimates to the viscosity of their respective
fresh oils. The results can be seen in Fig. 9(a) and (b). The used oils
were analyzed at Blackstone Laboratories [15], which provided the
viscosity values at 40 ◦ C and 100 ◦ C. The viscosity dependence on
temperature using the Walther equation was then compared to
the measured values. The measured dynamic viscosity values for
the used 5W-30 oil sample were within 0.3–3% of the theoretical
values from Walther equation. There was a significant decrease in
dynamic viscosity of the 10W-40 used sample in comparison to the
new oil. This decrease was caused by fuel dilution present at 2.5%
as indicated by the Blackstone Laboratories oil analysis report [15].
The variation in the measurements for the used 10W-40 oil sample
was from 5.1% to 9.8%. All measurement data points for used 10W-
40 oil sample were above the theoretical curve calculated using the
Walther equation. This was possibly due to a small increase in the
immersion length of the beam.
The dynamic viscosity changes significantly due to engine oil
dilution caused by fuel. The dilution is usually a result of leaky fuel
pumps, faulty fuel injectors or as the result of poor combustion.
Effects such as heavy deposits on the piston under crown due to oil
dilution have been reported by [16]. Hence, to investigate the abil-
ity to monitor contamination by dilution, new samples of SAE 30
engine oil were diluted with JP-8 + 100 fuel at quantities of 0%, 1%,
2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by volume. Measurements were taken
at 40 ◦ C. Samples with 0%, 2.5%, 10%, and 20% dilution were ana-
lyzed externally by Blackstone Laboratories [15] and compared to
the results measured with the sensor. From the four samples in this
This investigation presents a new dynamic viscosity sensor for
high temperature applications. A piezoelectric beam was used to
measure dynamic viscosity of pristine and contaminated oils at
various temperatures. The maximum measurement range for this
specific sensor system was 180 cP. The sensor successfully operated
from 25 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C and was able to reproduce the temperature and
dynamic viscosity trend similar to the Walther equation for com-
mercially available engine oils. The set up was used to distinguish
between new and used engine oils by measuring the dynamic vis-
cosity at various temperatures. The sensor was able to detect the
change in dynamic viscosity caused by dilution of the oil with fuel in
quantities as small as 1% by volume. The quality factor and viscosity
were related by the power equation given as Q = 45.7 * (/cP)−0.52 .
The calibration equation for dynamic viscosity along with the sen-
sor can be used to develop algorithms that can estimate useful
lifetime of engine oil. The operating temperature range was limited
by the piezoelectric beam’s specification of a maximum opera-
tional temperature of 70 ◦ C. This range can be extended by using
high temperature piezoelectric beams to 150 ◦ C suitable for engine
applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Charles F. Day & Associates for
their financial support of this research.
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