PROJECT REPORT

ON
VICTIMOLOGY AND
EMERGING TRENDS

Submitted to : Submitted by:

Ms. Anju Berwal Anurag Singh Sindhal

15/09

10th semester

2009-14
CONCEPT OF VICTIMOLOGY IN INDIA

Victimology is science of study of the relationship between victims and

violators of law or offenders.

The victim is the forgotten man of our criminal justice system. He sets the
criminal law in to motion but then goes into oblivion. The present code of
criminal procedure does not recognize the right of victim to take part in the
prosecution of the case instituted on the basis of police report. The victim is
merely a witness in a State versus case. He has no rights to prefer appeal
against the order of acquittal of the accused by trial court in a criminal
case started by State. The State reserves the discretion not to prefer and
also to withdraw from the prosecution even in heinous offences. The victim
of crime becomes the victim of our criminal justice system when the political
motivated investigation agency or prosecuting agency shows lack of interest
or apathy in the matter of investigation or prosecution on extraneous
consideration.

Innovative approach of apex court.

The Supreme Court has forged new tools, devised new methods and adopted
new strategies for the purpose of making fundamental rights meaningful
even to the victims of crime of crime in AIR 1995 SC 14, the Supreme
Court directed the State of Uttar Pradesh to suspend and start disciplinary
action against two police officers and one medical officer for making
perfunctory investigation of rape case to pay the amount of Rs.2,50,000/- as
compensation.

There is plethora of decisions, where Supreme Court awarded compensation

to the victims, whose plight was brought to the notice of the apex court
either by themselves or by way of public interest litigation. Millions of
victims of crime, who cannot approach the apex court out of ignorance of
lack of resources are still crying for justice with the aim of protecting the
human rights of victim in our criminal justice system and to fulfill the
constitutional obligation. The Supreme court should ask the Government to
confer jurisdiction on the criminal courts by making statutory provision for
the compensation of the victims of crime, irrespective of whether the accused
is convicted or not and to make statutory provision for participation of the
victim in prosecution, along with prosecuting agency in a criminal case
instituted on report of police.

Compensation & the need for sensitization of judiciary

Legislation conferred jurisdiction on the criminal courts under section 357(3)

of the code of criminal procedure for awarding unlimited amount of
compensation to the victims at the time of passing judgment of conviction.
This provision is not ancillary to other provisions of criminal procedure code,
but in addition thereto. By the landmark judgment in Hari Kisan’s case AIR
1988 SC 2127 Supreme Court not only awarded compensation of Rs.50,000/- to
the victim, but also directed the subordinate criminal courts to exercise the
power of awarding compensation to the victims of offences in such a liberal
way that the victims may not have to rush to the civil courts for
compensation to the victims. Unfortunately, the subordinate judiciary is
rarely invoking this provision to award compensation to the victims, where
the accused persons are acquitted of the charge on benefit of doubt or on
any technicalities of laws.

The General Assembly of the United Nation’s has recommended payment of

compensation to the victims of crime by the State, when compensation is not
fully available from the offender or other sources. Unfortunately, the victims
of communal riots, dacoity, arson and rape are not getting compensation in
our present justice system. Since the State is under duty to protect the life,
liberty and security of its citizens, it is bound to pay compensation to the
victims of crime irrespective of whether the accused is convicted or acquitted
of the criminal charge. As the government is indifferent to the crying need of
the victims, the apex court directed the Government to set up a criminal
injuries compensation Board, under the supervision of criminal courts for
awarding compensation to victims of all crimes including rape or dacoity, in
addition to the directions given to National Commission for women to evolve
a proposal for rehabilitation and compensatory justice to rape victims.

Payment of compensation to the victims of crime for any injury caused to

him has not been institutionalized under the Indian Penal Laws. Nor any
legal right to be compensated has been created in favour of the victim. In
case of irreversible injury monetary compensation is the sole effective
remedy. In India there is neither a comprehensive legislation nor a statutory
scheme providing for compensation by State to offender to victims of crime.

The legislative vacuum of a legal right to monetary compensation for

violation of human rights has been supplemented by the higher judiciary by
developing a parallel constitutional remedy. In AIR 1983 SC 1086 the
Supreme Court for the first time in Rudal Sah Vs. State of Bihar made it
categorically clear that the higher judiciary has the power to award
compensation for violation of fundamental rights through the exercise of writ
jurisdiction and evolved the principle of compensatory justice in the annals
of human rights jurisprudence. In Oraon Vs. State of Bihar the Supreme
Court direct State of Bihar to pay the sum of Rs.15,000/- as compensation
to Bhama Oraon who was illegally detained for 6 years and kept in mental
hospital when he was not in same. In Sebastain Vs. Union of India AIR
1984 SC 1826, on account of failure of Government to produce in habeas
corpus petition filed by wives, apex court awarded cost of Rs. 1 lac to be
given to wife of each of detenne.

Compensation to Rape victims : Right of the rape victim to receive

compensation flows from Art.21 of the constitution. Every court has
jurisdiction to grant compensation not only at the final stage of trial but
also to award interim compensation at any interlocutory stage of trial in
view of reported judgment in AIR 1996 SC 922. In 1995(1) SCC 14 - Supreme
Court in case of Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum Vs. Union of
India, indicated a scheme to award compensation to rape victim both at the
time of trial i.e., interim compensation to rape victim and at the end of
the trial. The Supreme Court suggested the establishment of criminal
injuries compensation Board under Art. 38(1) of the Constitution of India.
The rape victim shall be paid compensation by this Criminal injuries
compensation board or the court and while awarding compensation the
following particulars are to be taken into account to calculate the
compensation amount i.e., pain, suffering and shocks experienced by the
victims and also loss of earnings due to pregnancy and the expenses of child
birth if this occurs as a result of the rape.. Unfortunately till now this
criminal injuries compensation Board has not been established by the
Central Government.
In D.K. Basu Vs. State of west Bengal ( 1997) I SCC P-4, the landmark
judgment Supreme Court has laid down number of guidelines to prevent
custodial violence including rape, and has recognized that custodial rape
could be compensated as the same violated Rights to life and personal
liberty guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution. In bodhi Sattra
Goutham Vs. Subhra Chakraborthy the Hon’ble Apex Court has held that
the court of session have every authority to award interim compensation if
prime facie case against the accused has been established that a person
had sexual relationship with the prosecutrix on false assurance of marriage.
Supreme Court has directed the guilty person to pay Rs.1000/- pm as
interim compensation to the prosecutrix during pendency of case. This
judgment is a precedent for granting interim compensation to the rape
victims. In case of State of Maharashtra Vs. Madhukar N. Mardikar (1991 )
I SCC 57 Supreme court held that even a prostitute has a right to privacy
and no person can rape her just because she is a woman of easy virtue.

The duty of Court while trying rape cases : The police, court and lawyers
should come forward to provide all sorts of assistance to victims of rape.
Courts must deal with such cases with utmost sensitivity. The court should
examine the broader probabilities of case and not get swayed by minor
contradictions or insignificant discrepancies in witness statements. The court
should also provide adequate financial assistance to the victim of rape. It
could also award interim compensation as in Rathinam / State of Gujarat
the court awarded interim compensation to tribal woman who was illegally
raped in police custody in the presence of her husband. Sum of Rs.50,000/-
was provided by the State of Gujarat. Apart from providing financial
assistance the victim should be provided medical, social, psychological
assistance which would help her to come out of her trauma.

U/s. 18(3) of the protection of Human Rights Act 1993 National Human
Rights Commission has powers to advance the cause of compensatory justice
to the victims of Torture.

There is ample scope of law reform to protect the victims of sexual offences
in general and the victims of rape in particular. Evidence Act be amended
suitably. Evidence of victim be taken in close room. Defense counsel be
prohibited from putting question on past character of victim. Judges and
prosecutors may be sanitized to the need of evaluation of evidence of victims
of rape.
Though there is a need of legislation in the field, it is equally essential to
implement the existing provisions. The people should be aware of these laws
for their effective implementation. All concern responsible citizen should take
effective steps to implement the provisions under law.

We have to activate our Indian society of victimology. The non-governmental

organization on 14th August, 1992 has formed a society called as Indian
society of victimology in Madras many social scientists, professionals,
research scholars, students & criminal justice functionaries interested in
cause of victims of crime India, a convened by Prof. Chockalingam & decided
to start working under the society named as “ Indian Society of victimology”.
He was 1st unanimously elected president . On 18/09/94 former Judge of
Supreme Court of India V.R. Krishna Iyer has inaugurated the same.

There were 5 symposia organized by Indian society of victimology. First

Biennial conference was orgainsed at Madras from 12th & 14th August, 1994.
Govt. of Tamilnadu has set up a victim assistance fund in April, 1995.
Tamilnadu is 1st state in India to set up such a fund to assist victims of
violent crimes in pursuance of the recommendation of Indian society of
victimology.

There is a need to see for the criminal Justice reforms and victims’ rights
organizations to become more active. Govt. of Maharashtra women and child
development Dept., various Boards and women commission should become
active in formation of the group to help such victims of crime.

On 14th August 1992, many social Scientists, Professors, Research Scholars,

Students & Criminal Justice functionaries interested in cause of victims of
crime met at Dept. of victimology at University of Madras in India and
decided to start an organization in the name of Indian Society of victimology
. He was elected unopposed as President.

Victimology

Until recently, victims were not studied. They tended to be seen as passive
recipients of the criminal’s greed or anger, “in the wrong place at the wrong time.”
The study of victims, known as victimology, has resulted in theoretical and research
studies, and an awareness of the victim has grown in the public consciousness.
There is now recognition that victims have traditionally not been treated
particularly well by the criminal justice system. Victims suffer not only during the
crime, but that there are also sometimes physical and psychological complications.

Perhaps the first theory to explain victimization was developed by Wolfgang in his
study of murders in Philadelphia. Victim precipitation theory argues that there are
victims who actually initiated the confrontation that led to their injuries and
deaths. Although this was the result of the study of only one type of crime, the idea
was first raised that victims also might play a role in the criminal activity.

Subsequently, some general facts have been gathered about victimization.

• Victimization is more likely at night (6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.). Personal

larceny is more common during the day, with more serious crime occurring at night.

• Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple assaults
tend to occur in homes.

• Crime is most frequent in central city areas.

• Western urban areas have the highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural
areas have the lowest.

• The National Crime Survey indicates that 25% of U.S. households have at
least one individual who was victimized in some way during the past year.

• Personal theft is very common. About 99% of Americans will be the victim of
personal theft at some time in their lives, and 87% will be a theft victim three or
more times.

• Men are twice as likely as women to be victims of robbery and assault. The
violent victimization rate for females has been fairly stable, but there has been a
20% increase for males in the last 15 years.

• Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular belief,
grandparents are safer than their grandchildren.

• Unmarried/never married people are more likely to be victims than the

married or widowed.
• The poor are more likely to be victims of crime. They are far more likely to be
victims of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be victims of
property crime.

• African Americans are victimized at the highest rates. Crime tends to be

intra-racial (criminals and victims of the same race) rather than interracial
(criminal and victim of different races). About 75% of crime is intra-racial.

• Strangers commit about 60% of violent crimes. However, females are more
likely to know their assailants.

• In some studies, over half of offenders report being under the influence of
alcohol and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting in
incarceration.

• The characteristics of those most likely to be victimized might be summarized

as: young, black, urban, poor and male.

Theories of Victimization

A number of theories have been advanced to explain some of the findings indicated
above. Life-style theory, for example, argues that certain life-styles increases one's
exposure to criminal offenses and increases risk of victimization, while other life-
styles might reduce risk. For example, increased risk would be likely if a person is
single, associating with other young men (who are at greater risk for criminal
activity), living in urban areas, and going to public places late at night. Reduced
risk would be associated with staying home at night, living in a rural area, being
married and staying at home, and earning more money. According to this
explanation, the probability of crime depends partially on the activities of the
victim. Crime is more likely when victims place themselves in jeopardy.

This explanation would account for some of the findings with respect to
victimization. For example, although the elderly are more fearful of crime (perhaps
because they are more vulnerable), they go out less and take more precautions
when they do. Women also tend to take more precautions, and are more likely to be
accompanied be accompanied by a male or a group, rather than alone. Living in an
urban area should increase risk, because crime is more common in urban areas and
the likelihood of detection is lower.
The Proximity hypothesis suggests that crime is less a function of life-style, but
rather is based on close proximity. Victims and criminals live in the same high
crime areas, characterized by poor, densely populated, highly transient
neighborhoods. The probability of being victimized is more a function of where one
lives than one's lifestyle. Proponents of this argument point out that typically
criminals do not go far from home to commit their crimes, and thus other people in
their own neighborhoods will be more at risk.

A related concept is the equivalent group hypothesis, which points out that
criminals and victims overall share similar characteristics because they are not
entirely separate groups. People who commit crimes are probably at higher risk for
victimization, both because of proximity to other criminals and because of their own
lifestyles, which involve going out at night and associating with other young males
who are involved in crime. In such associations, they place themselves at risk for
becoming the victim of crimes themselves. Some support for this concept comes
from research that indicates that crime victims as a group self-report a high amount
of criminal activity. This hypothesis does not indicate that all victims are criminals,
but that criminals as a group are at higher risk for becoming victims at some point
because of the high-risk nature of their activities and associations.

Routine activities theory argues that victimization is dependent on the routine

activities of people's daily lives. The volume and distribution of predatory crimes
depends on (1) the availability of suitable targets; (2) the absence of capable
guardians; and (3) the presence of motivated offenders. In other words, as people
move about, there must be opportunities (suitable targets), and it must appear that
no one will be present, or that no one will intervene if they do observe the crime.
"Capable guardians" refers to citizens who are watchful and who would take
effective action if the saw criminal activity. Of course, even if there were
opportunities and no one to observe activity, crime would not occur if they were not
motivated to commit a crime.

Routine activities theory accounts for the increase in crime since the 1960s as a
function of changes in activities. For example, the traditional neighborhood in the
city has declined as many people have left for the suburbs, leaving fewer capable
guardians. There are less people at home. Partly this is because more women have
entered the workforce rather than staying home, but perhaps more importantly
more people have automobiles and more places available for them to go, and simply
stay home less. The volume of wealth that can be easily transported has increased.
Such changes have meant that there are more opportunities for crime as a function
of people's daily routines. Most of Western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the
United States have all experienced increases in crime in the latter part of the 20th
century, and many of these changes have occurred in these countries.

Victim Services

The development of new programs and legislation has resulted from the
study of victims. Such programs have included:

• Victim compensation programs, in which the state pays some of the financial
costs of the victim, particularly with respect to violent crime

• Court services, which provide information and assistance to victims

• Crisis intervention and counseling programs for victims, particularly in the

case of rape

• Self-protection programs that teach people how to avoid victimization (target

hardening) and how to mobilize as a community to prevent victimization (such as
neighborhood watch)

There has also been an ongoing debate about victim's rights, and what those rights
ought to be. Should relatives of victims be allowed to speak and discuss the impact
of the crime at parole hearings or at death penalty hearings? (many states now
provide for this measure). Should citizens be warned when an ex-felon moves into
their neighborhood? Some people believe that they should have the right to know
and protect themselves. Others believe that the felon has completed his
punishment and should be allowed the opportunity to rehabilitate himself without
potential harassment from others.

This issue has been particularly debated with respect to "Meghan's Law," a law
proposed by the parents of a child murdered by a child molester. The perpetrator
had a prior history of molestation, and lived in Meghan's neighborhood. The
parents maintained that had they known of his past, they would have taken more
precautions. The proposed law, which has been passed in some states, allows
neighborhood residents to be informed when a sex offender moves into their
neighborhood. There has been controversy because some former offenders have
been driven from neighborhoods, and have difficulty finding a place to live--and who
have served their sentences. These issues are far from resolution.
CONCEPT OF VICTIMOLOGY

Victimology is the scientific study of victims of crime, a sub discipline of

criminology. It seeks to study the relationship between victim and offenders, the
persons especially vulnerable to crimes and the victims. Placement in the criminal
justice system. (CJS). Benjamin Mendelsohn has done pioneering work in this field.
B. Mendelsohn is credited with being the first study to the relationship between
victim and doer (offender) and taken together, he termed to else PENAL COUPLE.

Mendelsohn studied victims on the basis of their contributions to crimes and

classified them into the following categories.

Completely innocent victims, e.g. Child, Persons in sleep

1. Victims with minor guilt and victims of ignorance such as pregnant women
who go to quacks for procuring abortions
2. Voluntary victims, such as the ones who commit suicide or are killed by
euthanasia.
3. victims who are more guilty then offenders such as persons who provoke
others to commit crimes.

the criminal type of victims who commits offences against others and

get killed or hurt by others in self-defense.

DEFINITION OF VICTIM

The connotations of term ‘victim’ vary in different legal, social, psychological or

criminological contexts. The penal codes of the erstwhile USSR describe the victim
as follows.

Those who have as a direct result of a crime suffered moral physical or material
damage;

1. Those who have suffered physical, moral, or material damage throw and
attempted offence;
 2. Those whose material damage caused by the crime was made good after the
crime, either by the criminal himself or with the help of Militia or of an
individual action;
3. Close relation of person who died as a result of a crime.

CHARACTERSTICS OF VICTIMS

Von Henting made the first ever study of the role of victim in crime and found some
general characteristics among them which may be summarized as follows;

The poor and ignorant immigrants and those who are requisitive or greedy are the
victims of offences involving frauds.

1. Quite often the victims of larcency (theft) are intoxicated or sleeping persons.

The depressed or apathetic person is a victim because he is “deprived of warning

posts” and is indifferent harm or injury “in prospect”.

3. Wanton or Sensual persons may become victims due to situations

precipitated by themselves.
4. A lonesome and heartbroken person may become especially vulnerable
because of the loss of critical faculties in him.

Among “general classes of victims”, Von Hentig includes the young, females, the old,
the mentally defective and deranged, the intoxicated immigrants, members of
minority groups and the “dull normal”.

VICTIM AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

One important and basic factor in the administration of criminal justice is the
victim’s decision as to whether he should invoke the judicial process. There are a
number of motives and factors responsible for the wide gap between the actual
volume of the crime and the reports made to the police about it.

Only in the 1940’s did scholarly interest in the criminal-victim relationship

develop, although the founders of criminology had been aware of how crucial it was.
Hans Von Hentig, Benjamin Mendelsohn, and Henry Ellenberger, the last in his
study of the psychological relationship between the criminal and his victims.
It is a parody on the vagaries of the criminal justice systems of the Developing
World that inspite of Thirty years of Independence there has been no conceptual
study or empirical research regarding the victims of criminal offences.

A movement for the recognition of the modern victim of crime as deserving

more effective remedy than the traditional practice of bringing civil suits was begun
by the English penal reformer Margery Fry in 1955. Her call for reform was heeded
in New Zealand in 1963, when that country’s parliament established the first crime
compensation tribunal. This board has discretionary power to award public
compensation to the victim or his dependants in the case of certain specified
offences. The next year, Great Britain’s Tory government announced a similar but
non statuary program. In the United States the first jurisdiction to adopt the
compensation principle was California; which enacted its programs in 1965 and put
it into operation two years later. Since that time, similar or related programs have
been established in some thirty states in the United States and in all the Canadian,
provinces. Financial restitution by the offender to the victim represents another
development in the legal handling of the victim, in the United States, at least forty
normal restitution programs are in operation.

THE VICTIM AS VICTIM OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

Students and professionals in the criminal justice system have become increasingly
aware that the victim of a criminal often becomes the victim of criminal justice
system as well as once the victim reports his victimization to the police-the gateway
to the criminal justice system-he routinely faces postponements, delays,
rescheduling, and other frustrations. All their means loss of earnings, waste of time,
payment of transportation and other expenses, discouragement, and the painful
realization that the system does not live up to its ideals and does not serve its
constituency, but instead serves only itself. Many believe that the victim is the most
disregarded participant in criminal justice proceedings. In practice, after the victim
has reported his victimization and provided information to the police, he may not
hear from the police or the prosecutor for a long time, if ever, cases are disposed of
without any consultation with the victim if and when the victim is called for the
trial, he is treated simply as the witness for the state and is subject to long delays,
postponements, and other frustrating experiences.

Newly focused attention has brought professional recognition to the victim’s plight
at the hands of the criminal justice system: As a result, innovative proposals have
been implemented to create victim assistance programmes, to provide the victim
with legal and social referral services, to honor his right to be consulted and to offer
his opinions when the prosecutor plea bargains with the accused, and to totally
revamp the compensation-restitution idea. Some police departments report to
victims the progress being made in investigating and solving their cases, and
communities may provide such services as rape crisis centers and spouse abuse
shelters to assist crime victims by intervening in the crisis and referring the victims
to community and others resources in the case of rape, the women’s movement has
spurred victimologists-mostly males-to give more equitable and balanced attention
to the issues surrounding what some have called “the most despicable but least
punished crime.”

Attention to the victim calls for an examination of the appropriate remedies for
victimization. Too often the remedies offered to poor victims reflect middle-class
values. The victim’s point of view should be sought when systems are developed for
compensating crime victims, and the concept of relative loss should be introduced in
debate and deliberations for compensation.

GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS OF VICTIMS

The grievances of the victims can be summarized as follows-

1. Inadequacy of the law in allowing the victim to participate in the prosecution

in a criminal case instituted on a police report
2. Failure on the part of the police and prosecution to keep the victims informed
about progress of the case
3. Inconvenience during interrogation by the police and lengthy court
proceeding.
4. Lack of prompt medical assistance to the victims of body offences and victims
of accident.
5. Lack of legal assistance to the victim.
6. Lack of protection when the victims are threatened by the offender.
7. Failure in restitution of victim.

Along with these grievances, the victims of crimes faced multifarious problems:

I Economic strain of the family

II Change in Social role of dependents.

III Frustration and helplessness leading to suicide.

 IV Social stigma.

V Emergence of criminal behavior.

An important aspect of investigating a violent crime is an understanding of the

victim and the relation that their lifestyle or personality characteristics may have
contributed to the offender choosing them as a victim. Please do not misunderstand
the previous statement. In no way are victims being blamed for becoming a victim
of a violent crime. Even high risk victims (to be described shortly) have the right to
live how they wish without becoming a victim of the type of offenses described on
this site. Yet the fact remains, that to understand the offender, one must first
understand the victim.

Victims are classified during an investigation in three general categories that

describe the level of risk their lifestyle represents in relation to the violent crime
that has been committed. The importance of understanding this in an investigation
is directly related back to the level of risk to the offender during the commission of
the crime. This information is important to the investigation to better understand
the sophistication or possible pathology of the offender.

High Risk Victims - Victims in this group have a lifestyle that makes them a higher
risk for being a victim of a violent crime. The most obvious high risk victim is the
prostitute. Prostitutes place themselves at risk every single time they go to work.
Prostitutes are high risk because they will get into a stranger's car, go to secluded
areas with strangers, and for the most part attempt to conceal their actions for legal
reasons. Offenders often rely on all these factors and specifically target prostitutes
because it lowers their chances of becoming a suspect in the crime. Therefore, in
this example, the prostitute is a high risk victim creating a lower risk to the
offender.

Moderate Risk Victims - Victims that fall into this category are lower risk victims,
but for some reason were in a situation that placed them in a greater level of risk.
A person that is stranded on a dark, secluded highway due to a flat tire that accepts
a ride from a stranger and is then victimized would be a good example of this type of
victim level risk.

Low Risk Victims - The lifestyle of these individuals would normally not place them
in any degree of risk for becoming a victim of a violent crime. These individuals
stay out of trouble, do not have peers that are criminal, are aware of their
surroundings and attempt to take precautions to not become a victim. They lock
the doors, do not use drugs, and do not go into areas that are dark and secluded.

CONCLUSION

The victim is essentially an inseparable part of crime. Therefore the phenomenon of

crime cannot be comprehensively explained without incorporating the victim of a
crime. Crime victim, despite being an integral part of crime and a key factor in
criminal justice system, remained a forgotten entity as his status got reduced only
to report crime and appear in the court as witness and he routinely faces
postponements, delays, rescheduling, and other frustrations. All their means loss of
earnings, waste of time, payment of transportation and other expenses,
discouragement, and the painful realization that the system does not live up to its
ideals and does not serve its constituency, but instead serves only itself. Many
believe that the victim is the most disregarded participant in criminal justice
proceedings.

It is, therefore, the Indian Higher Courts have started to award the compensation
through their writ jurisdiction in appropriate cases.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aucoin, K. & Beauchamp, D. (2007). Impacts and consequences of

victimization, GSS 2004, Canadian
2. Bajpai, G.S. (2006). Psycho-social consequences of victimization in rape.
International Perspectives in Victimology , Vol. 2, No. 1. pp. 67-81.
3. Bajpai, G.S. (1997). Victim in the Criminal Justice Process , Uppal
Publishing House. New Delhi: India
4. Cohen, L. E. & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: a
routine activity approach.
5. Government of India. (2002). Report of the National Commission to Review
the Working of the Constitution, Vol.1, Chapter 7.15. pp.143-144.
6. 6. Government of India. (2003). Report on the Committee on Reforms of
Criminal Justice System, Vol.1.