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Complete Selection of Flowmeters

Flow meters
Gas mass flow meter
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Flowmeter Applications
How Volumetric Flowmeters Work
Installing Your Paddle-Wheel Flow Sensor
Selecting the Right Flowmeter—Part 1
Selecting the Right Flowmeter—Part 2

1
Ultr asonic F lo w Measur em ent

Technolog y

Transit-time Ultrasonic Flow Meter

A typical transit-time flow measurement system utilizes two ultrasonic

transducers that function as both ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. The flow
meter operates by alternately transmitting and receiving a burst of sound
energy between the two transducers and measuring the transit time that it
takes for sound to travel between the two transducers. The difference in the
transit time measured is directly and exactly related to the velocity of the
liquid in the pipe.

To be more precise, let's assume that Tdown is the transit-time (or time-of-
flight) of a sound pulse traveling from the upstream transducer A to the
downstream transducer B, and Tup is the transit-time from the opposite
direction, B to A. The following equations hold:

Tdown = ( D / sinθ ) / ( c + V*cosθ ), (1)

Tup = ( D / sinθ ) / ( c - V*cosθ ), (2)

where c is the sound speed in the liquid, D is the pipe diameter and V is the
flow velocity averaged over the sound path. Solving the above equations
leads to

V = ( D / sin2θ ) * ∆T / (Tup * Tdown), (3)

where ∆T = Tup - Tdown. Therefore, by accurately measuring the upstream

and downstream transit-time Tup amd Tdown, we are able to obtain the flow
velocity V. Subsequently, the flow rate is calculated as following,

2
 Q = K *A* V, (4)

where A is the inner cross-section area of the pipe and K is the instrument
coefficient. Usually, K is determined through calibration.

From equations (3) and (4), we see that the measurement results, V and
Q, are independent of fluid properties, pressure, temperature, pipe
materials, etc. The sound speed term does not appear in the final
equations. These characteristics, plus large turn-down ratio, no
pressure drop, no moving parts, no
disturbance to the flow and many
other features, make ultrasonic transit-
time flowmeter extremely attractive.

The transducers come with two types,

one is clamp-on type, the other is wetted
type. The wetted type can be further
categorized into insertion type and flow
cell (or spool piece) type. A brief
comparison among those types can be found here.

The transducers can be mounted in three ways: Z-method, V-method and W-

method. With Z-method, the two transducers are mounted on opposite sides
of the pipe (see the figure on the top) and the sound pulse crosses the pipe
flow once. This method is usually used for large pipe size, say above 12".

With V-method, the two transducers are mounted on the same side of the
pipe and the sound pulse crosses the pipe flow twice. This is the most
commonly used installation method, which could apply to pipe size from 1" up
to 12".

With W-method (refer to the following drawing), the two transducers are still
mounted on the same side of the pipe. However, the spacing between the
two transducers is doubled comparing with V-method. The sound pulse is
bounced twice from the other side of the pipe, thus it intercepts the flow four
times. This method is used for small pipe, usually less than 1 1/2", for better
accuracy.

3
　

It should be mentioned that the actual implementation of the above principle

is much more complex than what it looks like. The challenges include:

• how to accurately measure the transit-time,

• how to reduce the discrepancy between the upstream and the downstream signal
paths,
• how to provide stable results when the signal quality is degraded due to old pipe
material, low sound conductivity fluid, the presence of minor particles or air bubbles,
and etc.
• how to treat the short-circuit wave (or pipe-wall born wave),
• how to reduce installation-induced errors, how to make the installation easy and
reliable,
• for high temperature application, how to design a high temperature transducer
• how to provide a user-friendly operation interface, how to provide more
functionalities,
• and, of course, how to reduce the cost.

Different manufacturers have different answers to the above questions. As a result, there are
many brands of ultrasonic flowmeters, some of them may work well in a wide range of
applications, some may not. Some may be expensive, and some may be less expensive.
Some may be easy to use, some may be difficult. A low-cost, high accuracy, reliable and
easy to use ultrasonic flowmeter is always the pursuing goal of all ultrasonic
flowmeter manufacturers. Shenitech believes itself to be the top performer along this line.
We offer guaranteed high quality, guaranteed lowest price for all our ultrasonic flow meters.
　 　

Ultrasonic Flowmeter Basics

Doppler and transit-time flowmeters are gaining ground in liquid, and in some instances
gas, flow measurement applications. Understanding how they work will help guarantee
optimum performance.

Users and designers of flow metering systems can profit by keeping abreast of new
developments. The ultrasonic flowmeter, a recent arrival on the scene, has profited from
technological advances, especially those in electronic circuitry. For example, fast Fourier

4
transform (FFT) signal processing is being used in one transit-time flowmeter design.
And a supplier of Doppler flowmeters credits proprietary software and superior
electronics design with opening up new application areas for this well-known technique.

Both types of ultrasonic flowmeters feature clamp-on designs with transducer assemblies
that detect flow rate from the outside. Installation entails neither breaks in the line nor
interruption of flow. One recommendation is that where practical, the new user
experiment with a clamp-on meter to investigate the feasibility of a permanent
installation, perhaps with wetted transducers and the requisite changes in piping.

Why Check Out Ultrasonic Types?

Figure 1 is a typical example of the ultrasonic

flowmeters offered by at least 30 suppliers in the
U.S. and Canada. Following are some of the
capabilities of this particular model. Figure 1. A clamp-on design with rail-
mounted transducers makes this
typical transit-time flowmeter easy to
• The meter can measure pure water, wash position. The microprocessor-based
water, sewage, process liquids, oils, and converter is also shown.
other light homogeneous liquids. The
basic requirement is that the fluid be capable of ultrasonic wave propagation and
have a reasonably axis-symmetrical flow.
• Clamp-on types measure flow through the pipe without any wetted parts, ensuring
that corrosion and other effects from the fluid will not deteriorate the sensors.
• A corollary to the above is that clamp-on types simplify and speed up meter
installation and minimize maintenance.
• This design and others are portable, a feature particularly advantageous for
backing up an already installed flowmeter or checking out existing meters in a
number of locations.
• Depending on the model, the flowmeters can operate on pipe diameters from 0.5
in. (13 mm) to 20 ft (6 m); fluid temperatures from 40ºF (40ºC) to 392ºF (200ºC);
and flow rates from 1.0 ft/s (0.3 m/s) to 106 ft/s (32 m/s).
• Measurement accuracy can be in the range of 1% of flow rate, and speed of
response can be as fast as 1 s.
• The handheld, microprocessor-based converter provides a local graphics display
and has a keypad for calling up page menus for flow data, trend displays, setting
up site parameters, and other requirements.
• The converter can log data for as many as 20 sites and 40,000 data points. It can
also provide a PC interface via RS-232 serial communication, and an output of 4-
20 mA DC for operating a digital controller, DCS, PLC, or recorder.

5
 • As is true of most such meters, operation is linear and bidirectional.
• The flowmeter has a built-in, rechargeable battery and can operate continuously
for five hours.
• Advanced digital signal processing improves its performance where the flowing
fluid contains air or gas bubbles.

Some suppliers offer ultrasonic measurements of both level and flow velocity to calculate
flow quantities in open channels with weirs or flumes. Others carry ultrasonic meters
especially adapted to measure the flow rate of gases. This class of meter is attractive
compared to conventional flow metering methods because, in addition to the points listed
above, the meters inherently provide linear calibration; have wide rangeability; induce no
pressure drop or disturbance in the flow stream; and may offer the most economical cost
of ownership.

Basic Operating Principles

To detect flow through a pipe, ultrasonic flowmeters use acoustic waves or vibrations of a
frequency >20 kHz. Depending on the design, they use either wetted or nonwetted
transducers on the pipe perimeter to couple ultrasonic energy with the fluid flowing in the
pipe.

Doppler Flowmeters. Doppler flowmeters are

named for the Austrian physicist and
mathematician Christian Johann Doppler (1803-
1853), who in 1842 predicted that the frequencies
of received sound waves depended on the motion
of the source or observer relative to the
propagating medium. To use the Doppler effect to
Figure 2. Doppler ultrasonic measure flow in a pipe, one transducer transmits
flowmeters operate on the Doppler
effect, whereby the transmitted
an ultrasonic beam of ~0.5 MHz into the flow
frequency is altered linearly by being stream (see Figure 2). Liquid flowing through the
reflected from particles and bubbles in pipe must contain sonically reflective materials
the fluid. The net result is a frequency such as solid particles or entrained air bubbles.
shift between transmitter and receiver The movement of these materials alters the
frequencies that can be directly related
to the flow rate.
frequency of the beam reflected onto a second,
receiving transducer. The frequency shift is
linearly proportional to the rate of flow of
materials in the pipe and therefore can be used to develop an analog or digital signal
proportional to flow rate.

The basic equations defining the Doppler flowmeter are:

(1)

and by Snell's law:

(2)

6
Thus, from Equations (1) and (2), we have:

(3)

where:

Equation (3) clearly shows that flow velocity is a linear function of the Doppler
frequency shift. Now, because the inside diameter of the pipe, D, is known, volumetric
flow rate (e.g., in gallons per minute) can be measured using the following expression:

(4)

where:

One Doppler meter design mounts both the transmitting and the receiving transducers in
the same case, attached to one side of the pipe. Reflectors in the flowing liquid return the
transmitter signals to the receiver, with a frequency shift proportional to the flow velocity,
as is the case when the two transducers are
mounted separately on opposite sides of the
pipe.

A portable, clamp-on Doppler meter capable of

operating on AC power or from a rechargeable
power pack has recently been developed. A set
of 4-20 mA DC output terminals permits the unit
to be connected to a strip chart recorder or other
remote device for readout and/or control.

Transit-Time Flowmeters. Transit-time meters, Figure 3. Transit-time flowmeters

as the name implies, measure the difference in
travel time between pulses transmitted in the
direction of, and against, the flow. This type of
meter is also called time of flight and time of
travel.
measure the difference in travel time
between pulses transmitted in a single
path along and against the flow. Two
transducers are used, one upstream of
the other. Each acts as both a
transmitter and receiver for the
ultrasonic beam.

7
In the example shown in Figure 3, the sonic beam is at a 45º angle, with one transducer
located upstream of the other. Each transducer alternately transmits and receives bursts of
ultrasonic energy; the difference in the transit times in the upstream vs. the downstream
directions (TU - TD) measured over the same path can be used to calculate the flow
through the pipe:

(5)

where:

This equation shows that the liquid flow velocity is directly proportional to the meas-ured
difference between upstream and downstream
transit times. Because the cross-sectional area
of the pipe is known, the product of that area
and the flow velocity will provide a measure of
volumetric flow. Such calculations are easily
performed by the microprocessor-based
converter. With this type of meter, particles or
air bubbles in the flow stream are undesirable
because their reflecting qualities interfere with
the transmission and receipt of the applied
ultrasonic pulses. The liquid, however, must be
a reasonable conductor of sonic energy.

Figure 4 shows three placements that can be

used for the two transducers. All are identified
as single measuring path because the sonic
beam follows a single path, and in all three the
two transducers are connected by cable to a
converter that can output a 4-20 mA DC signal.
The selection of one configuration over another
is dictated by several factors associated with the
installation, including pipe size, space available
Figure 4. For single-path
measurements with the transit-time
flowmeter, there are three methods of
mounting the two transducers, Z, V, and
W. The choice is dictated by installation
factors such as size and condition of
the pipe-line.

8
for mounting the transducers, condition of the inside pipe walls, type of lining, and nature
of the flowing liquid.

The Z configuration places the transducers on opposite sides of the pipe, one downstream
of the other. Generally, the distance downstream is ~D/2, where D = pipe diameter. The
converter uses specific data on piping parameters to compute the optimum distance. The
Z method is recommended for use only in adverse conditions such as where space is
limited, the fluid has high turbidity (e.g., sewage), there is a mortar lining, and when the
pipe is old and a thick scale has built up on the inside wall that tends to weaken the
received signals. It is not recommended for smaller pipes, where its measuring accuracy
tends to degrade.

In most installations, the V method is recommended, with the two transducers on the
same side of the pipe about a pipe diameter apart. The rail attachment that can be
clamped on the pipe facilitates sliding the transducers horizontally along the pipe and
positioning them the calculated distance apart.

The W method should be considered on pipe 1½ in. down to ½ in. dia. Its main limitation
is a possible deterioration in accuracy due to buildup of scale or deposits on the pipe
wall-note that the sonic signal must bounce off the wall three times. Turbidity of the
liquid also could be harmful since the signal has a longer distance to travel.

Open-Channel Flowmetering. Ultrasonic flowmeters have been used successfully for

certain open-channel flow measurements, in conjunction with weirs or flumes
downstream. The transducer is installed above the channel, beaming pulses down on the
surface of liquid in the channel. The pulses are reflected back to the transducer and the
travel time can be related to the height of the liquid in the channel. Essentially, this is an
application of an ultrasonic level detector. By relating the channel level with the flow
velocity at the weir or flume, the metering system can provide a volumetric meas-ure of
flow.

Application Notes
It is essential to carefully follow the manufacturer's operating instructions. Early
problems with ultrasonic flowmeters were perhaps due, at least in part, to the users' not
understanding the importance of certain fundamentals such as proper mounting of the
transducers on the pipe. The acoustic coupling to the pipe and the relative alignment of
the transducers must be retained despite events such as a large change in pipe temperature
or unusual vibration.

For both Doppler and transit-time flowmeters to indicate true volumetric flow rate, the
pipe must always be full. A Doppler meter on a partially full pipe, however, will continue
to indicate flow velocity as long as the transducers are both mounted below the liquid
level in the pipe.

Most manufacturers specify the minimum distance that the meter must be from valves,
tees, elbows, pumps, and the like, both upstream and downstream. This is usually

9
expressed in pipe diameters and typically should be 1020 diameters upstream and 5
diameters downstream.

Transit-time meters rely on an ultrasonic signal's completely traversing the pipe, so the
path must be relatively free of solids and air or gas bubbles. Bubbles in particular tend to
attenuate the acoustic signals, a problem that has been addressed in the Fuji Portaflow X
shown in Figure 1. The unit's electronic circuitry uses a proprietary Fourier transform
technique to provide what is termed an advanced antibubble measurement.

Doppler meters, on the other hand, rely on reflectors in the flowing liquid. To obtain
reliable measurements, therefore, attention must be given to the lower limits for
concentrations and sizes of solids or bubbles. The flow must also be rapid enough to keep
these materials in suspension. One manufacturer gives as typical the values of 6 ft/s (1.8
m/s) for solids and 2.5 ft/s (0.75 m/s) for small bubbles.

Over the past few years, some suppliers of Doppler meters have introduced models that
operate at frequencies >1 MHz. The claim for such units is that they will operate on
virtually clean liquids because reflections will occur off the swirls and eddies of the
flowing liquid. A cautionary note has been sounded, however, advising prospective users
to limit the technique to low concentrations of bubbles and particles.

Because in the operation of ultrasonic flowmeters the energy for measurement passes
through only part of the measured liquid, Reynolds number, which can be thought of as
the ratio between the inertial forces and the viscous forces in a flowing stream, affects the
performance of the meter. For example, to perform within their stated specifications,
some Doppler meters and a type of transit-time meter require minimum Reynolds
numbers of 4000 and 10,000, respectively. Here again, for such limitations the
manufacturer's instruction should guide the user.

Clamp-on meters typically require that the thickness of the pipe wall be relatively small
in relation to the distance the ultrasonic energy must pass through the measured liquid. As
a general rule, the ratio of pipe diameter to wall thickness should be >10:1; i.e., a 10 in.
pipe should not have a wall thickness >1 in.

When it comes to the stated accuracies of ultrasonic flowmeters there are still not a lot of
independent test data to confirm or refute the claims made by various manufacturers. As
the use of these meters becomes more widespread, one can hope that the availability of
supporting data will equal that on orifice meters, supported by a wealth of test data and
standards.

Both types of ultrasonic meters are finding new applications. One market research
organization has determined that transit-time meter applications are increasing at a faster
rate than are Dopplers. At present, the installations are split about 60/40 in favor of transit
types. Developments in technology, however, can greatly affect this picture and only time
will tell.

10
Ultrasonic Flowmeters: A 'Sound'
Technology
Ultrasonic flow measurement is not new technology. However, it has
recently become something of a hot commodity among other well-
represented technologies in the industrial flowmeter market. According to
the Ultrasonic Flowmeter Worldwide Outlook, a market analysis forecast
through 2005 published by the ARC Advisory Group (Dedham, MA),
ultrasonic flowmeters are one of the few field devices for which double-digit
growth is projected. The report goes on to say that although this is highly
unusual for a mature technology, improvements in the last few years have
lead to this significant resurgence. This is the result of experience,
combined with recent technology advancement, which form the next
generation of flowmeters that are essentially brand new.

Flowmeter basics
The two types of ultrasonic flowmeters applied in closed-pipe flow
measurements most often encountered in the process industries use either
transit-time or Doppler technology.

Transit-time flowmeters use the difference in time for a sonic pulse to travel
a fixed distance in the media, first with the direction of flow and then
against it. These flowmeters can have one of two operating modes, time
domain and frequency domain. Although they work similarly, transmitting
pulses from a transducer to a receiver and back again through the flowing
media, time domain meters use the difference in time between the two
trips to provide information on the fluid's motion.

Frequency domain transit-time flowmeters use the same sensors as time

domain meters, however the signals are read differently. Time is in not
read directly. Instead frequency-domain units convert the time information
into a frequency. As soon as a sonic pulse is received it is immediately
retransmitted to form a pulse rate (frequency) proportional to the transit
time. If two such paths, one in each flow direction are used, two
frequencies are generated. The difference in frequency is proportional to
flow velocity.

11
Transit-time meters are not limited to measuring flow velocity.
Controlotron's (Hauppauge, NY) SonicMass flowmeter combines high-
resolution sonic velocity and temperature compensation to convert
volumetric flow to mass flow rate. The flowmeter, which is available in a
variety of mounting styles and pipe sizes (3/8- to 48-in. dia.), is said to be
the first commercially available liquid mass meter based on transit-time
technology. Performance accuracy exceeds 0.25% for mass flow of
selective fluids and 0.15% for volumetric readings over a specified range of
Reynolds numbers.

Doppler meters work differently than transit-time devices, most using

continuous transmission of a single sound frequency rather than pulses.
The beam is transmitted into the media at some angle to the direction of
flow. Bubbles, entrained solids, or eddies in the flow then reflect or scatter
the sound back to a receiver. Motion in these inclusions will cause a
Doppler (frequency) shift of the returned signal. In short, Doppler-based
flowmeters pass the signals between a transducer and inclusions in the
flow steam and back, rather than between two transducers.

Each of the inclusions, which have random physical distribution and

velocities, reflect sound while in the sonic stream. Hence, their reflected
composite signal is a random distribution of frequencies that add up to
what appears to the receiver as a single waveform. The difference
between the scattered and received frequencies is proportional to the
motion of the flow inclusions or the flow velocity.

Other variations of ultrasonic flowmeters are available. There is a hybrid of

the two basic technologies intended for use in process (closed-pipe)
applications. Ultrasonic flowmeters can be used for determining flow rate
in open channels and rivers. The technology, which is also available to
measure flow rate in partially filled pipes, determines flow by measuring
level in the pipe.

Application dependence
The types of media suitable for measurement ultrasonically are quite
extensive for transit-time and Doppler meters alike. Either type requires
some prerequisites for successful operation. Applicable media must
support the passage of sound, be in a full conduit, and contain no material
that will deposit on the inside pipe wall. Flow must be continuous and non-
pulsing for either type to function accurately.

12
There are additional requirements for using Doppler meters. In these
cases, the media must provide enough inclusions (suspended bubbles,
small solids/particulate, etc.) so that sound energy has something from
which to reflect. However, the media must not have so many of these
"scatterers" that sound cannot penetrate the flow.

According to Doug Weerstra, instrumentation chemist at Mesa

Laboratories Inc., NuSonics Div. (Lakeland CO), there is an overlap in the
amount of suspended solids by volume that both flowmeter types can
handle. Transit-time meters work well even with 0-2% by volume of solids
in small pipes. Doppler meters work in most flow situations with 0.1-10%
solids by volume. As the amount of solids increases, however,
instrumentation functionality can suffer.

Doppler meters can also function if eddies exist as the inclusions in the
flow. "However, eddies can be tough to pick up. And since they are created
by downstream conditions, they cannot be counted on," says Mr. Weerstra.

Locating those sound beams

For both transit-time and Doppler flowmeters, the number of sound beams
that pass through a pipe can be increased or modified electronically to
raise the accuracy of the average velocity reading. Often a single acoustic
beam passed between 3 and 9 o'clock (recommended) in a horizontal pipe
run provides sufficient accuracy. However, for any ultrasonic flowmeter to
provide accurate readings, it must be located in a straight section of pipe at
least 10 pipe diameters upstream and three pipe diameters downstream
from the nearest flow disturbance (pump, elbow, tee, reducer, etc.).

If a sufficient straight run cannot be "found" or built into the process piping
then multi-beams can be used to cancel out the effects of the disturbed
flow. An additional beam(s) can be placed at "other angles of the clock"
and their signals combined to provide more accurate representation of
average flow velocity. Keep in mind, sensor configurations can be quite
different depending on the size of pipe and flow conditions encountered. In
short, there just are no typical installations or application rules.

Attaching sensors
Sensor mounting styles are varied and often depend on where and when
the device is placed in service. Mounting types include direct-mounting or
non-intrusive. Direct-mounting devices include spool piece meters—so

13
named because the short flanged pipe section that contains the
transducers resembles a thread spool—bolted in place and weld-in style
devices. Most of these sensors styles are mounted in the early stages of a
process piping installation to avoid "taking the process down" later in a
retrofit situation. Weld-in transducers can be hot-tap mounted, however,
allowing some flexibility as to when they can be added into a system.

According to Randy Brekke, vp sales at J-Tec Associates Inc. (Cedar

Rapids, IA) the greatest advantage of using ultrasonic flowmeters, whether
transit-time or Doppler, is that no pipe cutting is required. Ability to use
externally mounted transducers provides the control engineer with greatly
increased installation flexibility both in when and where the flowmeter is
mounted.

Externally mounted transducers can be used on both transit-time and

Doppler meters. There are two basic types. Clamp-on types mount on the
outside of a pipe where flow velocity is needed. For clamp-on transducers
to work, the pipe wall to which it is attached must be capable of passing
sound and be clean and smooth. The inside of the pipe must be free of
sound-absorbing material, such as dirty grease or scale. Use of an
acoustic coupling material between the transducer and pipe (oil, grease, or
epoxy) is recommended.

Where clamp-on transducers can not be adapted, wetted flush-mount

sensors—some designs resemble spark plugs—must be used to provide a
good interface for passing sound energy into the media. In the case of
these transducers, no pipe need be cut, but mounting holes must be drilled
and tapped into the pipe, requiring process shutdown and/or pipe draining
during the process.

For new construction and where process interruptions (scheduled

downtime for periodic maintenance, general cleaning and sanitation, etc.)
are not a problem, installation of spool-piece devices is simple and
straightforward. Siemens Energy & Automation (Grand Prairie, TX) offers
the Sitrans F US, an ultrasonic flowmeter intended for use in liquids. This
device is offered as spool-piece mounting, available in 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-in.
nominal diameters, and four standard DIN sizes with suitable flange
designs. Because it is available in a limited number of pipe sizes, mounting
flexibility as compared to the "one size fits most" clamp-on type is limited.

14
However, a dedicated metering tube for each size allows the ultrasonic
path to be more precisely controlled. In the case of Sitrans F US, its
dedicated flow tube design uses built-in reflection points such that the flow
velocity along the measuring path corresponds to the average flow velocity
for all flow profiles. The patented helical sound path in this unit is said to
result in high accuracy for a wide flow range.

Whether a flowmeter is dedicated or portable is more a function of the

electronics than the type of sensor mounting. Dedicated devices are
specified for a given location and, as such, are obtained from the factory
calibrated to a given pipe size and flow range.

Truly portable ultrasonic flowmeters are microprocessor-based devices

that can be reranged and recalibrated in the field, allowing them to be
moved from one location to another with relative ease. Often used for
testing and verification purposes, devices such as J-Tec's Compu-Flow
Model JC5 feature an onboard keypad and LCD, clamp-on transducers,
and a carrying case. Unlike dedicated units, the portable electronics are
not meant to be permanently mounted.

Adapted to gas
Clamp-on transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters are most often applied to
liquids, however, advancements in the transducer and signal processing
technology have extended their use to gas applications as well. In the case
of the GE Panametrics (Waltham, MA), Model GC868 clamp-on gas
flowmeter extends the technology to gas applications for pipes 3 in. or
greater in diameter and to pressures over 90 psig.

According to GE Panametrics' application engineer Daryl Belock, transit-

time technology was always adaptable to gas flow if its density was high
and delivery pressures were in the several-thousand psig range, not a
common real-world situation. Getting the instrument to read flow accurately
at smaller pipe sizes and lower pressures was the breakthrough, one that
was electronics based. Initial investigation of the technology was done in
an actual application to prove product feasibility.

Ultrasonic measurement techniques have made steady progress over

the years as a viable flowmeter technology. Wide adaptability and
ease of installation, two of its most important features, have been
greatly enhanced through advancements in electronics and

15
transducer design. And although no flow instrument is universally
adaptable, ultrasonic flowmeters make a good run at it. Ultrasonic
flowmeter handles wide range of variables
The Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd. refinery at Fawley on Southampton Water is the largest refinery in
the U.K., and one of the largest refineries in Europe. Its 330,000 barrel/day capacity supplies over
15% of all oil products used in Britain, with 85% of its products delivered by pipeline to seven
major airports including Heathrow and Gatwick. The Fawley site also incorporates an integrated
chemical plant operated by Exxon Mobil Chemical Ltd.

Each type of crude oil has its own composition. To maintain flexible operations, the Fawley
refinery must process up to 30 different types of crude oil from all over the world. As part of a
crude tank farm optimization project, Esso developed a method to manage its crude oil inventory
using flowmeters as part of an on-line blending process to maximize efficiency and cut costs.

Tackling the unattainable

Krohne Inc. (Peabody, MA) supplied six 12-in. and six 20-in. dia. dual-beam UFM
500 ultrasonic flowmeters. The flowmeters are arranged in pairs, with the first
flowmeter configured to protect the pump against low discharge flow, and the
second for regulating the flow via a control valve to enable the blending of correct
crude ratios. Ultrasonic flowmeters were chosen to meet the accuracy stipulated
by the project for the entire range of flows and viscosities required for the
blending process. Additionally, the off-site piping network extends over an area of
three square miles, thus line size flowmeters helped to minimize inherent
pressure drop within the overall system.

Esso's engineering team at the Fawley site provided exact and extremely
demanding flowmeter specs needed for the project. Because of the low velocities
and high viscosities, coupled with the overall range of velocities and viscosities
taking the flow through laminar, transitional, and turbulent regions, engineering
felt it could be difficult to meet the required accuracy and performance standards.
This process requirement, together with physical restrictions resulting in multiple
out-of-plane pipe bends upstream of the flowmeters, has taken the flowmeters
outside their normal performance ranges. Velocities in the range of 3.4-12.5 ft/s
were required for the 12-in. flowmeters, and 1.3-4.5 ft/s for the 20-in. flowmeters.
Viscosities ranged from 3 to 1,800 centistokes.

Even with the wide range of process variables, UFM Series flowmeters met
performance criteria. With pairs of the flowmeters arranged in series, consistent
flow outputs have been achieved despite the potential for a distorted flow profile
from the upstream pipe bends. The blending system's control software conducts

16
a self check of the flowmeters against tank movement via the radar tank gauging
system installed on the crude tanks.

Ultrasonics to the rescue

At times, convenient to install clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters are the instrument
of choice for retrofit situations. A case in point is the Independent Gas Producers
(IGP, Gillette, WY) adaptation of a Dynasonics (Racine, WI) Series TFXL Small-
Pipe ultrasonic flowmeter to replace damaged mechanical flowmeters at IGP's
coal-bed methane wells located on nearby Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
land.

IGP uses flowmeters to measure the amount of water pumped to the surface
during well operation. Because the work is on BLM land, IGP is required to report
the amount of water brought to the surface. IGP also uses flowmeters to optimize
production of its wells and to prevent the pumps, which can be located as far as
1,500 ft under ground, from burning out should a pipe get plugged. All sensor
signals are fed to small PCs with telemetry where they are monitored and
recorded. TXFL flowmeters are offered for pipe sizes 1/2-2 in., and operate
linearly over a 50:1 measuring range. Unlike the turbine meters they have
replaced, bidirectional TXFLs do not impede flow and plug in the presence of
coal and rock fragments often found in these wells. They eliminate the need for
bypass lines, do not falsely record gas flow as water flow, and automatically
compute volumetric compensation for gas bubble content in the water, leading to
more accurate flow measurement.

A short history of ultrasonic flowmeters

Ultrasonic flowmeters got their start in 1963 when Tokyo Keiki (now Tokimec) first
introduced them to industrial markets in Japan. In 1972, Controlotron Corp.
(Hauppauge, NY) brought clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters to the U.S. market.
Others joined the market later in the 1970s and 1980s.

When ultrasonic flowmeters were first introduced, correct application conditions

for the two basic types, transit-time and Doppler, were not well understood. Early
on, some users misapplied these meters, which led to inaccurate measurements.
These experiences gave some users a negative impression of ultrasonic
technology. Fortunately, the market has recovered from these events.

Use of ultrasonic flowmeters for gas flow measurement got its start in the early
1980s, when both Ultraflux (Poissy, France) and Panametrics (now GE
Panametrics) ran tests on ultrasonic flowmeters for gas applications. However,

17
the biggest events in gas flow measurement didn't occur until 1995, when the
Groupe Europeen de Recherche GaziSres (GERG) published the Technical
Monograph 8, which laid out criteria for using ultrasonic flowmeters for custody
transfer of natural gas. At this point, ultrasonic flowmeters became a serious
alternative to differential pressure and turbine meters for custody transfer
applications, especially in Europe.

In June 1998, the American Gas Association published AGA-9, a report that did
for the U.S. market what the GERG report had done for the European market.
Both reports specified use of multi-path ultrasonic flowmeters, meaning that more
than one ultrasonic signal is used to calculate flow rate. Publication of these
reports gave a major boost to ultrasonic flowmeter sales.

Use of ultrasonic flowmeters for liquid applications has also been growing.
However, most of the growth has been on the transit-time side. By using
advanced electronics, transit-time meters have become more adept at measuring
the flow of liquids containing some impurities, giving them a wider application
base than earlier models.

A number of suppliers have brought new products onto the market in the past five
years. These include multi-path devices for custody transfer of natural gas and
clamp-on flowmeters for general gas applications. The ultrasonic flowmeter
market has been one of the most active in terms of new product releases. This
trend is likely to continue.

There are two main types of ultrasonic flowmeters: transit time and Doppler. A transit
time ultrasonic flowmeters has both a sender and a receiver. It sends two ultrasonic
signals across a pipe at an angle: one with the flow, and one against the flow. The meter
then measures the “transit time” of each signal. When the ultrasonic signal travels with
the flow, it travels faster than when it travels against the flow. The difference between the
two transit times is proportional to flowrate.

Doppler flowmeters also send an ultrasonic signal across a pipe. Instead of tracking the
time the signal takes to cross to the other side, a Doppler flowmeter relies on having the
signal deflected by particles in the flowstream. These particles are traveling at the same
speed as the flow. As the signal passes through the stream, its frequency shifts in
proportion to the mean velocity of the fluid. A receiver detects the reflected signal and
measures its frequency. The meter calculates flow by comparing the generated and
detected frequencies. Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters are used with dirty liquids or
slurries. They are not used to measure gas flow.

18
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mass Flow
While the majority of flowmeters measure volumetric flow, three types of flowmeters
measure mass flow. These three types are Coriolis, thermal, and multivariable
flowmeters. This article discusses the reasons for measuring mass flow, and then looks at
the advantages and disadvantages of Coriolis, thermal, and multivariable flowmeters.

Volumetric flow is measured in a number of different ways. Ultrasonic, magnetic, vortex,

and turbine meters use various methods for determining average speed or velocity of the
flow at some point in the flowstream. They then multiply this velocity value by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe to yield volumetric flowrate.

Positive displacement flowmeters measure volume directly by separating portions of the

flow into small containers of known volume, and counting how many times this is done.
This is a highly accurate method of flow measurement, and positive displacement
flowmeters are widely used for custody transfer applications.

Why Mass Flow is Measured

One reason to measure mass flow is to achieve greater accuracy. Because the quantity of
a fluid varies with temperature and pressure, fluid flow can vary with changing
temperatures and pressures. This is most notable for gases. Pressure and temperature
variations have minimal effects on liquids, so these effects are often disregarded when
measure liquid flows. However, temperature and pressure have a much more pronounced
effect on gases, so much mass flow measurement is measurement of gases.

In the process industries, it is sometimes desirable to measure mass flow for greater
accuracy and to accommodate measurement standards. Chemical reactions often refer to
mass rather than volume, so mass flow is often measured in the chemical industry. Some
products are sold by weight rather than volume, and in these cases it is necessary to
measure mass flow. Gas flow is widely measured in the process industries.

There is a close relation between volumetric flow and mass flow measurement. If the
volumetric flow of a fluid is known, multiplying this value by the density of the fluid
yields mass flow. Some flowmeters, such as multivariable flowmeters, compute
volumetric flow and then determine mass flow by using a calculated density value.

What percent of the total flow measurements are volumetric as opposed to mass flow? In
a recent worldwide survey of conducted by Flow Research and Ducker Worldwide, 75%
of flow measurements were volumetric and 25 percent were of mass flow. It is clear,
then, that mass flow accounts for a significant percentage of total flow measurements.

19
Coriolis Flowmeters

Coriolis flowmeters use fluid momentum to measure mass flow directly. The fluid enters
the meter and passes through one or more vibrating tubes, and accelerates as it reaches
the point of maximum vibration. As the fluid leaves this point, it decelerates. This
causes a twisting motion in the tubes. The Coriolis meter measures this twisting motion,
and mass flow is directly proportional to the amount of twist.

While it is natural to think that users choose Coriolis meters because of their ability to
measure mass flow, user surveys show differently. In the previously mentioned user
survey, respondents were asked why they are using Coriolis meters. The leading answer
given was accuracy, which was mentioned by 63 percent of respondents worldwide.
Reliability was the second leading reason, and was mentioned by 14 percent of
respondents. Only a small percentage measure “ability to measure mass flow.”

Coriolis flowmeters are among the most accurate meters. Their main limitations are line
size and cost. Over 90 percent of Coriolis flowmeters are used on line sizes of two inches
and less. Coriolis meters become very large and unwieldy, especially in sizes from four
to six inches. Cost also increases with size. Even smaller size meters are generally more
expensive than other comparable new-technology flowmeters. Users who are
considering Coriolis flowmeters need to balance their need for accuracy and reliability
against purchase price. Some users select Coriolis meters despite their higher initial cost,
because low maintenance requirements reduces their cost over the life of the meter.

Thermal Flowmeters

While thermal flowmeters also measure mass flow, they do so very differently from
Coriolis meters. Instead of using fluid momentum, thermal flowmeters make use of the
thermal or heat conducting properties of fluids to determine mass flow. While the
majority of thermal flowmeters are used to measure gas flow, they are also used to
measure the flow of liquids.

The origins of thermal flowmeters lie in hot wire anemometers. These consist of a
heated, thin wire element, and are very small and fragile. Hot wire anemometers were
used in velocity profile and turbulence research. Because they are susceptible to
breakage and to dirt, they are not suited to industrial environments.

There are several different thermal flowmeter technologies. Some measure the speed
with which heat that is added to the flowstream disperses. Others measure the
temperature difference between a heated sensor and the ambient flowstream. Thermal
flowmeters typically require one or more temperature sensors to measure the fluid
temperature at specific points.

Thermal flowmeters have several main advantages. One is a relatively low purchase
price. Secondly, thermal flowmeters can measure the flow of some low-pressure gases

20
that are not dense enough for Coriolis meters to measure. Both of these advantages give
thermal flowmeters their own unique niche in flow measurement.

The main disadvantage of thermal flowmeters is low accuracy. While some thermal
flowmeters may achieve accuracy levels of one percent, other thermal flowmeters have
accuracies in the three to five percent range. It is the accuracy level of thermal
flowmeters that is the main barrier to classifying them as new-technology flowmeters
rather than traditional technology meters. Users who are considering thermal flowmeters
need to balance their accuracy needs with their cost requirements.

Multivariable Flowmeters

Multivariable flowmeters measure mass flow by combining volumetric flow

measurement with density measurement. Density is usually measured either by
consulting a table, or by dynamically measuring pressure and temperature. This is called
an inferred method, because a formula is used to compute mass flow. The main types of
multivariable flowmeters are differential pressure (DP), vortex, ultrasonic, and magnetic.

One main advantage of multivariable DP flowmeters is that only one process penetration
is required to get three process readings: flow, temperature, and pressure. This reduces
the chance of fugitive emissions, and also the number of leak points. Another advantage
of multivariable DP meters is that users who are already measuring volumetric flow with
a DP flowmeter can upgrade to a multivariable DP meter with a minimum of changes.

One disadvantage of multivariable flowmeters is that accuracy levels are not as high as
accuracy levels of Coriolis meters. This is due to the number of variables involved, and
to the fact that it is an inferred method of computing mass flow. On the other hand, the
purchase price of multivariable flowmeters is substantially below that of most Coriolis
meters.

Summary

With at least three main ways to measure mass flow, users are advised to determine their
accuracy requirements and their budgetary constraints before making a decision about
which type of flowmeter to select. When considering cost, it is also advisable to consider
the lifetime costs of a flowmeter, rather than just the purchase price. There are many high
quality products available in all three categories.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters

Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters operate by repeatedly filling and emptying
compartments of known volume with the liquid or gas from the flowstream. Flowrate is

21
calculated based on the number of times these compartments are filled and emptied. The
main types of PD flowmeters used for gas applications are diaphragm and rotary. These
types of meters differ according to the way they trap the liquid into compartments with
different shapes.

Diaphragm meters have several diaphragms that capture the fluid as it passes through
the meter. Differential pressure across the meter causes one diaphragm to expand and
one to contract. A rotating crank mechanism helps produce a smooth flow of gas through
the meter. This mechanism is connected via gearing to the index, which registers the
amount of fluid that passes through the meter. Diaphragm meters are used for gas
applications.

Rotary flowmeters have one or more rotors that are used to trap the fluid. With each
rotation of the rotors, a specific amount of fluid is captured. Flowrate is proportional to
the rotational velocity of the rotors. Rotary meters are used for gas applications.

Thomas Glover of England invented the first diaphragm meter in 1843. Glover’s meter
was made in response to difficulties with liquid sealed drum meters, which were created
in the early 1800s. This meter had diaphragms of sheepskin and with sheet metal
enclosures. Today diaphragm meters are made from cast aluminum and have diaphragms
of synthetic rubber-on-cloth.

Large Installed Base

One major growth factor for positive displacement flowmeters is the large installed base
of positive displacement flowmeters worldwide. Because they were introduced more
than 100 years before new-technology meters, positive displacement flowmeters have
had much more time to penetrate the markets in Europe, North America, and Asia.

Installed base is a relevant growth factor because often when ordering flowmeters,
especially for replacement purposes, users replace like with like. The investment in a
flowmeter technology is more than just the cost of the meter itself. It also includes the
time and money invested in training people how to install and use the meter. In addition,
some companies stock spare parts or even spare meters for replacement purposes. As a
result, when companies consider switching from one flowmeter technology to another,
there is more than just the purchase price to consider. The large installed base of positive
displacement flowmeters worldwide will continue to be a source of orders for new and
replacement meters in the future.

High Accuracy a Major Factor

Accuracy and reliability continue to be the strongest driving forces behind the flowmeter
market. Positive displacement meters are highly accurate because they actually separate
the fluid into compartments and count the number of times this is done. There is no need
for the inferential method that occurs with meters that correlate flow with velocity, or use
the differential pressure method to measure flow. PD meters are widely used for billing

22
applications because they are both accurate and reliable. Both the degree of accuracy and
reliability vary with the manufacturer and the type of PD meter.

Utility Applications Dominate

While new-technology flowmeters are making inroads into traditional meters in many
areas and applications, this is less true for positive displacement flowmeters for gas
applications. Close to 80 percent of revenues from PD meters for gas flow measurement
derive from utility applications, where PD meters are highly entrenched (see Figure 1).
This includes PD meters for commercial and industrial applications, where utility
companies use them to measure the amount of gas consumed by restaurants, office
buildings, and other establishments. While there has been a shift from diaphragm to
rotary meters PD for these applications, these applications have seen no strong shift away
from PD meters. Turbine meters are used for high speed flow utility applications,
however.

The use of PD diaphragm and rotary meters for gas applications is somewhat like the use
of nutating disc and piston PD meters for utility and billing applications in the water
industry. PD meters, along with single-jet and multi-jet turbines are still the dominant
meter for utility measurement of water flows, especially in residential and smaller
commercial applications. However, some new-technology flowmeters such as magnetic
and Coriolis are beginning to gain approvals from industry associations for use in utility
measurement of water. It is likely, then, that new-technology meters will eventually be
used on a more widespread basis for utility gas measurement.

GAS FLOW
Flow measurement is primarily concerned with measuring the flow of liquids and gases.
Steam, which is water vapor, can be considered as a form of gas. Steam is also an
important flow measurement.

Gas takes many forms. Types of gas include natural gas, fuel gas, atmospheric gas,
compressed natural gas, and many others. Individual gases that are especially important
include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. Air is a gas, although it is a
mixture of gases that include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and many other gases. Just as
water is an essential element of life, so life as we know it would not be possible without
the air we breathe.

Natural Gas

23
Natural gas plays an especially important role in the flowmeter industry. Natural gas is
an important source of fuel and energy. Like coal and petroleum, it is a fossil fuel. Like
air, natural gas is a mixture of gases. These include methane, ethane, propane, butane,
and other alkanes. Natural gas is found in the ground, along with petroleum. It is
extracted and refined into fuels that supply a significant portion of the world’s energy
supply.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) has taken on importance as a source of fuel for alternative
energy vehicles. Vehicles powered by natural gas are highly efficient, and emit
significantly lower amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and pollutants harmful
to the ozone layer than gasoline powered vehicles. CNG powered vehicles are fueled at
filling stations that are very much like gasoline stations, and several companies have
created flowmeters specifically designed for these CNG filling stations.

Gas flow measurement can also be divided into three broad categories: industrial,
commercial, and residential. Industrial gas flow measurement includes flow measurement
that occurs in manufacturing and process plants, including chemical plants and refineries.
Commercial gas flow measurement occurs at businesses and commercial buildings such
as restaurants, office buildings, and apartment complexes. This is a form of utility
measurement, since these flowmeters typically measure the amount of natural gas used
by the business or in the commercial building. Residential gas flow measurement refers
to flowmeters that measure the amount of gas used at individual homes and apartments.

Utility vs. Industrial. Meters used to measure gas or water entering a building or plant
for the purpose of billing the plant for their use of gas or water are considered to be utility
meters. These meters are typically sold to a gas or water utility company and installed at
the building or plant by the utility company. Meters used within a building or plant for
internal allocation purposes of gas, water, or other liquids, are considered to be industrial
meters. They are typically sold to the owners of the plant or building itself, as opposed to
a utility company.

Positive Displacement Flowmeters

Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters are widely used for utility measurements of gas
flow. One main type is the diaphragm meter. Diaphragm meters have several
diaphragms that capture the fluid as it passes through the meter. Differential pressure
across the meter causes one diaphragm to expand and one to contract. A rotating crank
mechanism helps produce a smooth flow of gas through the meter. This mechanism is
connected via gearing to the index, which registers the amount of fluid that passes
through the meter.

Another type of PD meter for gas flow measurement is the rotary meter. Rotary
flowmeters have one or more rotors that are used to trap the fluid. With each rotation of
the rotors, a specific amount of fluid is captured. Flowrate is proportional to the
rotational velocity of the rotors. Rotary meters are used for both liquid and gas
applications. Rotary meters are used for industrial applications.

24
Turbine Flowmeters

Turbine flowmeters have a rotor that spins in proportion to flowrate. There are many
types of turbine meters, but many of those used for gas flow are called axial meters.
Axial turbine meters have a rotor that revolves around the axis of flow. Most flowmeters
for oil measurement and for measuring industrial liquids and gases are axial flowmeters.
Axial meters differ according to the number of blades and the shape of the rotors. Axial
meters for liquids have a different design from axial meters for gas applications. Like PD
meters, turbine meters are used as a billing meter to measure the amount of gas used at
commercial buildings and industrial plants.

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

The use of ultrasonic flowmeters to measure natural gas flow gained momentum
following the publication of AGA-9 in June 1998. This report from the American Gas
Association gives criteria for using ultrasonic flowmeters for custody transfer of natural
gas. The AGA had previously issued reports on differential pressure (DP) flowmeters
(AGA-3) and turbine flowmeters (AGA-7). Since the publication of AGA-9, the AGA
has also issued a report on the use of Coriolis flowmeters (AGA-11).

The use of ultrasonic flowmeters is continuing to grow, both for custody transfer and
process gas measurement. Unlike PD and turbine meters, ultrasonic flowmeters do not
have moving parts. And pressure drop is much reduced with an ultrasonic meter when
compared to PD, turbine, and DP meters. Installation of ultrasonic meters is relatively
straightforward, and maintenance requirements are low.

Ultrasonic flowmeters come as both inline and clamp-on configurations. Some have one
ultrasonic beam, while those with higher accuracy use multiple beams. These are known
as multipath ultrasonic flowmeters. Meters used for custody transfer purposes are inline
multipath meters. Most of these custody transfer meters use four, five, or six paths,
depending on manufacturer, to make a highly accurate measurement. Manufacturers
include Instromet, Emerson Daniel, and FMC Measurement Solutions.

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

DP flowmeters consist of a differential pressure transmitter, together with a primary

element. The primary element places a constriction in the flowstream, and the DP
transmitter measures the difference in pressure upstream and downstream of the
constriction. The transmitter or a flow computer then computes flow, using Bernoulli’s
theorem.

Types of primary elements include orifice plates, venturis, flow nozzles, pitot tubes,
wedges, and others. Venturis are especially suited to high-speed flows. Orifice plates are
still the most widely used type of primary elements. Their disadvantages are the amount
of pressure drop caused, and the fact that they can be knocked out of position by
impurities in the flowstream. Orifice plates are also subject to wear over time.

25
DP flowmeters are used to measure the flow of liquid, gas, and steam. Like ultrasonic
and turbine meters, they are used for the custody transfer of natural gas. In many cases,
end-users buy their pressure transmitters and primary elements from different suppliers.
However, several vendors have integrated the pressure transmitter with the primary
element to form a complete flowmeter. These have the advantage that they can be
calibrated with the primary element and DP transmitter already in place.

Coriolis Flowmeters

Coriolis flowmeters are the most highly accurate meter. However, liquid flow
measurement still predominates for Coriolis meters because gases are less dense than
liquids, and the measurement is somewhat more difficult. A number of suppliers have
brought out Coriolis meters for gas flow measurement, however, and this is a growing
area for Coriolis. One application that Coriolis has come to excel in is in measuring
compressed natural gas (CNG) for alternative fuel vehicles. Here they compete primarily
with turbine flowmeters.

Thermal

Thermal flowmeters are used almost exclusively to measure gas flow. Thermal
flowmeters typically inject heat into the flowstream and then measure how quickly it
dissipates. This value is proportional to mass flow. Two methods used are called
constant current and constant temperature.

Thermal flowmeters grew out of the use of hot-wire anemometers for research
applications. Early companies to develop thermal flowmeters include Sierra Instruments,
Kurz Instruments, and Fluid Components International (FCI). Thermal flowmeters excel
at measuring gas at low flowrates. Measuring low flows is a difficulty for some meters,
including vortex, but this is where thermal flowmeters shine. Accuracy levels are
improving for thermal flowmeters, as suppliers introduce product improvements.

One application where thermal flowmeters are widely used is in the measurement of
stack flows. Gas flow has to be measured in smoke stacks to conform to Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) reporting requirements. Insertion thermal flowmeters are used
to measure the flow of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and other industrial
pollutants. Because of the large size of the stacks, insertion thermal meters that use
multiple measuring points are used for these applications. Other flowmeters used for
smoke stack applications are DP meters with averaging pitot tubes, and ultrasonic
flowmeters.

Mass Flow Controllers

Mass flow controllers not only measure flow; they also control it. They differ from
thermal flowmeters in that most divert a small portion of the flow into a parallel channel,

26
and then measure the flow through that parallel channel. The flowmeter then performs a
calculation to determine mass flow through the entire flowmeter. Most also contain an
integrated valve that is used to control flow. A setpoint is determined, usually by the user,
and the valve is adjusted so that flow reaches that setpoint.

Most mass flow controllers use thermal methods to determine flowrate in the parallel
flow path, though some use a differential pressure principle. And some mass flow
controllers are sold without the valve, meaning they are functioning as flowmeters rather
than controllers. Mass flow controllers are widely used in the semiconductor industry,
but many have industrial applications. It is important for a mass flow controller to know
what gas is being measured, in order to insure an accurate measurement. Mass flow
controllers can also be used for to measure liquid flow.

Other Types

Vortex and variable area flowmeters are also used to measure gas flow. Vortex
flowmeters are one of the few types of meters, besides DP, that can accurately measure
the flow of liquid, steam, and gas. However, vortex meters especially excel at measuring
steam flow, since they can handle the high temperatures involved.

Variable areas meters can measure the flow of both liquid and gas, and they also are used
for a limited amount of steam flow measurement. Variable area meters rely on a float that
rises in proportion to flowrate. They are primarily a low-cost alternative where a visual
indication of flow is sufficient. While most still must be read visually, some variable area
meters have been manufactured with transmitters.

Ultrasonic Flow Meter and Doppler Flowmeters

Cole Parmer UK’s range of ultrasonic flow meters and doppler
flowmeters offers process contamination free measurement of liquids
and gas flow. A typical ultrasonic flow meter will consist of a
transducer that is mounted on to the exterior of the pipe and an
indicator or totalizer to display the output. This can easily be installed
without disturbing existing pipe work. Most ultrasonic flow meters will
work with pipe sizes between ½” and 200” diameter. There are two

27
main types of ultrasonic flow meters, doppler flow meters and time
transit ultrasonic flow meters.

A doppler flow meter requires particulates or bubbles in the media.

The minimum diameter size of the particulate is typically 30 microns
and requires a minimum concentration levels of 25 ppm. Since some
meters may require slightly larger concentrations of particulate, it is a
good idea to check the specifications table. Doppler flow meters are
mainly used for liquid applications (roughly 88%) while the rest are
used for gas (11%) and steam (1%) applications.

A time transit ultrasonic flow meter requires a clean liquid without

particulates or bubbles and can be used for both liquid and gas
applications. It has better accuracy than that of a doppler flow meter
and will typically offer accuracies of ±2% full scale.

To find the right flow meter for your application use Cole-Parmer’s on-
line flow meter quick search. Alternatively contact our Application
Specialists for free technical support and let us bring over 50 years of
flow control experience to help solve your application needs.

Key Points for ultrasonic flow meters

The doppler flow meter and the time transit ultrasonic flow meter
measure the frequency shift of an ultrasonic signal sent through
the media. In the case of a doppler flow meter it utilises particles
or bubbles in a fluid as a reflective mechanism to gauge the
velocity of the media. For a time transit ultrasonic flow meter it
relies on a frequency difference in forward and reverse signals
sent through a clean liquid to gauge the velocity of the media.
• A ultrasonic flow meter has an accuracy of typically ±2% full
scale
• A ultrasonic flow meter normally has a turn down ratio in the
region of 20:1
• Ultrasonic flow meters are non intrusive
• Ultrasonic flow meters can be used with a wide variety of pipe
materials, but some will not allow the signal to pass through.
Although pipe material recommendations will vary depending on
the sensor design, you should not expect to have any problems
with carbon steel, stainless steel, PVC, and copper. However,

28
 pipes made of concrete, fibreglass, iron, and plastic pipes with
liners can pose transmission problems.

Advantages for ultrasonic flow meters

• Process contamination free measurement of flow

• No leak potential
• Allows for easy installation without disturbing existing pipe work
• Suitable for aggressive chemicals as no contact with the media
• Doppler flow meters are suitable for slurries

Disadvantages for ultrasonic flow meters

• Requires sufficient knowledge of the flow and media to give

some confidence in readings
• Higher initial setup costs than other flow technologies
• Pipe material must be compatible with ultrasonic sensor

Typical Application for ultrasonic flow meters

• Influent and effluent water flow (doppler flow meters only)

• Clarifier monitoring
• Digester feed control (doppler flow meters only)
• Waste water (doppler flow meters only)
• Cooling water
• Makeup water
• Pure and ultra-pure fluids in semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and
the food & beverage industries (time transit ultrasonic flow
meters only)
• Acids and liquefied gases in the chemical industry
• Light to medium crude oils in the petroleum refining industry
(time transit meters only)
• Water distribution systems used in agriculture and irrigation
• Cryogenic liquids (time transit ultrasonic flow meters only)
• Gas-stack flow measurement in power plant scrubbers

29
 Selecting the Right Flowmeter—Part 1

Selecting the Right Flowmeter—Part 1

By Corte Swearingen
Reprinted from the July 1999 edition of Chemical Engineering magazine
("Choosing the Best Flowmeter")

Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Options Variable-Area Flowmeters

Table 2: The Effect of Pressure Deviations on a Variable-Area Flowmeter
Mass Flowmeters Coriolis Flowmeters
Differential-Pressure Meters Turbine Meters Oval-Gear Flowmeters References

With the many flowmeters available today, choosing the most appropriate one for a given
application can be difficult. This article discusses six popular flowmeter technologies, in
terms of the major advantages and disadvantages of each type, describes some unique
designs, and gives several application examples.

Dozens of flowmeter technologies are available. This article covers six flowmeter designs
—variable-area, mass, Coriolis, differential-pressure, turbine, and oval-gear. Table 1
compares the various technologies.

Table 1
A Comparison of Flowmeter Options
Gas
Variable- Differential-
Attribute Coriolis mass- Turbine Oval Gear
area Pressure
flow
Clean gases yes yes yes yes yes —
Clean Liquids yes yes — yes yes yes
yes, >10
Viscous yes (special yes (special
yes — no centistokes
Liquids calibration) calibration)
(cst)
Corrosive
yes yes — no yes yes
Liquids
0.05- 1.5%
2-4% full 2-3% full- 0.25-1% of 0.1-0.5% of
Accuracy, ± 0.15% of full
scale scale reading reading
reading scale
0.05- 0.5%
Repeatability, 0.25% full 1% full- 0.1% of 0.1% of
0.10% of full
± scale scale reading reading
reading scale
Max pressure, 900 and 500
200 and up 100 5,000 and up 4,000 and up
psi up and up
250 and 150
Max temp., °F 250 and up 122 300 and up 175 and up
up and up

30
Pressure drop medium low low medium medium medium
Turndown 25:1
10:1 100:1 50:1 20:1 10:1
ratio
$2,500- $600- $600-1,200
Average cost* $200-600 $500-800 $600-1,000
5,000 1,000
*Cost values can vary quite a bit depending on process temperature and
pressures, accuracy required, and approvals needed.
Go to Top

Variable-Area Flowmeters

Design overview: The variable-area flowmeter (Figure 1) is one of the

oldest technologies available and arguably the most well-known. It is
constructed of a tapered tube (usually plastic or glass) and a metal or
glass float. The volumetric flowrate through the tapered tube is
Figure 1
proportional to the displacement of the float. The plastic or
glass tube of
Fluid moving through the tube form bottom to top causes a pressure drop the variable-
across the float, which produces an upward force that causes the float to area
flowmeter
move up the tube. As this happens, the cross-sectional area between the lets the user
tube walls and the float (the annulus) increases (hence the term variable- visually
area). inspect the
float, whose
position in
Because the variable-area flowmeter relies on gravity, it must be installed the tapered
vertically (with the flowtube perpendicular to the floor). Some variable- tub is
area meters overcome this slight inconvenience by spring loading the proportional
float withing the tube (Figure 2). Such a design can simplify installation to the
volumetric
and add operator flexibility, especially when the meter must be installed flowrate.
in a tight physical space and a vertical installation is not possible.

Two types of variable-area flowmeters are generally available: direct-reading and

correlated. The direct-reading meter allows the user to read the liquid or gas flowrate in
engineering units (i.e., gal/min and L/min) printed directly on the tube, by aligning the
top of the float with the tick mark on the flowtube.

The advantage of a direct-reading flowmeter is that the flowrate is literally read directly
off the flowtube. Correlated meters, on the other hand, have a unitless scale (typically tick
marks from 0 to 65, or 0 to 150), and come with a separate data sheet that correlates the
scale reading on the flowtube to the flowrate in a particular engineering unit. The
correlation sheets usually give 25 or so data points along the scale of the flowtube,
allowing the user to determine the actual flowrate in gal/min, L/min, or whatever
engineering unit is needed.

The advantage of the correlated meter is that the same flowmeter can be used for various
gases and liquids (whose flow is represented by different units) by selecting the
appropriate correlation sheets, where additional direct-reading meters would be required

31
for different fluid applications. Similarly, if
pressure or temperature parameters change for a
given application, the user would simply use a
different correlation sheet to reflect these new
parameters. By comparison, for a direct-reading
meter, a change in operating parameters will
compromise the meter's accuracy, forcing it to
be returned to the factory for recalibration. In
general, the average accuracy of a variable-area
flowmeter is ±2-4% of fullscale flow.

Advantages: The major advantage of the Figure 2

variable-area flowmeter is its relative low cost This variable-area meter with a
and ease of installation. Because of its simplicity spring-loaded float can be installed at
any angle. This accommodation is not
of design, the variable-area meter is virtually
available for traditional variable-area
maintenance-free and, hence, tends to have a flowmeters, whose operation relies
long operating life. on gravity.

Another advantage is its flexibility in handling a wide range of chemicals. Today, all-
PTFE meters are available to resist corrosive damage by aggressive chemicals. The
advantage of a PTFE flowmeter with a built-in valve is that you can not only monitor the
fluid flowrate, but you can control it, as well, by opening and closing the valve. If the
application requires an all-PTFE meter, chances are the fluid is pretty corrosive, and
many users would like the option of controlling the flowrate by simply turning a valve
that is built into the flowmeter itself.

Disadvantages: One potential disadvantage of a variable-area flowmeter occurs when the

fluid temperature and pressure deviate from the calibration temperature and pressure.
Because temperature and pressure variations will cause a gas to expand and contract,
thereby changing density and viscosity, the calibration of a particular variable-area
flowmeter will no longer be valid as these conditions fluctuate. Manufacturers typically
calibrate their gas flowmeters to a standard temperature and pressure (usually 70°F with
the flowmeter outlet open to the atmosphere, i.e., with no backpressure).

During operation, the flowmeter accuracy can quickly degrade once the temperatures and
pressures start fluctuating from the standard calibration temperature and pressure. Meters
used for water tend to show less variability, since water viscosity and density changes
very little with normal temperature and pressure fluctuations. While there is a way to
correlate the flow from actual operating conditions back to the calibration conditions, the
conventional formulas used are very simplified, and don't take into account the effect of
viscosity, which can cause large errors.

Table 2
The Effect of Pressure Deviations on a Variable-Area Flowmeter
Maximum flowrate, L/min Fluid temperature, °F Outlet pressure, psi

32
 Fluid type: Air
2.23 70 0
1.65 70 15
1.30 70 35
2.26 90 0
2.28 110 0
2.32 150 0
Fluid type: water
4.82 70 0
4.82 70 15
4.82 70 35
4.86 90 0
4.89 110 0
4.95 150 0

As Table 2 shows, the effect of pressure deviations can be quite significant. This table
was created using data from a variable-area flowmeter that was calibrated for air at 70°F
and with the outlet of the flowmeter vented to the open atmosphere (i.e. , 0 psi of outlet
pressure).

The flowmeter was calibrated to read a maximum of 2.23 L/min at this temperature and
pressure. When the outlet pressure increases as all other parameters remain constant, the
flowrate drops off. This pressure change affects the viscosity and density of the gas and
will cause the actual flowrate to deviate from the theoretical, calibrated flowrate. This
relationship is extremely important to be aware of, and underscores the difficulty in
measuring gas flow. Also note that even though gas flowrate changes with a change in
gas temperature (with all other parameters remaining constant), this effect is much less
significant with air than with other gases.

Table 2 shows this same variation with a meter calibrated for water at 9 psi venting
pressure and a temperature of 70°F. Here, one can assume water to be incompressible. As
shown, there is no direct effect on water flow with a change in back-pressure. The temp-
erature change is not that significant either. But, for various fluids, a change in
temperature could change the viscosity enough to degrade
More Details or Order Online:
the accuracy below acceptable limits.
Gilmont Unshielded Variable
The bottom line is that the user must be aware of any Area Flowmeters
variation between calibration conditions and operating
conditions for gas flows, and must correct the reading Gilmont Shielded Variable
according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Some Area Flowmeters
users have the manufacturer calibrate the meter to
Gilmont Shielded Variable
existing conditions, but this presumes that operating
Area Flowmeters without
conditions will remain the same—which they rarely do. Valve

33
The effect of viscosity changes is another potential disadvantage of the variable-area
meter when measuring liquids. When a viscous liquid makes its way through a variable-
area flowmeter, drag layers of fluid will build up on the float. this will cause a slower-
moving viscous liquid to yield the same buoyant force as a faster-moving fluid of lower
viscosity. The larger the viscosity, the higher the error. The general rule of thumb is as
follows—unless the meter has been specifically calibrated for a higher-viscosity liquid,
only water-like liquids should be run through a variable-area flowmeter.

Sometimes, for liquids that are slightly thicker than water, a manufacturer-supplied
correction factor can be used without the need to recalibrate the whole meter. As always,
check with the manufacturer if you plan on deviating from its calibration fluid and
calibration conditions. For a more-detailed discussion of the proper correction equations
to apply to variable-area flowmeters in both water and gas service when they deviate
from standard conditions, consult Refs. 9 and 10.

Applications:
Variable-area flowmeters are well suited for a wide variety of liquid and gas applications,
including the following:

• Measuring water and gas flow in plants or labs

• Monitoring chemical lines
• Purging instrument air lines (i.e., lines that use a valved meter)
• Monitoring filtration loading
• Monitoring flow in material-blending
applications (i.e., lines that use a valved meter)
• Monitoring hydraulic oils (although this may
require special calibration)
• Monitor makeup water for food & beverage
plants

Go to Top

Mass Flowmeters

Design Overview:Mass flowmeters are one of the most

Figure 3
popular gas-measurement technologies in use today
Because the mass flowmeter
(Figure 3). Most thermal mass flowmeters for gases are measures mass flow rather
based on the following design principles, which are than volumetric flow, this
shown in Figure 4. a gas stream moves into the popular device is relatively
undaunted by fluctuations in
flowmeter chamber and is immediately split into two line pressures and
distinct flow paths. Most of the gas will go through a temperatures, especially
bypass tube, but a fraction of it goes through a special compared with a variable-area
capillary sensor tube, which contains two temperature flowmeter. The unit shown
provides an integral digital
coils. display, as well as a built-in
control valve.

34
Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the capillary tube by means of these two wound
coils. When gas flows through the device, it carries heat from the coils upstream to the
coils downstream. The resulting temperature differerential creates a proportional
resistance change in the sensor windings.

Special circuits, known as Wheatstone

bridges, are used to monitor the
instantaneous resistance of each of the
sensor windings. The resistance change,
created by the temperature differential,
is amplified and calibrated to give a
digital readout of the flow.

As shown in Figure 3, the mass

flowmeter is available with a built-in
valve for flow-control applications. This
allows for external control and the
programming of a setpoint for a critical
flowpoint. Most mass flowmeters also
have an analog or digital output signal to
record the flowrate. The average mass
flowmeter has an accuracy of ±1.5-2% Figure 4
of fullscale flow. Inside a mass flowmeter, the gas is split.
Most goes through a bypass tube, while a
fration goes through a sensor tube
Advantages: The main advantage of a containing two temperature coils. Heat flux
mass flowmeter for gas streams is its is introduced at two sections of the sensor
ability (within limitations) to "ignore" tube by means of two wound coils. As gas
flows through the device, it carries heat from
fluctuating and changing line
the upstream, to the downstream, coils. The
temperatures and pressures. As temperature differential, generates a
mentioned above for variable-area proportional change in the resistance of the
flowmeters, fluctuating temperatures sensor windings. Special circuits monitor the
resistance change, which is proportional to
and pressures will cause gas density to mass flow, and calibrate it to give a digital
change, yielding significant flow errors. readout of the flow.
Because of the inherent design of the
mass flowmeter, this problem is much less significant than that found in variable-area
flowmeters. Mass flowmeters measure the mass or molecular flow, as opposed to the
volumetric flow. One can think of the mass flowrate as the volumetric flowrate
normalized to a specific temperature and pressure.

A more intuitive way to understand mass versus volumetric measurement is to imagine a

gas-filled ballon. Although the volume of the balloon may be altered by squeezing it
(changing the gas pressure), or by taking the balloon into a hot or cold environment
(changing the gas temperature), the mass of the gas contained inside the balloon remains
constant. So it is with mass flow as opposed to volumetric flow.

35
A variable-area flowmeter measures volumetric flow. The flowrate on the flowtube
reflects the volume of gas passing from the inlet to the outlet. This volume can change
when gas temperatures and pressures change. Because a mass flowmeter is measuring the
actual mass of gas passing form inlet to outlet, there is very little dependence on
fluctuating temperatures and pressures. If you were piping an expensive gas, you would
certainly want to keep track of the amount of gas used based on mass, not volumetric,
flow.

Makers of mass flowmeters measure their products'

ability to withstand changing pressures and temperatures More Details or Order Online:
by giving coefficients that state the deviation of accuracy
per degree or psi change. For example, typical coefficient Aluminum Thermal Gas Mass
Flowmeters
values are 0.10% error per degree C, and 0.02% error per
psi. This means that each degree or psi change away from 316SS Thermal Gas Mass
the meter's calibration conditions will degrade the Flowmeters
accuracy by these coefficient amounts. So, although there
is a dependence on pressure and temperature for a mass meter, its is very small, if not
negligible. This is the biggest advantage of a mass flowmeter. Another is that there are no
moving parts to wear out.

Disadvantages: Aside from the fact that the gas going through the mass flowmeter
should be dry and free from particulate matter, there are no major disadvantage to the
mass flow technology. Mass flowmeters must be calibrated for a given gas or gas blend.

Applications:
Applications for mass flowmeters are diverse, but here are some typical uses:

• Monitoring and controlling air flow during gas chromatography

• Monitoring CO2 for food packaging
• Gas delivery and control for fermenters and bioreactors
• Leak testing
• Hydrogen flow monitoring (e.g., in the utility industry)
• Control of methane or argon to gas burners
• Blending of air into dairy products
• Regulating CO2 injected into bottles during beverage production
• Nitrogen delivery and control for tank blanketing

Go to Top

Coriolis Flowmeters

Design Overview: The Coriolis flowmeter is named for the Coriolis effect, an inertial
force discovered by 19th-century mathematician Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis. as a result of
the Coriolis force, the acceleration of any body moving at a constant speed with respect
to the Earth's surface will be deflected to the right (clockwise) in the northern
hemisphere, and to the left (counter-clockwise) in the southern hemisphere.

36
The basic design of the Coriolis meter makes use of this Coriolis force by subjecting a set
of curved measuring tubes to rotary oscillations about an axis. This oscillation is
normally driven by two electromagnetic coils, which also physically couple the two
curved measuring tubes. As a particular fluid flows through the tubes, it will move
through points of high rotational
velocity, to points of lower Figure 5a (left). In a coriolis flowmeter, the
rotational velocity. Coriolis force FCor, pushes out toward the z-axis as
the fluid moves up through the tube. this force
Upon approaching the tube plane develops as the tube rotates at a rate of W around
the x-axis, and causes the tube to distort out of
in which the rotational axis is the x-y plane
located, the rotational motion of Figure 5b (right). As an example of a single-tube
the fluid element is decelerated at a Coriolis flowmeter, this figure shows the fluid
uniform rate, until it finally reachesforces that generate the twisting motion of the
flow tube
zero in the plane of the rotational
axis. As the fluid element flows away form the rotational axis plane, toward points with
higher rotational velocity, it is uniformly accelerated to increasingly higher rotational
velocities. This produces a force (the Coriolis force) that causes a twisting motion
withing the sensor tubes (Figure 5a).

If v is the velocity of the fluid in the measuring tube, m/s, w the instantaneous angular
speed of rotation, radians/s, and m the mass of liquid in the tube section, kg, then the
following applies to the Coriolis force, kg(m/s) (Note that if the flow is low, you may be
using different units to represent smaller forces):

FCor = -2m(w x v)

The design of the Coriolis flowmeter takes advantage of this force in the following
manner. First, the electromagnetic drivers initiate a vibration or oscillation in the sensor
tube. This oscillation occurs even when there is no fluid moving in the meter.

The amplitude and frequency of this oscillation varies from manufacturer to

manufacturer, but in general, the amplitude is about 3 millimeters, and the frequency is
roughly 75-100 cycles/s. As the fluid element passes through the sensor tubes, the
Coriolis forces come into play. The Coriolis forces cause a twisting, or distortion, in the
measuring tube, which causes a vibrational phase difference between the two tubes.

Some designs use only one sensor tube (figure 5b). In this case, the distortion caused by
the Coriolis force in the tube is compared to the tube at "no flow" conditions. In both
cases, however, a correlation to the mass flowrate is achieved, because the measured
phase difference or distortion is directly proportional to the mass flowrate of the fluid.
Meanwhile, temperature-compensation techniques nullify the temperature dependence of
the tube oscillations, creating a high-accuracy correlation to mass flow.

Advantages: The biggest advantage of the Coriolis design is that it measures mass flow
instead of volumetric flow. Because mass is unaffected by changes in pressure,
temperature, viscosity and density, reasonable fluctuations of these parameters in the

37
fluid line have no affect on the accuracy of the meter, which can approach 0.05% of mass
flow.

Coriolis meters can also determine fluid density by comparing the resonant frequency of
the fluid being measured with that of water. Knowing density, the software can then
convert mass to volume or percent solids.

Since there are no obstructions in the fluid path, Coriolis meters have inherently low
pressure drop for low-viscosity liquids. Turndown ratios (the ratio of maximum to
minimum flow) of 100:1 are not uncommon. In addition, the lifetime and reliability of the
Coriolis meter are high as the flow path is free of moving parts and seals. And, if installed
properly, vertically installed Coriolis meters are self draining, so they will not hold fluid
when the line is down. A variety of wetted parts, communications outputs and
connections are available.

Disadvantages: Because of their high accuracy and reliability, Corilois meters tend to be
relatively expensive. This is not necessarily a disadvantage, however, if one looks at the
relatively low cost of installation and ownership over time (Table 1). Because of their
accuracy, Coriolis meters can help increase operating efficiency and save on production
costs.

The main limitation of the Coriolis meter is that pressure drop can become large as fluid
viscosity increases. For viscous products, check with the manufacturer to make sure the
pressure drop at you max flowrate is acceptable and within your design parameters.

Applications:
Coriolis flowmeters are suitable for:

• General-purpose gas or liquid flow

• Custody transfer
• Monitoring concentration and solids content
• Blending ingredients and additives
• Conducting a primary check on secondary flowmeters
• Metering natural-gas consumption
• Monitoring such fluids as syrups, oils, suspensions and pharmaceuticals

Go to Top

Differential-Pressure Meters

Design overview: While many different types of differential-pressure flowmeters are

available, this discussion will focus on one type. The technology discussed here involves
the measurement of a pressure differential across a stack of laminar flow plates (Figure
6). During operation, a pressuredrop is created as fluid enters through the meter's inlet.
The fluid is forced to form thin laminar streams, which flow in parallel paths between the
internal plates separated by spacers.

38
The pressure differential created by
the fluid drag is measured by a
differential-pressure sensor
connected to the top of the cavity
plate. The differential pressure from
one end of the laminar flow plates to
the other end is linear and
proportional to the flowrate of the
liquid or gas.

What makes this technology unique

is the linear relationship between
differential pressure, viscosity and
flow, which is given by the following
equation
Q = K[P1-P2)/n2]
where (units vary per approach):
Q = Volumetric flowrate
P1 = Static pressure at the inlet
P2 = Static pressure at the outlet
n = Viscosity of the fluid
K = Constant factor determined by the geometry of the restriction
Figure 6
Using a differential-pressure flowmeter, a
pressure drop is created as fluid enters the
inlet. The fluid is forced to form thin laminar
streams, which flow in along parallel plates. The
pressure differential created by fluid drag from
one end of the laminar flow plates to the other
is linear and proportional to the flowrate of the
liquid or the gas.

This direct relationship between pressure, viscosity and flow allows the meter to switch
easily among different gases without recalibration. This is normally accomplished by
programming in the various gas viscosities and allowing the user to dial in the
appropriate gas, via a set of switches.

Variances in temperature and pressure, which often cause errors in variable-area

flowmeters, can be easily handled by adding a pressure sensor (separate form the
differential-pressure sensor in the basic design) and a temperature sensor to the design, to
constantly monitor fluctuations in stream pressure and temperature, and correct the flow
readings to standard pressure and temperature (77°F and 1 atm). This is critical for gas
flowmeters, which are very sensitive to these parameters. Typical accuracy for the design
is ±2-3% fullscale.

Advantages: As with mass flowmeters, the differential-pressure meter has no moving

parts to wear out. And, unlike with mass flowmeters, users of differential-pressure meters
can measure different gases, such as air, hydrogen, ethane, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, helium, oxygen, argon, propane and neon, by setting a switch
on the unit, without the need for recalibration.

For control applications, these meters are available with a built-in proportioning valve for
onboard or remote control of the flowrate. With a wide variety of flow ranges and models

39
for both gases and liquids, the differential-pressure meter is one of the most versatile
designs currently on the market.

Disadvantages: These meters are generally reserved for use with clean gases and liquids.
particulates with diameters >20 to 30 micrometers could get caught between the plates.

Applications:
Viable applications include the following:

• Chemical applications (ratio, metering, and additive control)

• Pharmaceutical applications (liquid injection and batching)
• Research and development, and laboratory applications (gas blending, injection
and aeration)
• Food and beverage applications (CO2 measurements, air drying, and process
control)

Go to Top

Turbine Meters

Design Overview: Many designs exist for turbine flowmeters, but most are a variation on
the same theme. As fluid flows through the meter, a turbine rotates at a speed that is
proportional to the flowrate (Figure 7). Signal generators, usually located within the rotor
itself, provide magnetic pulses that are electronically sensed through a pickup coil (the
yellow pickup coil shown in Figure 7) and calibrated to read flow units. In some designs,
an integral display may show both the flowrate and the total flow since power-up.
Turbine meters are available for both gas and liquid flow.

Because of the rotating blades in a turbine meter, the output

signal will be a sine wave voltage (V) of the form:

V=KwsinNwt
Figure 7
where: This cutaway view of a
turbine flowmeter
K = The amplitude of one sine wave shows the turbines
w = The rotational velocity of the blades and signal generators
N = The number of blades that pass the pickup in one full used to produce
rotation voltage pulses that are
proportional to the
t = Time flowrate.

Because the output signal is proportional to the rotational velocity of the turbines—
which, in turn, is proportional to the liquid flow—the signal is easily scaled and
calibrated to read flowrate and flow totalization. Turbine flow sensors generally have
accuracies in the range of ±0.25-1% fullscale.

40
Advantages: The main advantages of the turbine meter are its high accuracy (±0.25%
accuracy or better is not unusual) and repeatability, fast response rate (down to a few
milliseconds), high pressure and temperature capabilities (i.e., up to 5,000 psi and 800°F
with high-temperature pick coils), and compact rugged construction. Some
manufacturer's have taken turbine meter design to the next level by incorporating
advanced electronics that perform temperature compensation, signal conditioning and
linearization, all within a few milliseconds. This advanced technology will allow the
meter to automatically compensate for viscosity and density effects.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage of the turbine meter is More Details or Order Online:
that is relatively expensive and has rotating parts that
Turbine Meters with
could clog from larger suspended solids in the liquid
4-20 mA Output
stream. And, most turbine meters need a straight section
of pipe upstream from the flowmeter in order to reduce Turbine Meters with Battery-
turbulent flow. This may make installation a challenge in Powered Display
small areas. However, some newer turbine meters reduce
or eliminate the amount of straight pipe required upstream, by incorporating flow
straighteners into the body of the unit.

Another disadvantage in some designs is a loss of linearity at the low-flow end. Low-
velocity performance and calibration can be affected by the natural change in bearing
friction over time. However, today's self-lubricated retainers, low-drag fluid bearings, and
jeweled-pivot bearings all help to reduce the friction points, thereby allowing for greater
accuracy and repeatability in lower-flow applications.

Applications:
Turbine flowmeters can be found in a wide variety of industries and applications:

• Rotometer replacement
• Pilot plants
• Research and development facilities
• Cooling water monitoring
• Inventory control
• Test stands
• Water consumption
• Makeup water

Go to Top

Oval-Gear Flowmeters

Design Overview: The design of the oval-gear flowmeter is relatively simple: oval-
shaped, gear-toothed rotors rotate within a chamber of specified geometry (Figure 8). As
these rotors turn, they sweep out and trap a very precise volume of fluid between the
outer oval shape of the gears and the inner chamber walls, with none of the fluid actually
passing trough the gear teeth. Normally, magnets are embedded in the rotors, which then

41
can actuate a reed switch or provide a pulse output via a specialized, designated sensor
(such as a Hall Effect sensor). Each pulse or switch closure then represents a precise
increment of liquid volume that passes through the
meter. The result is a high accuracy (usually ±0.5
percent of reading) and resolution, and almost negligible
effects for varying fluid viscosity, density and
temperature. Figure 8
During operarion, each gear
rotation in the oval-gear
When sizing an oval-gear flowmeter, keep in mind that meter traps a pocket of fluid
the higher the fluid viscosity, the more pressure will be between the gear and the
required to "push" the fluid into the flowmeter and outer chamber walls. A
designated sensor counts the
around the gears. Essentially, the pressure drop is the pockets of fluids passing from
only limiting factor when the application requires the inlet to outlet, and correlates
metering of highly viscous liquids. this value to a flowrate.

The general rule is that as long as the fluid will flow, and as long as there is enough
system pressure, the oval-gear meter will be able to measure the flow. In applications
where the lowest possible pressure drop is required, some manufacturers can replace the
standard rotors with specially cut, high-viscosity rotors. The manufacturer will be able to
provide a graph of flowrate versus pressure drop for various viscosities.

The oval-gear flowmeter works best when there is a little backpressure in the line; a
throttling valve on the meter outlet usually works just fine. The oval-gear meter is not
suitable for gases, including steam and multi-phase fluids.

Advantages: The advantage of the oval-gear flowmeter is More Details or Order Online:
the it is, withing certain limits, largely independent of the
fluid viscosity (users should just remain aware that higher Oval Gear Flowmeters with
pressures will be required to push higher-viscosity fluids Integral Display
through the meter). This opens up a whole range of applications, including the metering
of oils, syrups and fuels.

Ease of installation is another advantage of th oval design. Because no straight pipe runs
or flow conditioning is required, these meters can be installed in tight areas, allowing for
more flexibility in application design.

Disadvantage: Oval-gear meters are generally not recommended for water or water-like
fluids, because the increased risk of fluid slippage between the gears and chamber walls.
Fluid slippage will cause a slight degradation in accuracy, with low-viscosity fluids being
more prone to degradation. As viscosity increases, the wall slippage quickly becomes
minimal, and the best accuracy is realized. Since the oval-gear meter is really designed
for higher-viscosity fluids, it can be argued that running water through them is not a
viable application anyway.

Applications:
Oval meters are best suited for the following applications:

42
 • Measurement of net fuel use in boilers and engines
•
• Verification of proper bearing-lubricant delivery in hydraulic applications
• Monitoring of paper-finishing chemicals
• Monitoring the flow of wax finishes
• Monitoring syrup injection in main beverage lines
• Monitoring and batching volumes of thick candy coating
• Monitoring and automating the dispensing of cooking oils

The specifications for the six flowmeter designs discussed above will vary widely from
manufacturer to manufacturer, and the performance values provided represent an average.
When selecting a flowmeter for a given attribute, the engineer should consider additional
attributes—including velocity-profile deviations, the effect of non-homogeneous or
pulsating flow, and cavitation, all of which will affect flowmeter choice, installation and
operation. While beyond the scope of this article, a thorough discussion of these
parameters can be found in Ref. 5.

Selecting the Right Flowmeter—Part 2

Use pros and cons to select
from these unique flowmeter technologies!
By Corte Swearingen
Reprinted from the January 2001 edition of Chemical Engineering magazine
The Bubble Flowmeter The Doppler Flowmeter
The Transit-Time Flowmeter
The Vortex Flowmeter The Magnetic Flowmeter
Final Words Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters References

In this article, five flow-measurement technologies are summarized: bubble, Doppler,

transit-time, vortex, and magnetic.

After reviewing the basic design parameters and highlighting the pros and cons
associated with each flowmeter type, process applications for each technology will be
discussed. The information is then summarized at the end of this article in a table (Table
1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters), which compares the various attributes of
these five technologies, such as accuracy, maximum pressures and temperatures, and
average costs. The intention of this article is not to recommend a flowmeter for every
possible application, but rather to provide the basic knowledge needed to make an
informed flowmeter selection among these types for a given application.

The Bubble Flowmeter

43
The bubble flowmeter is not as well known as other types. This is unfortunate, since the
bubble meter offers some features not found in more-expensive and more-intricate
designs.

Design Overview: Historically, the bubble meter has found its niche in the field of gas-
chromatography analysis where it is used to measure column, detector, and carrier-gas
flowrates. Today, however, the bubble meter is available in a larger variety of flow ranges
for both liquids and gases, which greatly increases the number of potential applications.

Although there are manual bubble meters that require

timing of the bubble movement with a stopwatch and
referencing from a printed flowrate chart, this discussion
focuses on the more-sophisticated electronic flowmeters
that give a digital readout without operator involvement.
There are two general designs to a bubble meter; the
designs are distinctly different for gases and for liquids.

The bubble meter design for liquids makes use of a timed

measurement of a meniscus rising between two optical
sensors (Figure 1). In order to understand how this
technology is able to measure the volumetric flowrate, one
may follow the fluid path inside the flowmeter from the
beginning to the end. First, fluid enters the inlet and moves
up inside the glass tube, past the sensor block and around Figure 1
the tube toward the outlet. As this happens, the solenoid In a liquid-bubble meter,
valve is timed to periodically open and close, thereby the speed of the meniscus
sucking a small amount of air into the tube. This creates created by the air gap is
measured within the
separate columns of liquid that move upward inside the optical sensor block. The
tube, and toward the optical-sensor block. The meniscus elapsed time for the
that is formed by these columns of fluid against the glass meniscus to pass between
capillary-tube walls is measured by the optical sensors. the lower and upper sensor
block is proportional to the
Since the meniscus travels at the same rate as the column volumetric flowrate.
of fluid, measuring the rate of meniscus-travel gives a
direct correlation to the liquid flow.

Two infrared sensors located within the sensor block time the rise rate of the meniscus,
and this volume-over-time measurement is then converted to a flowrate and displayed on
a digital readout. As the fluid moves around the top of the tube, air is vented at the top
while the liquid continues around and exits at the overflow tube. The process then repeats
itself as the solenoid valve opens to create another air gap.

44
By comparison, the bubble design for gas flow works a little
differently although the same basic concept remains (Figure
2). For the gas bubble flowmeters, a soapy solution is used to
fill the lower reservoir of the glass flow tube. The gas flow
source is then connected to a point above the bubble-solution
reservoir and gas travels around to the glass flow tube. At this
point, the rubber bulb is either manually squeezed or a clamp Figure 2
The gas-bubble meter
is used to continuously generate bubbles that travel at the works very similarly to
same speed as the gas. the liquid-bubble meter,
but instead of a liquid
meniscus, a bubble is
When the bubble passes the lower optical sensor within the created in the flow
sensor block, an internal timer is automatically started, and stream, and it is the
when the bubble passes the upper optical sensor, the timer is speed of the bubble that
stopped. The total elapsed time is correlated to a gas flowrate is timed between the
sensor blocks.
and displayed on a digital readout. The small amount of
liquid soap left over from the process collects in the flow trap (partially shown in the
back of the unit) for disposal.

Advantages: The major advantage of the bubble meter for gases is that it is not affected
by the gas composition. By contrast, most electronic meters must be calibrated for a
specific gas or gas mixture. The traditional gas mass flowmeter is a good example of this.
A mass flowmeter calibrated for air will not work on other gases or gas mixtures without
factory recalibration. When the gas is changed, the calibration must be updated.

This is not the case with a bubble flowmeter. Whether one is measuring ordinary gases
such as N2, O2, H2, CO2, and Ar, or measuring a unique gas mixture, one bubble meter can
do it all. This versatility helps to lower equipment costs and can save recalibration time.
Admittedly, it should be kept in mind that some gases may have a chemical reaction with
he water used to make the bubble solution; the user should be careful when specifying
bubble flowmeters for such compounds.

Another useful advantage of the bubble design is that the calibration does not drift over
time. The main electrical parts of the system are the optical sensors for detecting the
presence or absence of a bubble or meniscus layer. These noncontact sensors do not wear
out or experience a drift in accuracy. The glass tube is fixed in diameter and will not
change with time. Although we recommend returning the unit periodically for calibration
service, don't be surprised if it is still well within the specified accuracy range.

In the gas-chromatography market, bubble meters can be qualified as a primary flow

standard. Each unit can be individually calibrated to a U.S. National Institute of
Standards and Technology (Gaithersburg, MD.; nist.gov) registered burette.

Traditionally only available for very low flowrates, bubble flowmeters are now available
for expanded flowrate-ranges. While gas flows ranging from 0.1 to 25 L/min can be
accurately measured, liquid bubble meters don't have quite the range as the gas versions
and are available in sizes ranging from roughly 1 ml/min to 30 ml/min.

45
Disadvantages: In order to make an inline measurement with a bubble flowmeter, one
needs to make a break in the line where the flow reading is desired, then make
measurement and finally restore the line to its original condition. Bubble meters are
therefore adequate for "end-of-line" readings, but are not well suited for continuous, in-
line monitoring. In some applications, the use of a bubble solution could be a minor
inconvenience, since it needs to be cleaned up after the measurement.

Applications: Bubble meters are most appropriately applied in laboratory and low flow
research applications. Their use in more industrial applications is extremely limited.
Some of the popular applications for a bubble flowmeter include:

• Supercritical fluid extraction

• Chromatography column, detector, and carrier-gas measurement
• Monitoring post detector flow volumes in HPLC systems
• Calibration and flow verification for variable area and electronic flowmeters
• Accurate flow measurement of gas mixtures without recalibration
• Accurate flow measurement of changing gas concentrations
• Calibration of air sampling pumps
• General purpose gas flow verification

The Doppler Flowmeter

Anyone that has heard the pitch of a train whistle change as the train passes has
experienced the Doppler effect, named after the 19th century Austrian scientist Christian
Doppler. This effect can be used to measure the flow in a pipe.

Design Overview: The Doppler effect is the frequency shift that occurs when a sound
source (transmitter) is in relative motion with a receiver of that sound source. In the case
of a Doppler flowmeter, we have two sensors mounted or strapped on the outside of a
pipe. One of the sensors is the transmitter, and transmits a high frequency (ultrasonic)
signal into the pipe. This signal is
reflected off particulate matter or
entrained gas bubbles in the fluid. The
reflected signal is then picked up by the
receiving signal and the frequency
difference between the transmitted and
reflected signals is measured and
correlated into an instantaneous flowrate
or flow total (Figure 3).

The frequency is subject to two velocity Figure 3

changes; one upstream and the other
downstream. Traveling upstream, the
velocity of the wave is given as (Vs - V
This illustration shows the Doppler signal
penetrating the pipe and then reflecting off
the particulates in the stream. The signal
phase shift is measured and correlated to a
flow velocity.

46
cosθ) where Vs equals the velocity of sound in the fluid, V equals the average fluid
velocity and θ equals the angle of the ultrasonic beam to the fluid flow. Similarly, the
downstream velocity is given as (Vs + V cosθ). The Doppler relationship between the
reflected and transmitted frequencies can now be expressed as:

fr = ft[(Vs+V cosθ)/(Vs - V cosθ)]

Here, fr is the received frequency and ft is the transmitted frequency. To further simplify
this equation, one can assume that the velocity of the fluid in the pipe is much lower than
the velocity of sound in the pipe; that is,
V << Vs. With this assumption, one can write:

fr = ft[(Vs + V cosθ)/Vs + (V cosθ)]/Vs

Which reduces further to

fr = ft[1 + (2V cosθ)/Vs]

The frequency shift is given by Δf = fr-ft so that

Δf = [2(ft) cosθ/Vs]V

Because (2ft cosθ/Vs) is a constant, one can write the final equation as

Δf = kV

where

k = 2(ft) cosθ/Vs

This indicates that the fluid velocity in the pipe is directly proportional to the change in
frequency between the transmitted and reflected ultrasonic signals. With knowledge of
the pipe size, the electronics of the flowmeter will correlate the fluid velocity into a
flowrate in the engineering unit of choice. Software corrections may have to be made for
Vs, since the sound velocity through the medium will change with pressure and
temperature fluctuations.

There are ultrasonic designs on the market that use a series of pulsed signals, as opposed
to a continuous ultrasonic beam. The main advantage of the pulsed technology is that it
can measure the vertical velocity profile within the pipe. Fluid flow will be faster along
the middle of the pipe than along the pipe walls and the pulse-design allows one to obtain
a better image the flow profile within the pipe.

Another sensor design that minimizes external noise uses dual-frequency Doppler
technology to send two independent signals into the pipe at different frequencies. Since

47
both signals are subject to the same Doppler shift, but the noise signals are random, the
signals can be combined to calculate a flow velocity while subtracting out the noise.

Ultrasonic sensors can be used with a wide variety of pipe materials, but some will not
allow the signal to pass through. Although pipe material recommendations will vary
depending on the sensor design, you should not expect to have any problems with carbon
steel, stainless steel, PVC, and copper. However, pipes made of concrete, fiberglass, iron,
and plastic pipes with liners, could pose transmission problems. One should check with
the particular manufacturer to ensure that the pipe material is suitable. Some Doppler
designs utilize a section of pipe with built-in transducers that make direct contact with the
fluid. This design, although no longer non-invasive, eliminates the problem of
incompatible pipe materials.

The accuracy of the ultrasonic Doppler meter is typically around ±2% of full scale.
Minimum concentration and particulate size required is roughly 25 PPM at 30 microns.
Since some meters may require slightly larger concentrations, it is a good idea to check
with the manufacturer. The vast majority of Doppler meters are used for liquids (roughly
88%) while the rest are used for gas (11%) and steam (1%) applications.

Advantages: The main advantage of the Doppler ultrasonic meter is its non-intrusive
design. An acoustic-coupling compound is used on the surface of the pipe and the sensors
are simply held in place to take a measurement or, for a more permanent installation, they
are strapped around the pipe. Some manufacturers offer a special clamp-on probe which
allows connection to smaller pipe sizes (down to 1/4-in. diameter). Other advantages
include:

• Easy installation and removal—no process downtime during installation

• No moving parts to wear out
• Zero pressure drop
• No process contamination
• Works well with dirty or corrosive fluids
• Works with pipe sizes ranging from 1/2" to 200"
• No leakage potential
• Meters are available that work with laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow
characteristics
• Battery powered units are available for remote or field applications
• Sensors are available for pulsating flows
• Advanced software and datalogging features available
• Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations

Disadvantages: Every flowmeter has its disadvantages and the Doppler design is no
exception. The main disadvantage to the technology is the fact that the liquid stream must
have particulates, bubbles, or other types of solids in order to reflect the ultrasonic signal.
This means that the Doppler meter is not a good choice for DI water or very clean fluids.
Although strides have been made with the Doppler technology so that it can work with
smaller particulate sizes and smaller concentrations, one still needs to have some

48
particulates present (one design avoids this problem by placing a 90-deg. elbow a few
pipe diameters upstream of the flow sensor, and sensing the turbulent swirls created by
the elbow). A good rule of thumb is to have a bare minimum of 25 PPM at roughly 30
microns in order for the ultrasonic signal to be reflected efficiently. Some flowmeter
designs may require a little more than this, so it is advisable to check the specifications of
the meter one is considering.

Note that if the solids content is too high (around 50% and higher by weight), the
ultrasonic signal may attenuate beyond the limits of measurability. This possibility should
also be checked with the manufacturer, referring to one's specific application. Another
disadvantage is that the accuracy can depend on particle-size distribution and
concentration and also on any relative velocity that may exist between the particulates
and the fluid. If there are not enough particulates available, the repeatability will also
degrade.

Finally, the only other potential problem of this technology is that it can have trouble
operating at very low flow velocities. If you suspect this may be a problem for an
application, the low-end velocity that may be obtained with a particular sensor design
should be checked with the manufacturer.

Applications: Doppler meters, being non-instrusive, have a wide variety of applications

in the water, waste water, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC),HVAC,
petroleum and general process markets. Below is a list of viable applications:

• Influent and effluent water flow

• Clarifier monitoring
• Digester feed control
• Waste water
• Potable water
• Cooling water
• Makeup water
• Hot and chilled water
• Custody transfer
• Water injection
• Crude-oil flow
• Mining slurries
• Acids
• Caustics
• Liquefied gases

The Transit-Time Flowmeter

Design Overview: Like its Doppler cousin, transit-time meters utilize an ultrasonic pulse
that is projected into and across the pipe. The design works on a slightly different
principle, however. The basic premise of the transit-time meter is to measure the time

49
difference (or frequency shift) between the
time of flight down-stream and the time of
flight up-stream. This frequency shift can
then be correlated into a fluid flowrate
through the pipe. To help explain one type
of transit-time design, Figure 4a shows
two transducers attached to a pipe.

In this figure, V is the average fluid

velocity, Z is the distance from the
upstream transducer to the downstream Figure 4a
This diagram of a transit-time flowmeter
transducer, and q is the angle between the shows the downstream signal being
ultrasonic-beam line and the horizontal projected between the two transit-time
fluid flow. The time it takes for the sensors.
ultrasonic signal to go from the upstream transducer to the downstream transducer can be
written as

tdown = Z/(Vs + V cosθ)

where Vs is the velocity of sound through the liquid. The upstream time can be written as
(Figure 4b):

tup = Z/(Vs - V cosθ)

Because the upstream and downstream frequencies can be generated in proportion to their
respective transit-times, we can say the following:

fdown = 1/tdown

and

fup = 1/tup

where fdown and fup represent the downstream and upstream frequencies respectively. The
change in frequency can then be given as

Δf = fdown - fup = 1/tdown - 1/tup

By substitution, one obtains

Δf = (Vs + V cosθ)/Z - (Vs - V cosθ)/Z = (2 cosθ/Z)V

Since (2 cosθ/Z) is just a constant, one can write the final equation as

Δf = kV

50
with

k = 2 cosθ/Z

This, then, is the basic relationship used to

determine flow velocity from the
measured frequency shift. The flow rate
can then be calculated using a Reynolds-
number correction for velocity profile and
by programming in the internal pipe
diameter. The Reynolds-number
correction takes into account the behavior
of the fluid as being laminar, transitional Figure 4b
This diagram shows the upstream signal
or turbulent. These calculations are made projection. The frequency difference
electronically and the flowrate or flow between the upstream and downstream
total can then be displayed in the times is proportional to the flow velocity.
engineering units of choice. Interestingly enough in this instrument, the frequency shift is
measured independently of Vs. This is an advantage, since corrections will not have to be
made for the variance of Vs because of line-pressure and temperature fluctuations. Most
transit-time applications involve liquids, but designs are available to handle gases, as
well.

In light of the single path design discussed above, note that a single ultrasonic pulse will
average the velocity profile across the transit path, and not across the pipe cross-section,
where better accuracy would be obtained. Some flowmeters on the market send several
ultrasonic pulses on separate paths in order to average this velocity profile; these meters
tend to have better accuracy than their single-pulse counterparts. Transit-time flowmeters
generally exhibit accuracies of around ±1% of the measured velocity. Pipe-material
recommendations are the same as those given for Doppler flowmeters.

Advantages: As pointed out, the main advantage of the transit-time meter is that it works
non-invasively with ultrapure fluids. This allows the user to maintain the integrity of the
fluid while still measuring the flow. Some of the other advantages are listed below.

• Easy installation—transducer set clamps onto pipe

• No moving parts to wear out
• Zero pressure drop
• Can detect zero flow
• No process contamination
• Works well with clean and ultrapure fluids
• Works with pipe sizes ranging from 1" to 200"
• No leakage potential
• Meters available that work with laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow
characteristics
• Battery powered units available for remote or field applications
• Sensors available for pulsating flows

51
 • Advanced software and datalogging features available
• Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations

Disadvantages: Transit-time flowmeter performance can suffer from pipe-wall

interference, and accuracy and repeatability problems can result if there are any air spaces
between the fluid and the pipe wall. Concrete, fiberglass and pipes lined with plastic can
attenuate the signal enough to make the flowmeter unusable. Because these factors can
vary from one design to the next, it is advisable to check with the manufacturer to ensure
that the pipe material is appropriate.

As mentioned before, the transit-time meters will not operate on dirty, bubbly, or
particulate-laden fluids. Sometimes, the purity of a fluid may fluctuate so as to affect the
accuracy of the flow measurement. For such cases, there are hybrid meters on the market
that will access the fluid conditions within the pipe and automatically chose Doppler or
transit-time operations where appropriate. These units are especially useful if the unit is
to be used in a wide variety of different applications which may range from dirty to clean
fluids.

Applications: Transit-time meters have wide applicability for flow measurement of clean
or ultrapure streams. Some of these applications are listed below.

• Clean water flowrate in water treatment plants

• Hot or cold water in power plants, airports, universities, shopping malls, hospitals
and other commercial buildings
• Pure and ultra-pure fluids in semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and the food &
beverage industries
• Acids and liquefied gases in the chemical industry
• Light to medium crude oils in the petroleum refining industry
• Water distribution systems used in agriculture and irrigation
• Cryogenic liquids
• Gas-stack flow measurement in power plant scrubbers

The Vortex Flowmeter

Design Overview: At 11 a.m. on November 7th, 1940 the Tacoma Narrows suspension
bridge in the state of Washington collapsed from wind-induced vibrations. The torsional
motion of the bridge shortly before its collapse is an indication of the power of vortex
shedding. The prevailing theory on the collapse of the bridge is that the oscillations were
caused by the shedding of turbulent vortices in a periodic manner. Experimental
observations have in fact shown that broad flat obstacles (also referred to as bluff bodies)
produce periodic swirling vortices which generate high and low pressure regions directly

52
behind the bluff body. The rate at which these vortices shed is given by the following
equation:

f = SV/L

where,
f = the frequency of the vortices
L = the characteristic length of the bluff body
V = the velocity of the flow over the bluff body
S = Strouhal Number and is a constant for a given body shape

In the case of the Tacoma bridge, a wind speed of approximately 40 mph caused the
formation of vortices around the 8-ft.-deep, steel plate girders of the bridge. This
established vortices which were shed, according to the above equation, at approximately
1 Hz. As the structural oscillations constructively reinforced, the bridge began oscillating,
building up amplitude, until it could no longer hold itself together.

Another less tragic example of the vortex principle can be seen in the waving motion of a
flag. The flag pole, acting as a bluff body, creates swirling vortices behind it that give the
flag its "flapping" quality in strong winds.

A practical application of vortex production can be

found in the design of the vortex flowmeter. In this
design, a bluff body or bodies is placed within the
fluid stream. Just behind the bluff body, a pressure
transducer, thermistor, or ultrasonic sensor picks
up the high and low pressure and velocity
fluctuations as the vortices move past the sensor
(Figure 5). These fluctuations are linear, directly Figure 5
As fluid moves around the baffles,
proportional to the flowrate and independent of vortices form and move
fluid density, pressure, temperature and viscosity downstream. The frequency of the
(within certain limits). As given explicitly in the vortices is directly proportional to
above equation, the frequency of the vortices is the flowrate.
directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Vortex meters are very flexible and the
technology can be used for liquid, gas and steam measurements. This, along with the fact
that they have no moving parts, makes them a very popular choice. Accuracies are
typically in the ±1% range.

Generally speaking, in-line vortex meters are available in line sizes ranging from 1/2 to
16". Insertion vortex meters that are installed in the top or sides of a pipe can be used for
even larger pipe sizes. This makes them versatile in a wide variety of applications (Figure
6).

One final remark concerns the Reynolds number limitations for these flowmeters. For
vortex meters, vortices will not be shed under a Reynolds number of approximately 2000.
From roughly 2000 to 10,000, vortices will be shed but the resulting fluctuations are non-

53
linear in this range. Typically, a minimum Reynolds number
of 10,000 is required in order get optimum performance from
the vortex flowmeter. This number can vary from one design
to another, so it is advisable to check with the manufacturer.

Advantages: The advantages of a vortex meter are many.

They are summarized below:

• No moving parts to wear

• No routine maintenance required Figure 6
• Can be used for liquids, gases, and steam This photo shows a
typical vortex meter. It
• Stable long term accuracy and repeatability may be installed
• Lower cost of installation than traditional orifice-type horizontally or vertically
meters in the pipe.
• Available in a wide variety of temperature ranges from -300F to roughly 800F
• Bar-like bluff design allows particulates to pass through without getting clogged
• Available for a wide variety of pipe sizes
• Available in a wide variety of communication protocols

Disadvantages: There are only a couple of things to watch out for when considering a
vortex meter. First, they are not a good choice for very low fluid velocities, and therefore
cannot be recommended below about 0.3 ft/sec. At this low flowrate, the vortices are not
strong enough to be picked up accurately.

In addition to the above, be aware that a minimum length of straight-run pipe is required
upstream and downstream of the meter for the accurate creation of vortices within the
flowmeter. Ten pipe diameters before and after the point of installation are typically
recommended, but the minimum length could be greater if there are elbows or valves
nearby. This is only a disadvantage if the installation area does not allow for this straight
run of pipe.

Applications: Vortex meters have become extremely popular in recent years and are used
in a variety of applications and industries. Below is a summary of some of the main uses
of a vortex meter.

• Custody transfer of natural gas metering

• Flow of liquid suspensions
• Higher viscosity fluids
• Steam measurement
• General water applications
• Chilled and hot water
• Water/glycol mixtures
• Condensate measurement
• Potable water
• Ultrapure & de-ionized water
• Acids

54
 • Solvents

Vortex meters are also used widely in the oil, gas, petrochemical, and pulp & paper
industries.

Go to Top

The Magnetic Flowmeter

Design Overview: The basic design

principle of the magnetic flowmeter
(Figure 7) is derived from Faraday's law
of induction, which states that the
voltage generated in a closed circuit is
directly proportional to the amount of
magnetic flux that intersects the circuit
at right angles.

In this design, magnets are positioned

above and below the pipe to produce a Figure 7
magnetic flux (B) along the Y-axis. This illustration shows the principle of the
Because of the movement of conductive manetic flowmeter. As magnetic flux is
fluid, at right angles to this magnetic produced upward along the Y-axis, a voltage
develops across the meter electrodes as
field and at a velocity V along the Z- conductive fluid moves through the pipe. The
axis, a potential is induced into the flow voltage signal is directly proportional to the
stream. The instantaneous voltage fluid velocity.
produced between the electrodes is proportional to the fluid flow through the pipe. For
this design, one can rewrite Faraday's Law as follows:

E = kBdV

where,
E = the induced voltage between the sensing electrodes
k = a constant
B = the magnetic flux density
d = the distance between electrodes (equivalent to the pipe diameter)
V = the velocity of the fluid

Linear flow through a pipe can be expressed as the volumetric flowrate Q, divided by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe A; therefore one can write

V = Q/A = 4Q/πd2

Substituting this into the Faraday equation gives

E = (4k/πd)BQ

55
This can be solved for the volumetric flow rate Q, and leads to

Q = (πd/4k)E/B

This final equation shows that the volumetric flowrate Q is directly proportional to the
induced voltage, E, between the electrodes.

There are two main methods of producing the magnetic flux density, B, across the pipe;
alternating-current (a.c.) excitation, or pulsed, direct-current (d.c.) excitation.

In order to avoid past polarization problems encountered in a d.c.-excitation design, some

magmeters use an a.c. excitation voltage. In this design, an a.c. voltage is used to create
the magnetic field which, in turn, produces a varying-voltage signal across the electrodes.
This is not a problem since the amplitude of the voltage, E, will still be proportional to
the fluid velocity.

However, the development of some induction voltages across both the transformer coils
and the electrodes is undesirable. For induction voltages that are 90 degrees out of phase
with the signal voltage (called quadrature voltages), a phase-sensitive filtering circuit
eliminates the unwanted voltage. Induction voltages that are in phase with the signal
voltage can be eliminated with special zeroing procedures but this usually requires the
fluid flow in the pipe to be fully stopped before zeroing; this may not be feasible in some
applications.

Response time is quicker with a.c. excitation than with d.c. pulse-type units. This can be
an advantage if the process flow changes quickly or contains hard particulate matter, like
sludge, pulp-and-paper stock, mining slurries and polymers. Hard particulates impinging
on the electrodes can generate signals that can be mistaken for noise as opposed to the
actual flow signal. The 60-HZ sampling of the AC design will work very well in
distinguishing between noise and actual flow signals in these types of applications.
Outside of these more specialized cases however, the d.c.-pulse design is more widely
used since it eliminates many of the above-mentioned induction-voltages altogether.

In pulsed-d.c. excitation, the electromagnet coils are energized in short pulses or bursts.
The electrode voltage is then measured before and after the d.c. excitation and the voltage
difference is proportional to the flowrate. The advantage of the d.c. pulse design is that it
eliminates the induction voltages described above, as well as the need to re-zero the
meter at no flow conditions. Normally, the d.c. excitation is pulsed around 10 to 15 Hz.
Some companies, in an effort to provide the advantages of the a.c. design, have increased
the d.c. pulsing to 100 Hz. While this certainly allows the meter to handle more difficult
flows, it may increase the amount of heat generated in the coils and can affect the lifetime
of the instrument. Some new designs claim to minimize this heating effect.

56
As a final mention, it is worth noting that some magmeter
designs have solved the problem of coating-type fluids
leaving a non-conductive deposit on the meter electrodes. By
embedding metal sheets in the magmeter lining, the
electrodes no longer come in direct contact with the fluid, and
the measured parameter becomes capacitance instead of
voltage.

Advantages: The magmeter offers some very nice Figure 8

This photo shows a
advantages. They are summarized below: typical magnetic
flowmeter, which can be
• Obstructionless flow installed horizontally or
vertically in the pipe.
• Virtually no pressure drop
• Insensitivity to viscosity, specific gravity, temperature and pressure (within certain
limitations)
• Will work with laminar, turbulent, and transitional flows
• Can respond well to fast changing flows (for high-frequency d.c.—pulse and a.c.
—excitation designs only)
• Good accuracy (0.5 to 1%)
• No moving parts
• Can handle slurries and heavy particulates
• Lining protectors available for harsh, chemically corrosive, and abrasive fluids
• Inline and insertion designs available to handle pipe sizes from approximately
1/10" to 96"
• Available in a wide variety of communication protocols

Disadvantages: The only main disadvantage of the magmeter is that the fluid needs to be
conductive. Therefore, liquids such as hydrocarbons and de-ionized water are not viable
applications. The minimum required conductivity is normally in the range of 1-5
microSiemans/cm (mS/cm) but will vary from design to design. One manufacturer claims
a minimum conductivity of 0.008 mS/cm while another recommends 20 mS/cm. Again, it
is advisable to check with particular manufacturer's requirements.

The only other item to point out is that because this technology utilizes magnetic and
electric fields, the pipe must normally be grounded. There are special grounding
procedures that need to be followed for conductive piping; and for plastic pipes, special
grounding rings must be used. Although this is technically not a disadvantage, it does add
another step to the installation process and failure to properly ground the pipe can result
in fluctuating flow signals.

Finally, it is not recommended to use graphite gaskets when installing a magmeter since
the graphite could cause an electrically conductive layer to build up on the inside wall of
the meter, causing erroneous signals. In the same spirit, it almost goes without saying that
installation in an area containing stray electromagnetic or electrostatic fields is not
recommended.

57
Applications: The magmeter can handle a wide variety of applications. Some of them are
listed below:

• Water
• A variety of industrial effluents
• Paper pulp
• Mining slurries
• Brine
• Sludge
• Liquid food products
• Detergents
• Sewage
• Corrosive acids
• Solid bearing fluids
• Electrolytes
• Process chemicals

Problem liquids include petroleum products, crude oil, deionized water, and
vegetable/animal fats.

Go to Top

Final Words

A word of caution: The technologies discussed within this article represent an overview
of what is available on the market and the values in Table 1 are average values. While
there are hundreds of different designs available, the purpose of this article is to give the
reader enough knowledge to narrow down their application to one or two flowmeter
technologies. For specific issues or additional design-parameters that should be
considered, the manufacturers should be apprached.

Go to Top

Table 1: A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters

Transit-
Attribute Bubble Doppler Vortex Magnetic
Time
Gases Yes Yes1 Yes1 Yes No
1 1
Steam No Yes Yes Yes No
Liquids Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Viscous
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
liquids2
Corrosive Not
Yes Yes Yes Yes
liquids recommended
Typical 2%3 2%4 0.5%4 0.75- 0.5-1%5

58
 Accuracy 1.5%5
Typical
1%3 0.5%4 0.2%4 0.2%5 0.2%5
Repeatability
Max 300 to
Vent6 N/A7 N/A7 600-800
pressure, psi 400
Max temp., 400 to
212 N/A7 N/A7 250-300
°F 500
Max pressure 15 to
negligible negligible negligible negligible
drop, psi 20
Typical
turndown 300 to 1 50 to 1 N/A9 20 to 1 20 to 1
ratio8
Average $2,000 to $5,000 to $800 to $2,000 to
$600
cost10 $5,000 $8,000 $2,000 $3,000

1. While specialized Doppler and transit-time meters will work for gases and steam, they
represent a small percentage of all Doppler and transit-time applications.
2. Upper viscosity limit will vary per manufacturer.
3. % of full-scale.
4. % of velocity.
5. % of flowrate.
6. Outlet must be vented to atmosphere
7. Non-contact device.
8. The turndown ratio is the ratio of maximum flow to minimum flow, also known as
rangeability.
9. Transit-time technology can measure down to zero flow.
10. Cost values vary depending on process temperature and pressure, accuracy required
and approvals needed.

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