Lecture 1 - Introduction (Posting)

ChE 412:
Momentum Transfer
(Fluid Mechanics)
1. Introduction
Prof. Philipina A. Marcelo, Ph. D.
Chemical Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering
University of Santo Tomas
Prof. Philipina A. Marcelo, Ph.D.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction EVERYTHING FLOWS!
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
What is Fluid? A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on

by shearing stress of any magnitude.
• A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a tangential force
acts on a surface.
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed. by B. R. Munson, D. E. Young, T. H. Okiishi and W.W. Huebsch, Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction

• A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a tangential force
acts on a surface.
• When common solids such as steel or other metals are acted on by shearing
stress, they will initially deform (usually a very small deformation), but they will
not continuously deform (flow).
• Some materials behave as a solid if the applied shearing stress is small, but if
the stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow. The study of
such materials is called RHEOLOGY.
Examples: Water
They flow when acted on by shearing stress:
Oil
studied under “classical” Fluid Mechanics.
air
Slurries Small shearing stress applied: they behave as solids

Toothpaste
Large shearing stress applied: they reach critical
catsup point and then flow.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction

• Fluid molecules possess a high degree of motion freedom, such that they tend to
assume the shape and occasionally occupy the volume of their containers.
• Fluids may include:
(1) GASES: highest degree of molecular motion

freedom and lightest molecular weight
such that they occupy the volume of their
containers.
(2) LIQUIDS: have retarded yet enough molecular

motion to assume the shape but not the
volume of their container under gravity.
(3) Any form of matter that can be made to behave as

a fluid, for example, molten metals and polymer
melts and granular solids.
(4) Mixture of two or more of the foregoing three.

FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction

• In studying fluid behavior:
ØMacroscopic values are considered:
Average value of
the quantity under Average behavior of molecules
consideration in a given volume.
ØThe fluid is treated as a continuum:

all the fluid characteristics of interest
vary continuously throughout the field.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
What is meant by compressibility?

This is the measure of the changes in volume, and therefore in density, of a certain
mass of fluid, in response to changes in the normal forces acting on the volume. It
is defined as:
where: V = volume
P = pressure
T = absolute temperature
• H2O is 100 times as compressible as steel and 0.00005 times as atmospheric air.
For these reasons, liquid under isothermal conditions are considered practically
incompressible unless subjected to huge pressure changes.
• Compressibility effects do become important for long-distance gas (and gas-liquid)

pipelines common to the petroleum industries, and in petrochemical unit
operations such as furnaces, crackers and reactors, where fluids encounter large
pressure and temperature variations.
Long-distance gas pipeline:

Long-distance gas pipeline: In the middle of international conflicts
US$ 400 billion business:

38 – 61 billion cubic meters of
gas from Russia to China
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
What is meant by compressibility?

• Compressibility is, perhaps, the most important fluid property, and in fact fluid
mechanics, the science that studies the mechanics of equilibrium and motion of
fluid, has been developed in several directions, depending on the compressibility
of the fluid:
ØHydrodynamics or fluid mechanics: incompressible fluids

(a) hydrostatics: static equilibrium
(b) fluid dynamics: fluid in motion
ØGas mechanics: compressible gas

(a) gas dynamics: gases under flow
(b) meteorology: atmospheric air
• In general, there is not an a priori compressible or incompressible fluids. The

very same fluid may behave as incompressible under certain pressure,
temperature, and flow conditions, and as compressible under a different
combination of these conditions.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
Bulk Modulus (EV): a measure of how easily the volume (and thus the density) of a
particular fluid of a given mass can be changed when there is a
change in pressure; a measure of the compressibility of a fluid.
where: dp = differential change in pressure

dV = differential change in volume
• The negative sign is included since an increase in pressure will
cause a decrease in volume.
The equation for EV may also be expressed as:
• Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively
incompressible – that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small
change in volume.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
SPEED OF SOUND
• Important consequence of Disturbances introduced at some point in the fluid
the compressibility of a fluid propagate at a finite velocity.
valve
Examples:
(1) Fluid in Fluid out
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
SPEED OF SOUND
Examples:
(1) Fluid in P Fluid out
• If valve is closed suddenly: creates localized disturbance;

increases pressure downstream
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
SPEED OF SOUND
Examples:
(1) Fluid in P Fluid out
• If valve is closed suddenly: creates localized disturbance;

increases pressure downstream
• After some time, the pressure change is felt upstream.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
SPEED OF SOUND
Examples: Acoustic
• The velocity at which velocity or
the disturbance speed of
propagates: sound (c)
(2) Loud
speaker Relates the speed of
sound to changes in
pressure and density
of the fluid medium.
• Vibration: localized disturbance
Or:
• Change in pressure: propagates
through the air.
For ideal gases:
Or:
• Since the disturbance is small: Heat transfer » 0
Process is assumed to be isentropic.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
VISCOSITY
- A property that describes the “fluidity” of a fluid.
Consider a case where a certain fluid is placed between two very wide parallel plates
as shown below. The bottom plate is rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is free to move:
da
F F
B B’ U τA
b dβ
A
Fixed plate
• When the force F is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously with a
velocity, U (after the initial transient motion has died out).
• A closer inspection of the fluid motion between the two plates would reveal that
the fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the
fluid in contact with the fixed plate has a zero velocity.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
VISCOSITY
• The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity u = u(y) that would be found
to vary linearly, u = Uy/b.
U
y F
Fixed plate
• As a result, a velocity gradient, du/dy, is developed in the fluid between the plates.
• In this particular case, the velocity is constant since du/dy = U/b, but in more
complex flow situations, this would not be true.
NOTE: The experimental observation that the fluid “sticks” to the solid
boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually
referred to as the no-slip condition. All fluids, both gases and liquids,
satisfy this condition.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
VISCOSITY
• Consider the figures below:
da U
F y F
B B’ U
b dβ b
A
Fixed plate
Define dt = a small time increment

but
NOTE: dβ = f (F, t)
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
VISCOSITY
• Consider the figures below:
da U
F y F
B B’ U
b dβ b
A
Fixed plate
Define: = shear stress
= rate of shear strain
NOTE: As the shearing stress, τ, is increased by increasing F, the rate of

shearing strain is increased in direct proportion. That is:
where: µ = absolute viscosity, or

or: dynamic viscosity, or simply
the viscosity of the fluid.
VISCOSITY
• Fluids for which the shear stress is linearly related to the rate of shear strain (also
referred to as the rate of angular deformation) are referred to as Newtonian fluids.
Otherwise, the fluids are non-Newtonian fluids.
• The slope of the shear stress vs. rate of strain
is denoted as the apparent viscosity, μapp.
t
For Newtonian fluids, the apparent viscosity
is the same as the viscosity and is
independent of shear rate.
• For shear thinning fluids (or “pseudoplastic”)
the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing
shear rate – the harder the fluid is sheared, the
less viscous it becomes. (Examples: colloidal
suspensions and polymer solutions.)
• For shear thickening fluids (or “dilatant”), the
apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear
rate – the harder the fluid is sheared, the more du
viscous it becomes. (Examples: water-corn starch dy
mixture and water-sand mixture.)
• Bingham plastic, is neither a fluid nor a solid. Such material can withstand a finite
shear stress without motion (therefore, not a fluid), but once the yield point is
exceeded, it flows like a fluid (hence, it is not solid). (Examples: toothpaste,
mayonnaise.)
VISCOSITY
• The viscosity of liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas
for gases, an increase in temperature causes an increase in viscosity.
Empirical equations to estimate the effect of temperature on viscosity
For Gases
Sutherland Equation: where: C, S = empirical constants
For Liquids
Andrade’s Equation: where: D, B = constants

• Quite often, viscosity appears in fluid flow problems combined with the
density in the form:
where: ν = kinematic viscosity
Units
Dynamic viscosity in CGS: dyne-s/cm2 (poise, P)
Kinematic viscosity in CGS: cm2/s (stokes, St)
Illustrative problems:
The dynamic viscosity of water at 20 °C is 1.00 x 10-3 N•s m-2. and viscosity at 40 °C is
6.53 x 10-4 N•s•m-2. Using Andrade’s Equation, estimate the viscosity at 30 °C.
Given: Water
At 20 °C (293.15K):
At 40 °C (313.15 K):
Req’d: µ at 30 °C (303.15 K)
Solution:
Andrade’s Equation:
Linearizing:
Using the given data: Solving simultaneously:
In Andrade’s Equation:
Evaluating for the viscosity at 30 °C gives:
NOTE: This value differs by 1% from the reported value but provides a much
better estimate than would be obtained using linear interpolation.
A dimensionless combination of variables that is important in the study of viscous flow
through pipes is called the Reynolds Number, NRe, defined as Dvρ/µ where ρ is the fluid
density, v is mean fluid velocity, D is the pipe diameter, and µ is the fluid viscosity. A
Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of 0.38 N•s m-2 and specific gravity of 0.91 flows
through a 25-mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m s-1. Determine the value of the
Reynolds number.
Given:
Req’d:
Solution:
𝑘𝑔
= 0.91 1000
𝑚)
From the definition of the Reynolds Number:
Consider,
y
h
rigid
h
The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide, parallel plates
is given by the equation:
where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lbf • s ft-2. When V = 2 ft s-1
and h = 0.2 in, determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the
shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline
(midplane).
Req’d:
y
h
rigid
h
Req’d: velocity distribution or velocity profile:
Solution: Parallel flow

Shearing stress: ?
(a) Along the bottom wall: therefore,
Substituting the given data:
(in direction of flow)
y
h
rigid
h
Req’d: velocity distribution or velocity profile:
Solution:
This stress creates a
(a) Along the bottom wall:
drag on the wall.
NOTE: Since the velocity distribution is symmetrical, the shearing stress along the
upper wall would have the same magnitude and direction.
(b) Along the midplane where y = 0:
Therefore:
NOTE: In this particular example, the velocity gradient, and therefore the
shearing stress, varies from 0 at the center of the channel to 14.4 lbf ft-2
at the walls. For more general case, the actual variation will depend
on the nature of the velocity distribution.
A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude of 35,000 ft, where the temperature
is -66 °F. Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to that of the speed of sound,
c, at the specified altitude. Assume k = 1.40.
Given:
Req’d:
Sol’n:
NOTE: If Ma < 1.0, subsonic speed. Mach Number, Ma

If Ma > 1.0, supersonic speed.
FLOW OF FLUIDS
A. Introduction
VAPOR PRESSURE
- The pressure exerted by the vapor on a liquid surface when the vapor phase is
in equilibrium with the liquid phase.
• When the vapor pressure becomes equal with the prevailing pressure, the
temperature at which this occurs is the boiling point.
Importance in fluid flow: occurrence of cavitation
At b. pt., or close to b. pt.

Lecture 1 - Introduction (Posting)

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ChE 412:

Prof. Philipina A. Marcelo, Ph. D.

Chemical Engineering Department

What is Fluid? A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on

What is Fluid? A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on

Slurries Small shearing stress applied: they behave as solids

What is Fluid? A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on

(1) GASES: highest degree of molecular motion

(2) LIQUIDS: have retarded yet enough molecular

(3) Any form of matter that can be made to behave as

(4) Mixture of two or more of the foregoing three.

What is Fluid? A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted on

ØMacroscopic values are considered:

ØThe fluid is treated as a continuum:

What is meant by compressibility?

• Compressibility effects do become important for long-distance gas (and gas-liquid)

Long-distance gas pipeline:

Long-distance gas pipeline: In the middle of international conflicts

US$ 400 billion business:

What is meant by compressibility?

ØHydrodynamics or fluid mechanics: incompressible fluids

ØGas mechanics: compressible gas

• In general, there is not an a priori compressible or incompressible fluids. The

where: dp = differential change in pressure

The equation for EV may also be expressed as:

(1) Fluid in Fluid out

(1) Fluid in P Fluid out

• If valve is closed suddenly: creates localized disturbance;

(1) Fluid in P Fluid out

• If valve is closed suddenly: creates localized disturbance;

• After some time, the pressure change is felt upstream.

Define dt = a small time increment

NOTE: As the shearing stress, τ, is increased by increasing F, the rate of

where: µ = absolute viscosity, or

Empirical equations to estimate the effect of temperature on viscosity

Andrade’s Equation: where: D, B = constants

Kinematic viscosity in CGS: cm2/s (stokes, St)

Evaluating for the viscosity at 30 °C gives:

Req’d: velocity distribution or velocity profile:

Solution: Parallel flow

(a) Along the bottom wall: therefore,

Substituting the given data:

(in direction of flow)

Req’d: velocity distribution or velocity profile:

NOTE: If Ma < 1.0, subsonic speed. Mach Number, Ma

Importance in fluid flow: occurrence of cavitation

At b. pt., or close to b. pt.

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