Proceedings of the 3rd IFAC Workshop on

Proceedings of the 3rd IFAC Workshop on

Automatic
Proceedings
ProceedingsControl
of thein
of the Offshore
3rd
3rd IFAC Oil and Gas
IFAC Workshop
Workshop on Production
on
Automatic Control in Offshore Oil andAvailable
Gas Production
online at www.sciencedirect.com
May 30 - June
Automatic
Proceedings
Automatic of1,the
Control2018.
in Esbjerg,
Offshore
3rd Denmark
Oil and Gas
IFAC Workshop Gas
on Production
May 30 - June 1, 2018. Esbjerg, Denmark Production
Control in Offshore Oil and
May 30 -
AutomaticJune 1,
Control2018.
in Esbjerg,
Offshore Denmark
Oil and
May 30 - June 1, 2018. Esbjerg, Denmark Gas Production
May 30 - June 1, 2018. Esbjerg, Denmark
ScienceDirect
IFAC PapersOnLine 51-8 (2018) 170–177
Potential
Potential for
for Real-Time
Real-Time Monitoring
Monitoring and and
Potential
Control for
of Real-Time
Dissolved Monitoring
Oxygen in theand
Potential
Control for
of Real-Time
Dissolved Monitoring
Oxygen in theand
Control
Injection of Dissolved Oxygen in the
Control ofWater
Injection Treatment
Dissolved Oxygen Process
in the
Injection Water
Water Treatment
Treatment Process
Process
Injection Water
Petar Durdevic ∗ Treatment ∗∗ Process∗
∗ Chitra S. Raju ∗∗ Zhenyu Yang ∗
Petar Durdevic ∗∗ Chitra S. Raju ∗∗ Zhenyu Yang ∗∗
Petar Durdevic
Petar Durdevic Chitra Chitra S. Raju ∗∗ Zhenyu
S. Raju Zhenyu Yang Yang
∗ ∗∗
Petar
∗ Durdevic Chitra S. Raju
∗ Aalborg Unviersity, Esbjerg, 6700 Zhenyu
Denmark Yang ∗
(e-mail:
∗ Aalborg Unviersity, Esbjerg, 6700 Denmark (e-mail:
∗ Aalborg
Aalborg Unviersity,
Unviersity, Esbjerg,
mailto:pdl@et.aau.dk, 6700
6700 Denmark
Denmark (e-mail:
Esbjerg,yang@et.aau.dk). (e-mail:
∗∗∗
Aalborg mailto:pdl@et.aau.dk,
Unviersity, Esbjerg, yang@et.aau.dk).
6700 Denmark(e-mail: (e-mail:
∗∗ mailto:pdl@et.aau.dk,
Billund Vand,
mailto:pdl@et.aau.dk,Grindsted, yang@et.aau.dk).
7200 Denmark
yang@et.aau.dk).
∗∗ Billund
∗∗ Billund
Vand, Grindsted, yang@et.aau.dk).
mailto:pdl@et.aau.dk, 7200 Denmark (e-mail:
Billund Vand,csr@billundvand.dk)
Vand, Grindsted, 7200
Grindsted, 7200 Denmark
Denmark (e-mail: (e-mail:
∗∗
Billund Vand,csr@billundvand.dk)
Grindsted, 7200 Denmark (e-mail:
csr@billundvand.dk)
csr@billundvand.dk)
csr@billundvand.dk)
Abstract:
Abstract: Injection Injection of of water
water into into wells
wells isis aa common
common practicepractice in in offshore
offshore oil oil andand gas gas installations,
installations,
Abstract:
and here
Abstract: as Injection
in many
Injection of water
other
of water into wells
industries
into wells
the iswater
is a common
a commonhas to practice
be in offshore
deaerated
practice in offshore
before oilitand
oil and
is gasthrough
sent
gas installations,
miles
installations,
and here
Abstract: as in many
Injection other
ofthe industries
water into the
wells water
iswater
a in
commonhas to be deaerated
practice in before
offshore it
oilit is
and sent through
gasthrough miles
installations,
and
of
and here
pipelines
here as
as in
to
in many
reduce
many other
other industries
risk of
industries the
corrosion
the water has
those
has to
to be deaerated
pipelines
be deaeratedand before
other
before is
downstream
it is sent
sent equipment.
through miles
miles
of
and pipelines
here as to
in reduce
many the
other risk of
industries corrosion
the waterin those
has topipelines
be deaeratedand other
before downstream
it is sent equipment.
through miles
of
It pipelines
requires
of requires to
pipelinesextremely reduce
extremely
to reducelow the
low risk
theconcentrationsof
concentrations corrosion
risk of corrosion of in those
dissolved
in pipelines
oxygen
those pipelines and
for
and theother downstream
corrosion
other downstream of metals equipment.
to begin,
equipment.
It
of pipelines tothe
reduce theconcentrations
risk of corrosion of dissolved oxygen for the corrosion of metals to begin,
It requires
and
It requires
removing extremely
extremely low
dissolved
low concentrations
oxygen is of in
currently
of those
dissolved
done
dissolved pipelines
oxygen
in large
oxygen and
for
vacuum
for the
theother downstream
corrosion
deaeration
corrosion of metals
of metals
towers,equipment.
to
a
to begin,
highly
begin,
and
It removing
requires the dissolved
extremely oxygen is currently
low concentrations done in
of dissolved large for
oxygen vacuum the deaeration
corrosion towers,to
of metals a highly
begin,
and
energy
and removing
demanding
removing the dissolved
the dissolved
process, oxygen
along
oxygen is currently
with
is currently
additional doneinjection
done in
in large vacuum
large vacuum
of deaeration
chemical oxygen
deaeration towers, aa highly
scavengers.
towers, highly In
energy
and demanding
removing the process,
dissolved along
oxygen with
is additional
currently done injection
in large of
vacuum chemical oxygen
deaeration scavengers.
towers, a highly In
energy
many
energy demanding
instances
demanding these process,
processes
process, along
alongare with
with additional
controlled in
additional a injection
feed-forward
injection of
of chemical
manner,
chemical whereoxygen
oxygen the scavengers.
operators
scavengers. In
rely
In
many
energy instances
demanding these processes
process, alongare controlled
with in
additional a feed-forward
injection of manner,
chemical whereoxygen the operators
scavengers. rely
In
many
on
many instances
infrequent
instances these
sampling processes
and
these processes are
corresponding controlled
are controlled in a
measurementsfeed-forward
in a feed-forwardto controlmanner,
manner,the where
process.
where the theTheoperators
possibilities
operators rely
rely
on
many infrequent
instances sampling
these and
processes corresponding
are controlled measurements
in a The to
feed-forward controlmanner,the process.
where theThe possibilities
operators rely
on infrequent
for
on infrequent
optimisation sampling
in
sampling this and
field
and corresponding
are thus
corresponding measurements
numerous.
measurements mainto control
to control
challenges the are
the process.
process.online The
The possibilities
measurements
possibilities
for
on optimisation
infrequent in thisand
sampling fieldcorresponding
are thus numerous. The main
measurements challenges
to control the are
process.online Themeasurements
possibilities
fordissolved
of optimisation oxygenin this
this
and field
their are use thusin numerous.
feedback The main
control. main
This challenges
article are
gives online
aa brief measurements
review
for
of
for
optimisation
dissolved
optimisation oxygenin
in and
this
field
their
field
are
are use thus
thusin numerous.
feedback
numerous.
The
control.
The This
main
challenges
article
challenges
are
gives
are
online
brief
online review of
measurements
measurements of the
the
of
of dissolved
state-of-the-art
dissolved oxygen
and
oxygen and
and their
investigates
their use
use the in
in feedback
potential
feedback control.
of using
control. This
dissolved
This article
article gives
oxygen
gives as a
a brief
a review
reliable
brief review of
of the
feedback the
state-of-the-art
of dissolvedtaking and
oxygen investigates
and theirfrom the
usethe in potential
feedback of using
control. dissolved
This article oxygen
giveshaveas a reliable
a aabrief review feedback
ofwith
the
state-of-the-art
parameter,
state-of-the-art and
and investigates
inspiration
investigates the potential
onshore
potential wasteof
of using
water dissolved
using industries
dissolved oxygen
which
oxygen as
as reliable
been feedback
dealing
reliable feedback
parameter,
state-of-the-art taking and inspiration
investigates from the onshore
potential waste water
of water industries
using industries
dissolved oxygen which have
as a beenbeen dealing
reliable with
feedback
parameter,oxygen
dissolved
parameter, taking
taking inspiration
feedback
inspiration from
control
from onshore
since
onshore the waste
1970’s.
waste water industries which have
which have been dealing
dealing with
with
dissolved
parameter, oxygen
takingfeedback
inspiration control
from sinceonshore thewaste
1970’s. water industries which have been dealing with
dissolved
dissolved oxygen oxygen feedback
feedback control
control since
since the
the 1970’s.
1970’s.
© 2018,
dissolved IFAC
oxygen (International
feedback Federation
control of
since Automatic
the Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1970’s.
Keywords:
Keywords: Dissolved Dissolved Oxygen,Oxygen, Injection Injection Water, Water, Deaeration,
Deaeration, Oil Oil and and Gas,
Gas, Offshore,
Offshore, On-line On-line
Keywords:
Monitoring,
Keywords: Dissolved
Feedback
Dissolved Oxygen,
Control.
Oxygen, Injection
Injection Water,
Water, Deaeration,
Deaeration, Oil
Oil and
and Gas,
Gas, Offshore,
Offshore, On-line On-line
Monitoring,
Keywords: Feedback Control.
Monitoring,Dissolved
Monitoring, FeedbackOxygen,
Feedback Control.Injection Water, Deaeration, Oil and Gas, Offshore, On-line
Control.
Monitoring, Feedback Control.
1. INTRODUCTION thermal characteristics; and thus the particle sizes
1. INTRODUCTION thermal characteristics; and thus sizes that
that
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION thermal
enter
thermal with characteristics;
the water mustand
characteristics; and thus the
be smaller
thus the
than
the
particle
particle
those to
particle sizes that
prevent
sizes that
1. aINTRODUCTION enter with the water must be smaller than those to prevent
In the early stage of reservoir’s life cycle, the oil produc- thermal enter
enter with
formation
with
formation
characteristics;
the
of
the
of
water
scale
water
scale and
and
must
must and
fouling,
fouling,
be
be thus
smaller
Dake
smaller the
than particle
(2001).
than
Dake than(2001).
those
those sizes
to
to that
prevent
prevent
In
In the early stage of a reservoir’s life cycle, the oil produc- enter with
formation the
of water
scale andmustfouling,be smaller
Dake (2001). those to prevent
In the
tion is early
theis in itsstage
early primary
stage of
of aa reservoir’s
production,life
reservoir’s life cycle,
where
cycle,thethethe
theoil oil
oil isproduc-
oilis driven formation
produc- Another of scale of andwater
fouling, Dake (2001).
tion
In
tion
from
tiontheis
is
in
early
in
the
in
its
its
field
its
primary
stage byofthe
primary
primary a production,
reservoir’s
reservoir’slife
production,
production,
where
cycle,the
where
natural
where thethe oilis
oil
pressure,
oil is
driven
produc-
driven
driven Another problem
this formation of scale of
problem andwater
fouling, injection is
is corrosion,
Dake (2001).
injection corrosion, as as the
the
from the field by the reservoir’s natural pressure, this Another
water
Another used problem
in
problem most of
of water
cases
water injection
comes
injection from is
is corrosion,
the ocean
corrosion, as
as the
and it
the
tion
from
method is
from thecan in
the canits
field primary
by
extract
field by the the production,
from reservoir’s
as low
reservoir’s as where
5%natural
to
natural athe oil is
pressure,
typical
pressure, driven
30-35%this water
this Another used in
problem most of cases
water comes
injection from the
is the ocean
corrosion, and
as the it
method extract from as low as 5% to a typical 30-35% water
contains used in
chemicals most cases
that comes
corrode thefrom
offshore ocean and
installations. it
from
method
of thecan
oil depending
method can field by
extract
extract on thefrom
each
from reservoir’s
as
as low
specific
low as
as 5%
case,
5%natural
to
Hyne
to pressure,
aa typical
(2012).
typical 30-35%this water used in most cases comes from the ocean and it
Then
30-35%
water
contains used in
chemicals most cases
that comes
corrode thefrom the
offshore ocean and
installations. it
of oil depending on each specific case, Hyne (2012). Then contains chemicals
Dissolved
contains chemicals
oxygen that corrode
(DO)
that corrode
is the the
most
the offshore
common
offshore installations.
corrosive
installations.
method
of
of oil can secondary
oil depending
follows the
depending extract on from
on each
each as low ascase,
oil specific
recovery
specific 5%
case,where to
Hyne
Hyne athe
typical
(2012). 30-35%
injection
(2012). Then
Then of Dissolved
contains
Dissolved
agent, and
oxygen (DO)
chemicals
oxygen
it is that times
(DO)
several
is the the
corrode
is the
themore
most
most
common
offshore
common
corrosive
corrosive
installations.
than corrosive
carbon
follows the secondary oil recovery where the injection of Dissolved oxygen (DO) is most common corrosive
of oil depending
follows
water
follows the
the secondary
through the
secondaryon injection
eachoil specific
oil wellscase,
recovery
recovery iswhere
where Hyne
used to(2012).
the
the injection
increase
injection Then of agent,
of
the Dissolved
agent,
dioxide
and oxygen
and
(CO
it is several
it
it22 ))is (DO)
several
isand hydrogen
times
is the
times
more
more most
sulfide
corrosive
common
corrosive
(H S),
than
than
Skovhus
carbon
corrosive
carbon
et
water
follows
water
pressure
through
the
through
water through in the
the
secondary
the
oil
injection
oil
injection
reservoir,
thereservoir,
injectionthis
wells
recovery
wells
this
wells
is
is
practice
used
where
used
is used was
to
the
to increase
injection
increase
started
tostarted
increase in
the
of
the agent,
dioxide
the (2017).
agent,
and
(CO
and it is
several
and hydrogen
several
times
times
more
sulfide
more
corrosive
(H 2
2 S),
corrosive
than
Skovhus
than et al.
carbon
carbonal.
pressure in the oil practice was in the dioxide
dioxide One(CO
One
(COway way ) and
2 ) and
2 of hydrogen
reducing
hydrogencorrosion sulfide
corrosion
sulfide (H (His 2 S),
by Skovhus
using
S),using
Skovhus et
et al.
corrosion al.
water through
pressure
1980s,
pressure in
Willhite
in the
the thereservoir,
oil
(1986),
oil injection
Lyonsthis
reservoir, wells
this is used
practice
andpractice
Plisga was tostarted
(2011).
was increase
The in
started in the
water
the (2017).
dioxide One(CO of reducing is 2by corrosion
1980s, Willhite (1986), Lyons and Plisga (2011). The water (2017).
resistant
(2017). One 2 ) and
way
materials,
way of hydrogen
of reducing
reducing
Donham sulfide
corrosion
et al.
corrosion (His2by
(1991).
is S),using
by Skovhus
using
While theetuse
corrosion
corrosion al.
pressure
1980s,
to be injected
1980s, in
Willhite the
Willhiteinto oil
into reservoir,
(1986),
(1986), the Lyons this
reservoir
Lyons and practice
andisisPlisga
in some
Plisga was
(2011).
(2011). started
casesThe
The in the
water
pumped
water (2017). resistant Onematerials, Donham
way of reducing et al.
corrosion (1991).
is While
by increased
using the use
to be injected the reservoir in some cases pumped resistant
of
resistant materials,
corrosion-resistant
materials, Donham
alloys
Donham et al.
et al. (1991).
(CRAs) (1991).
has Whilecorrosion
While thesince
the use
use
1980s,
to
to be
directly Willhite
be injected
from the
injected (1986),
into
into the Lyons
the
ocean, reservoir andis
according
reservoir isPlisga
in
to some
in (2011).
Dake
some cases
(2001)
cases The watera of
pumped
from
pumped corrosion-resistant
resistant materials, alloys (CRAs)
Donham et al. (1991).has increased
While thesince
use
directly from the ocean, according to Dake (2001) from aa the of
of corrosion-resistant
1980s, majority
corrosion-resistant ofalloys
the
alloys (CRAs)
pipelines
(CRAs) has
are
has increased
still
increased of since
carbon
since
to be
directly
depth injected
of from
directlyof from100-200 into
the
the ftft the
ocean,
where
ocean, reservoir
according
the
according is
plankton in
to some
Dake
to Dake level cases
(2001)
is
(2001) pumped
from
acceptable
from a of the 1980s, majority
corrosion-resistant of the
alloys pipelines
(CRAs) are
has still
increased of carbon
since
depth 100-200 where the plankton level is acceptable the
steel, 1980s,
Skovhus
the 1980s, majority
majority et al.of the
(2017). pipelines
As carbonare still
steel ofis carbon
easily
directly
depth
for
depthuseof from
in
ofin thethe
100-200
100-200 ocean,
ft
system.
ft where
where according
Thethe plankton
water
thewater
plankton to
thatDake
level (2001)
is coulda steel,
from
is acceptable
is injected
level acceptable the Skovhus et al.of the pipelines
(2017). As carbon are still
steelof ofis
carbon
easily
for use the system. The that is injected could steel,1980s,
corroded,
steel, Skovhus
and
Skovhus majority et al.of(2017).
et al.
replacement the ofpipelines
(2017). Ascarbon
all
As carbon
carbonaresteelstill
steelinto
steel is carbon
is easily
CRAs
easily
depth
for
also use
for use of
be inin100-200
the
recycled
the system.ft
system. where
produced Thethe plankton
water
water,
Thewater,
water Skinner that
Skinner level
is
that is (1982). is acceptable
injected
(1982).
injectedBefore could
Before
could steel, corroded, and
Skovhus replacement
et al. (2017). of all carbon
Ascarbon
carbon steel
steel into CRAs
is CRAs
easily
also be recycled produced corroded,
is not
corroded, and replacement
economically
and replacement
viable, of all carbon
alternative
of all steel
forms
steel into
of
into CRAs
corrosion
for
also
the
also usebe
water
be in isthe
recycled
recycled system.
injectedproduced
it is
produced The water Skinner
water,
de-oxidized
water, thatandis filtered
Skinner injectedofBefore
(1982).
(1982). solid is
could
Before not economically
corroded,
is not and
economically
protection are
viable, of
replacement
viable,
preferred.
alternative
all carbon
alternative
forms
steel
forms
ofinto
of
corrosion
CRAs
corrosion
the water is injected it is de-oxidized and filtered of solid
also
the
and be recycled
the water
organic
water is
is injected produced
compounds,
injected it
it is water,
de-oxidized
Dake
is Dake Skinner
(2001).
de-oxidized and
and (1982).
Forfiltered
example,
filtered of the is
ofBefore
solid
solid is
not economically
protection are preferred.
not economically
protection are
viable, alternative forms of corrosion
viable, alternative forms of corrosion
preferred.
and
the organic
water is compounds,
injected it is (2001).
de-oxidized and For example,
filtered of the
solid protection are preferred.
and
and organic
total
total
suspended
organic
suspended
compounds, Dake
Dake (2001).
solids concentration
compounds,
solids concentration (2001). of the
of
For
the
example,
injection
Forinjection
example, the The
the
water
water The removal
protection
removal areof DO
DO is is required
ofpreferred. required as as it
it works
works as as aa powerful
powerful
and organic fromcompounds, Dakethe (2001). Forinjection
example, the oxidizer
The removal
in the of DO
presence is required
of H S, itas it works
converts H as
asS aa powerful
or FeS
total
pumped
total
pumped
suspended
suspended
from
100
100
solids
solids
ft
concentration
ft below
concentration
below the
sea of
sea of the
surface
the
surface
in the Faeth
injection
in the
water
water
Faeth The
The
removal
oxidizer in
removal the of
of
DO
presence
DO
is
is
required
of
requiredH 2
2 S, itas
as
it works
converts
it works H 2
2 S
as ora FeS into
powerful
into
powerful
total
pumped
Mishrif suspended
from
reservoir 100solids
was ft anconcentration
below
average the ofsea1 of the
surface
mg/l withinjection
in a the
maximum water
Faeth Soxidizer
oxidizer in
compounds the
in the which presence
which
presence are of H
highly S, it converts
corrosive, H S or
Skovhus FeSetinto
al.
pumpedreservoir
Mishrif from 100 was ftan below
average theofsea 1 surface
mg/l with ina maximum
the Faeth S compounds
oxidizer in the presence areofof
H2 S, itcorrosive,
H
2
highly S, it
converts HSkovhus
converts H
2 S or FeS
2
S or FeSetinto
al.
pumped
Mishrif
concentration
Mishrif from of
reservoir
reservoir 100 was ftan
5 mg/l,
was anbelow andthe
average
average ofsea
after
of surface
11 several
mg/l
mg/l with
with inaa maximum
filteringthe stages
maximum Faeth S S compounds
compounds which
(2017). which are are highly
highly
2 corrosive, Skovhus
corrosive, Skovhus
2 etinto
et al.
al.
concentration of 5 mg/l, and after several filtering stages (2017).
S compounds which are highly corrosive, Skovhus et al.
Mishrif
concentration
the reservoir
concentrations
concentration of
of was an average
55 mg/l,
were
mg/l, and
reduced
and of 1toseveral
after
after mg/l
0.2 with
several mg/l, a maximum
filtering
filtering stages
Nassivera
stages (2017).
(2017).
the concentrations
concentration were
of 5 filtration
mg/l, reduced to 0.2 mg/l, Nassivera Corrosion
(2017). of of metals
metals occurs
occurs in in the
the presence
presence of of DO,
DO, and and thus
the
et al.concentrations
theal. (1979). The
concentrations were and
were isafter
reduced
reduced done toseveral
to 0.2
in filtering
mg/l,
accordance
0.2accordance
mg/l, stages
Nassivera
to
Nassivera the Corrosion
Corrosion
a reduction of metals
of DO occurs
in the in the
injection presence
water of
wouldDO,
thus
and thus
lead thus
to
et
the
et al.
properties
(1979).
concentrations
(1979).
et al. (1979). of
The
The
the
filtration
were
filtration
geological
The geological
is
reduced
is done
done
formations
filtration isformations to in
0.2
in mg/l,
accordance
done in accordance where the
to
Nassivera
to the
the
water
to
Corrosion
a
the Corrosionreduction of
of of
metals
of DO
metals
occurs
in the
occurs
in the
injection presence
in the presencewater of
would
of
DO,
DO,
and
lead
and to a
thus a
properties
et al.be(1979). of the
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in sizes,
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the reduced corrosion of the facilities, Brondel et al. (1994), water
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al.
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et al.
reduces
al. (1994),
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(1994),
will
will be
be applied,
applied, for for example
example their their porepore sizes,
sizes, chemical
chemical and and Byars reduced
Byars
pipe’s
etcorrosion
et
wall
al. (1972).
al. (1972).
thickness,
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of the
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thinner
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pipelinesetreduces
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reduces
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The authors would like to thank our colleagues J.M.Kristensen, Byars
cracking et which
pipe’s wall
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(1972).
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2405-8963 Vand A/S IFAC
© 2018, for technical support.
(International
to total damage of the pipelines, Dey et al. (2004). The
Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2018 IFAC 170
Copyright
Peer review© 2018 IFAC 170 Control.
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IFAC OOGP 2018
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presence of DO also oxidizes precipitable solids, which
leads to plugging of the well, Byars et al. (1972). DO,
in addition, promotes microbiological growth in the reser-
voirs which is undesirable for effective oil recovery, Devold
(2013). Certain bacteria produce polysaccharides which
results in the bacteria adhering to each other and forming
lumps which can lead to plugging of the injection wells,
Popoola et al. (2013). The occurrence of microbial flora can
in addition increase the production of CO2 and H2 S and
organic acids which further promotes corrosion, Popoola
et al. (2013). In Alvis (1969), the relation between cor-
rosion and DO was measured continuously over a time
period of 37 days, where the DO was reduced to 0 mg/l
using sodium sulphite catalysed with cobalt as a scavenger,
and where at very low DO concentration the corrosion
was almost completely halted. The DO level required to
prevent corrosion is highly dependent on the individual
oil and gas facility and the surrounding conditions. Thus
various studies recommend different DO levels to prevent
corrosion, for example; Nassivera et al. (1979) recommend
0.02 mg/l and below, and Bradley (1987) recommend DO
concentrations below 0.05 mg/l. According to, Byars et al.
(1972), oxygen accelerated corrosion occurs when the DO
concentration in water is above 0.025 mg/l. One reason for
this is that corrosion in greatly reduced in H2 S free water
and conversely increases with the concentration of H2 S,
Skovhus et al. (2017). Other conditions such as salinity,
carbon dioxide content etc. also plays a role in determining
the concentration of DO at which corrosion begins to
occur. For example, with respect to the Faeth Mishrif
reservoir, the dissolved oxygen content in the seawater 100
ft below the surface was 6.5mg/l with a salt level of 42-
44mg/l, which results in a highly corrosive environment,
Nassivera et al. (1979).
The DO content in seawater is dependent on several
parameters such as temperature, pressure, salinity and
micro-organism types and activity, Garcia and Gordon
(1992), Wetzel (2001), Skovhus et al. (2017). Oxygen
concentration in air is 21%, and when it is dissolved in
water it follows the dissolution process: O2(g) 
 O2(aq) ,
where the equilibrium can be found through Henry’s law
constant KH , Cann (2005).
Corrosion occurs at all stages in the offshore oil and gas
fields, and it has a huge economic impact on the industry,
its effect is estimated to $170 billion per year in the US
alone, Brondel et al. (1994). The reduction of DO is thus
highly prioritized in the offshore oil and gas industry, and
it can be achieved in different ways.
1.1 DeAeration/DeOxidation solutions
Dissolved oxygen can be reduced using multiple methods
which include: chemical scavenging (Oxygen scavengers),
gas stripping or liquid extraction, Byars et al. (1972),
Flammang et al. (1976), Skinner (1982) and Bradley
(1987).
Chemical Scavengers Chemical scavengers are, in most
cases, used in cooperation with the mechanical de-
oxygenation to remove the residual DO using sulphite
based scavengers using the following reaction, Robinson
(2010):
171
SO32− + O2 → SO42− (1)
The scavengers reduce the concentration of DO thus
reducing its corrosive effect on the metals. The com-
monly used DO scavenging agents include sodium sulfite
(NaSO3 ), sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3 ), ammonium bisul-
fite (NH4 HSO3 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), sodium hydrosul-
fite (Na2 S2 O4 ) and hydrazine (N2 H2 ), Reis (1996). It is
noteworthy that excess of sulfite/bisulfite based oxygen
scavengers can for instance feed sulfate reducing bacteria
(SRB) Skovhus et al. (2017), which can lead to increased
levels of H2 S and thus biogenic sulfide corrosion.
Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration Towers Deaer-
ation is operated on the principle that the amount of
dissolved oxygen is proportional to its partial pressure
in the gas phase in accordance to Henry’s Law, Skovhus
et al. (2017), thus by reducing the partial pressure of
the gas phase its concentration in the water phase can
be reduced, Bradley (1987). This can be achieved in two
ways, either using a stripping gas, or by reducing the total
pressure of the system, in both cases it is most common
to use deaeration towers or columns. A simplified example
of an offshore water injection system is shown in figure
1, where the deaeration tower in most cases comprises
of multistage towers with the ability to reduce DO to
<0.02mg/L; single stage units cannot reduce the DO to
such levels Carlberg et al. (1976). The stripping gas is
Coarse filter
Vacuum pump
Dosing pump
O2 Scavanger
Water pump
Media filter
From Ocean
Stripping gas Treated water
Strip compressor
Deaerator
Fig. 1. A typical sea-water injection system on an offshore
oil and gas facility, comprising of sea-water filtration,
vacuum and gas stripping tower and a downstream
O2 scavenger injection.
injected at the bottom of the column and the water is
injected at the top of the column, where it slowly moves
downwards splashing onto a series of trays to increase the
retention time, Bradley (1987), Barnhart (1995) The gas
stripping brings the injection water into contact with a
dry gas stream and different packing materials such as
glass marbles or plastic shotgun wadding etc. are used
in the deaeration column to enhance the contact area
of the gas and liquid, Barnhart (1995). The interaction
between the injection water and the stripping gas, strips
away the DO from the water as the introduction of other
gasses to the water decreases the partial pressure of the
oxygen. The water leaves at the water outlet with a low
DO concentration, Skinner (1982). The most common gas
used is natural gas as it is widely available on the offshore
platforms, the drawback being that the gas used for this
purpose cannot be used for sales. An additional drawback
is that natural gas contains CO2 and H2 S, (CO2 = 0-8%
IFAC OOGP 2018
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and H2 S 0-5%, Holmager (2010)), which reduce the water
quality by acidifying it and thus increase the corrosive
properties of the water, Henriksen (1985), Donham et al.
(1991). Where, CO2 results in sweet corrosion and H2 S in
sour corrosion, Diaz et al. (2010).
In a vacuum deaeration tower, the total pressure inside
the tower is reduced to 0.01 bars, Carlberg et al. (1976),
which reduces the partial pressure of the oxygen, and
thus strips the DO from the water. Gas stripping can
be combined with vacuum deaeration to further decrease
the DO concentration. But as stripping gas in some
cases contains CO2 and H2 S, vacuum towers are in such
cases operated independently of the stripping gas, Bradley
(1987).
According to, Byars et al. (1972) water injection systems
can be operated DO free, although solely using vacuum
tower can only reduce the DO to 0.3 mg/l. Combining it
with gas stripping and chemical scavengers is required for
lower DO concentrations, Carlberg et al. (1976). Costs,
however, can limit an operation to rely on vacuum tow-
ers, for example; for a 100,000 b/d operation, a vacuum
tower costs 450,000 USD/year when compared to 212,500
USD/year for chemical scavenging, Carlberg et al. (1976).
The lack of real-time monitoring systems contributes to an
uncertainty of system stability and the transient DO levels
which at periods could fluctuate and could be damaging to
the installations. Studies have shown that cyclic behavior
between anaerobic and aerobic conditions increase corro-
sion, and can have a more harmful effect than either con-
sistent anaerobic or aerobic conditions, Lee et al. (2005).
The introduction of real-time control is thus considered
advantageous, although this requires the ability to monitor
DO in real-time and feed it back to a control loop which in
turn can control one of the following parameters; vacuum,
stripping gas flow and/or scavenger flow. Another problem
is reduction of deaerator effectivity by e.g. salt deposits,
Carlberg et al. (1976), such faults could be detected dy-
namically using real-time instruments and advanced fault
detection methods and resolved continuously. The most
obvious parameter to measure is DO, as this is the pa-
rameter that we wish to control, but this requires reliable
on-line real-time measurements, which are not common
practice in the offshore installations. In some cases the
corrosion is measured using Linear Polarization Resistance
(LPR) using a specific PAIRTM technique, Nassivera et al.
(1979), but the dynamics of the corrosion are considerably
slower that the one of the DO levels in the system.
This article reviews DO measurements techniques which
could be suitable as a feedback parameter in the offshore
deaeration process. In addition modeling of the DO is
discussed, as it can contribute to parameter estimation.
By drawing knowledge from other research fields a sim-
ple model that models the significant dynamics of the
deaeration process is proposed. Such a model would be an
ideal tool for additional system analysis and control de-
velopment. Finally a control structure is proposed, which
comprises of DO based feedback control, inspired by waste
water aeration, a thoroughly researched field which has
been extensively implemented in the industry. The ideal
solution for the offshore installations is to introduce an
all software solution, as installing new equipment is ex-
pensive. For example, 20 years ago the cost estimate for
172
just the rig support structure for any topside equipment
was 20,000£/ton, Peel et al. (1998), where the price today
can be up to 50,000 USD/ton for construction of offshore
topside production facilities, Emmerson (2018).
2. MEASUREMENT OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN
There are four major methods known for determination
of oxygen; the first and second are the Winkler titration
and pressure-based methods, which are not applicable in
this case as they are laboratory based, the other two meth-
ods that could be used for sensing are, electro-analytical,
and optical methods Wang and Wolfbeis (2014). Electro-
chemical methods can include among others polarographic
methods, potentiometric methods, coulometric methods
and conductometric methods Kalvoda (1984). DO mea-
surements were made easy with the development of the
Clark Polarographic sensor in 1956, the sensor works on
the principle of electrochemistry. If a platinum cathode
is maintained at a certain voltage with respect to a non-
polarisable anode Leland et al. (1953) current flows be-
tween them when molecular oxygen is reduced at the
platinum surface and the magnitude of this current de-
pends upon the amount of oxygen reaching the platinum
surface Kanwisher (1959). The smaller the exposed plat-
inum surface, the smaller the current and more rapid
the electrode’s response to changes Leland et al. (1953).
Electrochemical methods have several limitations: they
consume oxygen, are influenced by sample flow rate, are
affected by the presence of CO2 and H2S, and are sus-
ceptible to membrane fouling Trettnak et al. (1995). A
steady-state electrochemical sensor consumes the oxygen
it is measuring and is thus dependent on a flow past the
sensor to obtain accurate measurements YSI (2017). Elec-
trochemical DO measurements are affected by barometric
pressure, temperature and the salinity, which should be
measured and accounted for in the algorithm. Optical
continuous sensing of oxygen is thought to have started in
the 1930s. Optical sensing can be by spectroscopy, or by
absorbtiometric probes which change colour when exposed
to oxygen or by the widely used luminescent probes Wang
and Wolfbeis (2014). Fluorescence measurements can be
performed more rapidly and with greater sensitivity than
absorption measurements Green and Blough (1994). The
first fluorescent sensor system was described in 1968, Wang
and Wolfbeis (2014) and Klimant et al. (1995) proposed
the first reliable fibre optic oxygen sensors in 1995 specifi-
cally aimed at measuring oxygen in marine environments.
Optical sensors are often referred to as optrodes and the
functioning principle behind is that the analyte to be
measured reacts with an indicator changing its optical
properties which is then measured Klimant et al. (1995).
In optrodes based on florescence these changes are in
the form of changes in their florescence properties. The
operation of the luminescence method is to emit a light
with a specific wavelength which induces a luminescence
in the sensing element. The chemical to be measured passes
by the dye layer affecting the luminescence of the dye in
both the intensity and lifetime, this is then registered by
a photo-diode, YSI (2017). In the case of oxygen, it acts
as a dynamic fluorescence quencher where it decreases the
quantum yield of a flouropore, and thus this quenching of
the flouropore can be used to measure oxygen contents Mc-
Donagh et al. (2001), Klimant et al. (1995). The accuracy
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Electrochemical Optical
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Fast response time Frequent calibration required Little calibration drift (months) Slower response time
Requires periodic maintenance (mem- Less maintenance
brane replacement)
Interference from gases such as H2 S Not susceptible to interference

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of Electrochemical and Optical sensors.

of the optical sensor is dependent on the temperature andof 20 minutes using a Self-Cycling Fermentation (SCF)
thus the temperature must be measured and compensated control strategy which is based on a semi-continuous aer-
for. According to YSI (2017) both electro-chemical and obic system and is based on a semi-continuous control
optical techniques measure with similar precision but thestrategy which controls the system in three stages. The
optical sensors have a slightly higher accuracy at concen-
DO measurements presented in this paper are based on
trations from 0-20 mg/l. Until 2006 mostly electrochemical
extrapolated results from a strip recorder, thus analyses of
sensors were used in the industry, and some of the earliest
the quality of DO results is difficult. Another example of a
optical sensors were applied in 2006, where in 2009 the polarographic electrode DO sensors from Mettler Toeldo
first sub µ g/l sensors is launched for use in power plants
is in Wang et al. (2010), where it was applied for real
Bell and Dunand (2010). The main advantages and disad- time measurements of DO in broth in a bio-reactor. Direct
vantages of the two primary DO measurements techniques, applicability in the offshore water injection process of the
i.e. optical and electrochemical, have been listed in table
methods above is difficult to determine without proper
1. analysis, and as implementation of DO sensors in offshore
installations is not common practice, several aspects must
2.1 Real Time Dissolved Oxygen Measurements for Feedback be considered.
Control
2.2 Applicability of Dissolved Oxygen Measurements for
The application of real-time DO measurements applied
Oil and Gas Activities
for feedback control of water injection deaeration has
not been found. Several examples where low frequency
daily samples are taken have been found in Alvis (1969), In the case of real-time measurements, on-line in-situ
Carlberg et al. (1976), Byars et al. (1972). Dynamic real- measurements are preferred as they have the benefit of
time measurements have been performed as an example measuring directly on the stream and thus receive a higher
in Donham et al. (1991), where continuous DO concen- representation of the measured medium. Side stream in-
trations are measured on an experimental test loop in the situ monitoring can also be applied if direct in-line mon-
North Sea. Although this is a test setup, the measurements itoring is not possible but this can introduce a change in
are used for evaluating dynamic changes in DO scavenger state of the medium, Vojinović et al. (2006) and possible
performance and not for feedback purposes. An analytical time delay, Durdevic et al. (2017). Fouling of sensors is
instrument manufacturer, Hach, claims that their optical one of the great concerns in offshore installations due to
DO sensor is applicable for DO measurements in offshore many impurities in the sea-water entering the system and
installations and specifically for injection water treatment. due to the growth of microorganisms as mentioned earlier.
HACH (2017a), HACH (2017b). Nevertheless such ap- The sensitivity of DO sensors towards fouling has been
plications have not yet been reported in the literature, reported in waste water treatment in breweries, Nguyen
although the importance of DO monitoring is clearly em- et al. (2000), where fouling affected the feedback controller,
phasized Hancock et al. (1988), Donham et al. (1991). and occasionally the probe was fouled to such an extent
that the controller failed completely and a manual cleaning
From a literature review it is evident that DO has been of the probe was done every 3-4 days. Although it is not
applied for monitoring and feedback control in various the exact same environment, similar scenarios could occur,
other industries such as municipal waste water treatment and fouling is known to affect the oil and gas installa-
facilities, beverage industries and power-plants. In danish tions, TUVNEL (2013) and Ebrahimi et al. (2010), which
waste water treatment plants, DO measurements have can cause drift in the measurements and thus decreased
been used for more than 30 years, Nielsen and Önnerth repeatability, Vojinović et al. (2006). Currently fouling
(1995), one such example is shown in figure 2. Several of optical fluorescence equipment has been solved using
waste water treatment plants use on-line real-time am- free fall cells where the medium is not in contact with
monia measurements for feedback purposes, as ammonia the optical window, Turner (2017), but the application of
directly determines the oxygen requirement in the acti- this technique to the optical DO sensors has not yet been
vated sludge process, and rely on DO measurements for found. Byars et al. (1972) lists several aspects to keep in
monitoring purposes Ingildsen et al. (2002), Yong et al. mind, including calibration and temperature sensitivity.
(2005). In Sheppard and Cooper (1990) chemostat control In addition, severely harsh conditions in the offshore oil
was achieved using a DO sensors for logic based feedback and gas installations coupled with strict requirements for
control, where the DO sensors were used to estimate the any new instrumentation that is installed are challenges
exhaustion of nutrients in the bio reactor. In Nguyen et al. which restrict new equipment from being installed. It is
(2000) a Mettler Toledo Ingold electrochemical DO probe also a requirement that the equipment is low maintenance
was used for control of DO in a brewery waste water as this has large implications and costs due to the harsh
treatment facility. This system operates at a refresh rate conditions and due to inaccessibility of sensors. The oper-

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ation of DO sensors in the offshore installations will vary
depending on the application, and their real life perfor-
mance is hard to determine before a full scale test has been
carried out. Thus for any new equipment to be installed,
a thorough testing must be done prior its installment.
3. DISSOLVED OXYGEN FEEDBACK CONTROL
In order to apply DO sensors to offshore oil and gas facil-
ities for monitoring and feedback purposes, the following
criteria must be satisfied:
(1) Real-Time measurements with an adequate sampling
rate.
(2) On-line application, either in-line or as a side-stream
with minimal delay.
(3) Manipulated variables
Current injection water treatment installations commonly
rely on feed-forward type control strategies for removal of
DO from the liquid, where the deaeration tower is oper-
ated at predefined vacuum, gas stripping and scavengers
injections; according to daily off-line manual DO measure-
ments. The most common real time feedback control is
the level control of the bottom liquid in the deaerator,
where the feedback parameter is the deaerator liquid level,
which is not directly related to system performance i.e.
DO concentration in the deaerator’s liquid effluent. This
can result in an over use of scavengers, stripping gas and
energy for the deaeration process, which we believe could
be improved if a reliable DO measurement was installed
on the process line.
From other industries, such as the waste water industry,
it is common practice to use DO as a feedback parameter
for controlling DO. One such example is shown in figure 2,
3
2.5
2 mines the diffusion of the dissolved gasses in the tower,
1.5
1 (1994). Determining the inlet DO concentration could be
0.5
0
13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00
Fig. 2. DO control of a sludge tank in a waste water
treatment plant.
which is a plot of data collected from an aeration process
at a Danish waste water treatment plant, Billund Vand
A/S. The data represents an on-line DO measurement, the
DO set-point which varies due to process requirements and
the measured airflow into the sludge tank. The measured
DO is used as a feedback parameter to control the air
compressor, a simplified sketch of the process is shown in
figure 3 We believe that a similar method could be applied
to the offshore system, where the DO is measured and used
as a feedback parameter in an advanced controller which
controls the vacuum, nitrogen and the scavenger.
DO
Qin
F(x)
CDO
FT Qout
Qairin
Cair Vair
Fig. 3. Sketch of a waste water treatment plant sludge
process dissolved oxygen control.
4. MODELING
This section proposes a potential model structure that
could be applied for the deaeration process. Dissolved
oxygen dynamics have been described in many works
with respect to waste water treatment, referred to as
activated sludge model or (ASM) for short, Henze et al.
(1987), Gujer et al. (1995), Hess et al. (1996), Gujer et al.
(1999), Henze et al. (1999), Henze et al. (2000), Henze
et al. (2006), Holenda et al. (2008), Chai and Lie (2008),
Han et al. (2012). In general, the ASM models describe
absorption of oxygen and its consumption by biomass and
the generation of biomass, these models were developed
for waste water treatment plants (WWTPs). For the
deaeration process a simplified version can be constructed
which models the mass balance of DO as shown in equation
2, assuming that the mass inside the declaration column
is well mixed.
ẏ(t) = D(t)(yin (t) − y(t)) + KLa (u(t))(ysat − y(t)) − R(t) (2)
Where y(t) is the DO concentration, D(t) is the dilution
rate i.e. flow in Q(t) divided by the total volume V ,
(Q(t)/V), KLa is the oxygen transfer rate which deter-
Carlberg et al. (1976), ysat is the DO saturation point
and R(t) is the respiration rate or the oxygen utilization
rate by the microorganisms in the sludge, Carlsson et al.
performed using DO measurements, analysis has shown
that the DO has some variations (2 − 4%), at a depth
of 50m in a period of a few months, but several chal-
20:00 lenges with sensor calibration and drift make this analysis
questionable as the DO does not appear to follow the
consistent changes in salinity and temperature, Emerson
et al. (2002). As the residence time in a deaerator is short
and the biocides are injected upstream the deaerator, the
microbial life is considered negligible, thus the respiration
rate R(t) is can be omitted. The KL a remains unknown
and it can be determined from parameter estimation based
on experimental data.
The requirement for real-time DO measurements are fur-
ther emphasized here if the diffusivity is to be estimated,
however pilot scale measurements could be performed for
model development and then these models can be used for
estimator design on the platforms, which could be applied
in advanced feedback control loops using e.g. LQG control
or other Kalman based estimators.
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As multi-stage deaerators are preferred due to their in-
creased effectivity, the model can be expanded with a
staged absorber model, Seborg et al. (2010), Durdevic
et al. (2015). Assuming that we have a constant liquid
holdup, no gas holdup, no mass change by the stripped
gas at each stage, perfect mixing, the inlet is located at
the top of the column and the vacuum pump is connected
to each tray as shown in Hudgins Jr and Hanson (1971),
then the gas concentration at each stage for a three stage
deaerator can be represented by equation 3.
y˙1 (t) = D(t)(yin (t) − y(t) − yout ) + KLa (u(t))(ysat − y(t))
y˙2 (t) = D(t)(y1 (t) − y(t) − yout ) + KLa (u(t))(ysat − y(t))
y˙3 (t) = D(t)(y2 (t) − y(t) − yout ) + KLa (u(t))(ysat − y(t))
Where yi is the DO concentration at stage i and the
liquid flow from tray 1 through 3 is described by D(t),
i.e. (Q(t)/V). This model will increases in complexity,
for multiple vacuum outlets and with the addition of gas
stripper. Further development of the model structure is
required and eventually validation.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the offshore Oil and Gas industry, keeping the dissolved
oxygen (DO) concentration in the injection water low is of
significant importance due to concerns regarding corrosion
and the potential for fouling of the reservoir formations.
Current water injection process have active DO scavenging
applications which promise a low enough DO discharge,
into the pipelines and reservoirs. But due to a lack of on-
line and real-time measurements, continuous DO concen-
trations are unknown and variations could occur during
the several daily sampling intervals. Control of the process,
using DO as a feedback parameter, could reduce this effect
and furthermore contribute to lowered energy consump-
tion and reduce the use of scavenging chemicals. To enable
continuous feedback control of DO, a reliable real-time
measurement of DO must be available. Dissolved oxygen
(DO) measurement techniques are abundant and are ex-
tensively used in other industries both for monitoring and
feedback purposes. In most cases the DO measurements
are applied to brewing,food, medical and waste water
treatment operations, where the DO is either monitored to
inspect the process or used for feedback control. So far no
application of real-time DO measurements in the offshore
water injection industry has been found.
More research needs to be applied in real time monitoring
of DO in the offshore industry. This requires an extensive
investigation of various DO monitoring techniques and
equipment and their applicability in the offshore industry.
As many commercial products are available, the applica-
bility of those should be investigated as the initial step,
and further possible upgrades to make them applicable.
In addition, models of the deaeration process are equally
important as they contribute to improvement of the pre-
cision of the measurements by applying online parameter
estimation and facilitate the design of advanced control
techniques. The development of a scaled pilot plant would
facilitate the experimental analysis, model development
and controller evaluation before real time implementation
onto an oil and gas platform.
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