BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (BIT) a) Voltage Amplifier

 Bipolar Transistors, having 2 junctions, are 3 b) Current Amplifier

semiconductor devices. c) Power Amplifier
 The three terminals are emitter, collector, and base. II. According to Configuration
 A transistor can be either NPN or PNP. a) Common Base Amplifier
b) Common Collector Amplifier
c) Common Emitter Amplifier
III. According to Power Output
a) Class A Amplifier
b) Class B Amplifier
c) Class C Amplifier
d) Class AB Amplifier
IV. According to Frequency
a) DC Amplifier
b) AF Amplifier
c) Rf Amplifier
d) IF Amplifier
e) Video Amplifier
V. According to the Signal Being Amplified
a) Small Signal Amplifiers
b) Large Signal Amplifiers
VI. According to Method of Coupling
d) Direct Coupling
e) Capacitive Coupling
Normal Operation of Transistor
f) Inductive Coupling
 Emitter-to-base junction – forward biased
g) Transformer Coupling
 Collector-base-to-base – reversed biased
Transistor Operation
Transistor as a Switch
Advantages of Transistor over Vacuum tubes
when used as an electronic switch, a transistor is normally
 Smaller and light weight
operated alternately in cut off and saturation. Digital circuits
 Has no heater requirement or heater loss make use of the switching characteristics of transistor.
 Has rugged construction NPN Transistor
 It is more efficient since less power is absorbed by the  Open circuit connection when no positive voltage
device. applied to base of NPN transistor that resulting LED not
 It is instantly available for use; requiring no warm-up to glow.
period.  Closedcircuit connection when positive voltage applied
 Lower operating voltages are possible. to base of NPN transistor that resulting LED to glow.
Reason for Biasing PNP Transistor
 To turn-on the device  Open circuit connection when positive voltage applied
 To place it in operation of its characteristics where the to base of PNP transistor that resulting LED not to glow.
device operates mast linearly.  Closed circuit connection when ground or negative
Types of Bias Circuits voltage applied to base of PNP transistor that resulting
 Fixed Bias LED to glow.
 Self Bias
 Signal Bias
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION
a) Common Base Configuration –has voltage gain
but no current gain.
b) Common Emitter Config.. –has both current and
voltage gain.
c) Common Collector Config.. –has current gain
but no voltage.
Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the
amplitude of an electrical signal and is one of the major
properties of a transistor.
A transistor amplifies current because the collector
current is equal to the base current multiplied by the current
gain. The base current in a transistor is very small compared to
the collector and emitter currents. Because of this, the collector
current is approx. equal to the emitter current.

 Audio signal – is the electrical signal which is converted

from human voice to an electrical signal. Audio signal
must be converted to electrical signal.
 The smallest the signal, the weaker the sound, the larger
the signal the louder the sound. WHY WE USED TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH?
 Audio wave is monitored in an electronics test in some cases like lacking of supply voltage to lighten a LED,
instrument like oscilloscope. transistors can be used to drive a LED to give high luminance to
the LED or other devices that need more power.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AMPLIFIER
I. According to Function
 cathode, a quick pulse of current into the gate will turn the SCR
on. And the most important, the SCR stays on, even after the
control gate current has stopped, as long as working current is
being supplied.
It functions like any other diode or rectifier. SCR is a uni-
directional three terminal device used to control large current to
a load.

Turning On the SCR

When the gate current is zero, the device is in off state. In this
state, the very high resistance between the anode and cathode
can be approximated by an open switch. When the positive pulse
of current (Trigger) is applied to the gate, SCR is On.
9013 and 9012 transistor are one of the most commonly used for Turning Off the SCR
amplification and switching device. When the gate returns to 0 volt after the trigger pulse is
removed. The SCR cannot turn-off, it stays “on”.
THE DARLINGTON PAIR TRANSISTOR
A compound connection of two transistor that operates as if it
were a single transistor with an extremely high forward-current
transfer ration.
A configuration of two transistor in which the collector are
connected and the emitter of the first drives the base of the
second to achieve better amplification.

One way to boost input resistance is to use a darlington pair.

Note that Q2 is directly connected to Q1 and the base-to-
collector potential of Q2 provides the emitter-collector voltage
for Q1. Furthermore, the output emitter current of Q1 is the base
input current of Q2.
SCR Application
This combination produces a very large current gain. This circuit  Lighting System for Power Interruptions
also has the voltage gain of the common emitter with the large  An Over-Voltage Protection Circuit
input impedance of the emitter follower amplifier, both of which  Solid state Automobile Ignition System
are desirable features.  DC Motor Control
Where: Q1 – 1st Transistor
Q2 –2nd Transistor 2. Triac
THYRISTORS AND OTHER DEVICES is a three terminal semiconductor for controlling current in either
Thyristors direction. The main or power terminals are designated as MT1
 refer to class of solid state silicon switching device made and MT2. Minimum holding current, must be maintained in order
up of four layer PNPN structure. to keep a triac conducting. A triac operates in the same way as
 Used to control large amount of current on industrial the SCR however it operated in ot forward and reverse direction.
electrical equipment. Obviously a triac can also be triggered by exceeding the
 Are switching devices that don’t require any control breakover voltage. This is not ormally employed in triac
current once they are turned on. operation. The breakover voltage is usually considered a design
 Are mostly used in the “act” stage of systems, to control limitation. The only way to turn off the triac is to reduce the
power going to a working device such as motor- they can current to a sufficiently low level.
handle great deal of power without reaching harmful Triac Application
temperatures.
 But unlike Transistors, thyristors don’t require any
further control current once they are turned on.
Consequently, the control circuitry is typical quite simple
and consumes little power. This is the chief advantages
of thyristors over transistors.
Thyristor trouble
 Open
 Short
 Leaky
Kinds of Thyristors
1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
is a semiconductor device that normally blocks conventional  Used in running lights
current attempting to pass either way between the anode and  Used for lamp dimmer. The brightness of incandescent
bulb was depend on the gate voltage applied. The
smaller gate voltage, the lesser the brightness. The
bigger gate voltage, it gives more brightness.
 Phase control application

3. Diac
is a two terminal device that is used as a trigger device for either
SCR or Triac. Conduction occurs in the diac when the breakover
voltage is reached with either polarity across the two terminals.
Once breakover occurs, current is in a direction depending on the
cathode. But when current is attempting to flow from anode to
polarity of the voltage across the terminals. The device turns off
when the current drops the holding value.

8. Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

This is another breakover device which is capable of triggering
triacs. It has lower breakover voltage as compared to diacs.

4. Quadrac
a quadric belongs to the thyristor family. It is basically a triac with
a built-in trigger diac.

5. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
Is similar to the SCR. The SCS has two gate terminals, the cathode
gate and the anode gate. The SCS can be turned on and off using
either gate terminal. Remember that the SCR can only turned on
using its gate terminal. Normally, the SCS is available in power
ratings lower than those of the SCR.
9. Shockley Diode
Is a thyristors with two terminals, the anode nad the cathode. It is
constructed of four semiconductor layers that form a PNPN
structure. It acts as a switch and remains off until the forward
voltage reaches a certain value; then it turns on and conducts.
Conduction continues until the current is reduced below a
specified value. The behavior of Shockley diode is similar to the
behavior of diac and SBS except that only the forward breakover
is possible. Shockley is also called Four Layer Diode.

10. Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

6. Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)
is actually type of thyristors and not like UJT all in terms of
structure. The only similarity to a UJT is that the PUT can be used
in some oscillator applications to replace the UJT. The PUT is
more similar to an SCR except that its anode-to-gate voltage can
be used to both turn on and turn off the device.
LASCR operates essentially as does the conventional SCR except
that it can also be triggered. Most LASCRs have an available gate
terminal so that the device can also triggered by an electrical
pulse just as conventinal SCR.

7. Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)

This is another breakover device that conducts current in only
one direction. The SUS has a third terminal that is used to alter
the breakover voltage if connected to a Zener Diode.
 Other Devices
11. Phototransistor
is a light sensitive, collector-base PN junction. It is exposed to
incidcent light through a lens opening in the transistor package.
When there is no incident light, there is a small thermally
generated collector-to-emitter leakage current. This is called the
dark current and is typically in the nano-amper range. When light
strikes the collector-base PN junction, a base current os produced
that is directly proportional to the light intensity. In many cases,
there is no electrical connection to the base.
interconnecting electrical conductors, processed on and
contained entirely within a single chip of silicon.
Advantages: small size, low cost, and high reliability.
ICs still have limitations comparatively low power, low voltage,
and a limited selection of components that can be integrated
economically.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) – having 10 to 100 gates.
Large-Scale Integration (LSI) – having more than 100 gates.
Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) – having more than 1000
gates.
15. Relay
is an electromechanical device having one or more contacts that
are opened and closed by magnetic field. This magnetic field is
generated by its own built-in electromagnet that can be activated
by an external circuit.

Relay Typical Coil Voltage and Current Rating

Current Rating: 0.5 amps, 1 amp, 2 amp.
Voltage Rating: 6 volts, 12 volts, 24 volts.

12. Optical Coupler

Are designed to provide complete electrical isolation between an
input circuit and an output circuit. The usual purpose of isolation
is to provide protection fro high voltage transients, surge voltage,
or low level noise that could possibly result in an erroneous
output or damage to the device. Optical couplers also allow
interfacing circuits with different voltage levels, different
grounds, and so on.

13. Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

is a three terminal device with characteristics very different from
the conventional 2 junction, bipolar transistor. The term
unijunction refers to the fact that the UJT has a single PN
junction. UJT has a negative resistance characteristic for a
specified operating voltage. The UJT is useful in certain oscillation

applications as a triggering device in thyristor circuits.

14. Integrated Circuit (IC)

Is a complete electronics circuit, containing transistors and
perhaps diodes, resistors, and capacitors, along with their