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microclimate through hydroponic design and refurbished thermal energy by phase change material
adi
iversity of Tunis El Manar
adila
Wahid Ghorbel
entre des Recherches et des Technologies de l'Energie
Guizani
g demand for agricultural food needs coupled with rising energy costs marked challenges for ensuring
previous period. Therefore, greenhouses agriculture is a main focus for farmers, engineers and
ers in view of ways of improvement that provides. Compared to the conventional greenhouses,
better quality, greater nutrient content, higher yield, efficient water and fertilizer use, but also more
A new Hydroponic Greenhouse was designed and installed in the Research and Technology Center of
Solar Air Heater with Latent thermal storage using Phase Change Material was also realized for the
se heating taking into account the thermal heat loads of the specific application. In this work, the
ydroponic Greenhouse without heating was pursued to evaluate the performance of the hydroponic
reenhouse allowed better environment than conventional greenhouses. During daytime, the new
ture exceeded 18 °C and the difference between the inside and the outside reached mostly 6 °C. The
ed between 20 and 35% the day and 70–85% at night. Several measurements were also carried out
ursue the Solar Air Heater contribution. The temperature of the hydroponic greenhouse during
ating raised by 6 °C and the nocturnal temperature was mainly over 15 °C. The diurnal temperature of
ic Greenhouse was generally higher than 32 °C. Compared to conventional solar heating, the two
t storage energy improved the indoor greenhouse environment especially during harsh and nocturnal
research
bers
ications
rojects
See all › Author content
wa Bouadila See all ›
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41 References
copyright. 12 Figures
+8
ics. The PCM thermo-physical nstrumentation and The irrigation system of the
characteristics. uncertainties details. HG.
i n f o a b s t r a c t
The rapidly increasing demand for agricultural food needs coupled with rising
018 challenges for ensuring food bigger than any previous period. Therefore, green
form
main focus for farmers, engineers and greenhouses designers in view of way
provides. Compared to the conventional greenhouses, hydroponics warrant
mber 2018
November 2018
nutrient content, higher yield, efficient water and fertilizer use, but also more e
new Hydroponic Greenhouse was designed and installed in the Research and
Energy in Tunisia. A Solar Air Heater with Latent thermal storage using Phase Ch
ouse realized for the hydroponic greenhouse heating taking into account the thermal h
h latent thermal storage application. In this work, the microclimate of the Hydroponic Greenhouse withou
to evaluate the performance of the hydroponic design. Hydroponic greenhous
g ronment than conventional greenhouses. During daytime, the new greenhouse
18 C and the difference between the inside and the outside reached mostly 6 C
ranged between 20 and 35% the day and 70e85% at night.
S l t l i d t ft th h ti t th
Several measurements were also carried out after the heating to pursue the
See all › See allbution.
› The temperature of the hydroponic greenhouse during nighttime after th
and the nocturnal temperature was mainlyDownload
over 15citation
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C. The diurnal temperature Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
ponic Greenhouse was generally higher than 32 C. Compared to conventional
packed beds of latent storage energy improved the indoor greenhouse environ
harsh and nocturnal periods.
© 2018 Elsevier
016/j.jclepro.2018.11.192
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
he large quantities of water needed for irrigation farming for more growing spaces to multipl
, 2008), cultivation in soil presents numerous disad- for higher yields (Link, 2017).
nventional greenhouses require large areas which in The second benefit (ii) of hydroponics
gh concentrations of nutrients and pesticides (Barbosa efficient fertilizer consumption and reducin
Killebrew and Wolff, 2000). Moreover, pollutants and for pest and disease control (Hussain et al.,
aste released during the cultivation may have ponic farming has a significant potential to s
fects such as soil degradation, erosion, and contami- systems are highly efficient in recycling wa
ghellini et al., 2003). be easily captured for reuse (Carmassi et a
hnics for food production must evolve. Hydroponic hydroponic system delivering water and n
s to be the solution to many problems associated with crops found that cucumber and tomatoes
onal greenhouse. Actually, hydroponic crop production reusing 33% of drainage water which red
ntly increased worldwide (Hickman, 2017) and various consumption for irrigation (Grewal et al., 20
have been successfully grown hydroponically. The For safer culture with less environment
ops include the most popular vegetables as cucumber culture is considered as the beneficial tech
, 2011), lettuce (Cometti et al., 2013; Ioslovich, 2009), droponic farming can substantially reduce p
ez-Galvez et al., 2016), tomato (Lopez-Galvez et al., drainage water discharge (Grewal et al., 2011
et al., 2015). contained and recycled, there is no residua
ions into hydroponic alternatives could be beneficial ment (Bradley and Marulanda, 2001). Mor
y feed fresh crops all the year irrespective of seasons system presents a low risk of contaminatio
er yields using minimal land area, (ii) efficient use of 2016). In fact, hydroponic greenhouses o
ers and chemicals for disease and pest control and (iii) against some causes of enteric bacterial an
with inferior environmental impacts and specific nation factors which makes the hydroponic
gas emissions. open field (Orozco et al., 2008). Also, and as
g the improvement of hydroponic yields (i), Bradley remain clean and do not need washing (Co
da described a simplified hydroponic technology for more, compared to soil cultivation (0.23 kg C
nger. They mentioned that simplified hydroponic re- emissions are notably inferior for the hydrop
ximately 25% of the area used for soil cultivation CO 2 equivalent) (Martinez-Mate et al., 2018
Marulanda, 2001). Barbosa et al. demonstrated that Despite of the numerous advantages pr
ments of the hydroponic technology can even be ten hydroponic culture, the specific energy con
quantitative comparison of the lettuce production culture form is 17% higher than land culti
this technique of culture offered over eleven times et al., 2018). Among the greenhouse annual
s compared to conventional agriculture (Barbosa et al., mand of heat corresponds to 95.3% of the to
grow hydroponically into stacked trays as vertical the electricity consumption corresponds to o
nsive greenhouse energy requirements make the that this system is appropriate for the green
issue for producers around the world. Indeed, an important savings were realized (Benli, 20
g system is necessary to maintain the optimum inserted a solar air heater with latent storag
ide the greenhouse in cold climate especially dur- small chapel-shaped greenhouse during the
hen the temperature drops below the optimal range showed that the internal temperature was un
2013). the ambient temperature. The amount of h
nergy sources come along as the most prospective collector presented about 56% of the day total e
e for reducing the energy load for greenhouses greenhouse and ensured 30% of the total heat
and covering the heating needs. Thus, the scientific night (Bouadila et al., 2014).
ver the world have tested several systems. Barley is one of the most important c
uksel designed and set up biogas, solar and a Mediterranean region and is widely cultivate
heat pump greenhouse heating system with hor- arid regions especially in the North of Af
round heat exchanger to heat a greenhouse and scarcity of fresh water, the climate change
ifferent energy sources can be successfully tested cultivation practices promote the interest of
heating (Esen and Yuksel, 2013). Joudi and Farhan greenhouses for barley culture. In order to
greenhouse formed mainly with a conventional groundwater consumption, some action sho
d six solar air heaters connected in parallel and ensure pasture management, livestock and
f the greenhouse roof. The solar air heater pro- ability. A national project funded by Ministry
heating load of the greenhouse. The stored energy and Scientific Research (Tunisia) focused on t
andSee
theall
solar
› heat inside
Seethe
all ›greenhouse covered of a technically feasible, economically v
ating requirements with an surplus around 46% acceptableDownload
strategy citation Share
for a sustainable mana Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
han, 2014b). Hussain et al. compared linear and productivity in Tunisia. The 3-year project is
ns solar collectors with similar storage capacities oration between two partners: the Researc
ns surface areas for the heating of identical Center of Energy (CRTEn) and Centre of Bio
der the same weather and operating conditions. Cedria (CBBC) (2014e2017).
provided heating load exceeding the greenhouse As hydroponics are highly sophisticated sy
d. The excessive heat was stored in the storage climate management is seldom, nay absent,
ghttime heating. The thermal efficiency for the acclimatization researches. The novelty of this
s collector was higher than for the linear Fresnel improved hydroponic greenhouse indoor cli
nd the spot Fresnel lens collector performance growth availing the hydroponic greenhou
12% higher than that of linear Fresnel lens col- benefiting from the solar heating using a solar
ussain et al., 2015). Attar and Farhat have proved change material during cold periods. To comp
the efficiency of a solar water system based on of temperature at night which may severely
xchangers integrated in the greenhouse for the necessary to use the additional heating: the SA
ground heat storage. For a greenhouse of 10 m 3 , uses exclusively solar energy for greater acclim
em efficiency was around 64.9% in December and culture conditions. Considering these issues, th
April (Attar and Farhat, 2015). an eco-friendly hydroponic greenhouse and a
newable energy forms (solar, wind, …) are inter- using two packed beds of latent storage en
e and not available all time, searching for suitable realized in the Thermal Processes Laboratory
mal energy storage as new sources of energy is a This study seeks then to determine the fe
for reducing the mismatch between the energy vative Hydroponic Greenhouse (HG) and a n
mand and improving the energy systems perfor- with Latent storage energy (SAHL) for its n
et al., 2009). Thermal energy storage as sensible sections (2) and (3), the experimental set-up
has attracted a lot of attention since it plays an equipment will be described. In section (4),
n conserving energy and can be applied to several thermal analysis of the hydroponic greenhou
y systems for reducing the wastage of energy. The mate evaluation, the SAHL comportment and th
y Phase Change Material (PCM) presents a greater be illustrated in section (5). In the conclusion
pared to sensible storage, such as rock and water will be reported.
PCM has an important potential to store larger
during the phase change with smaller temperature 2. Experimental set-up
een storing and releasing heat (Sethi and Sharma,
h energy storage densities over narrow tempera- The experimental prototype is a new
e PCM attractive for greenhouse heating (€Oztürk, Greenhouse (HHG) composed of two compon
esearches have studies different systems of PCM mental Hydroponic Greenhouse (HG), and (
uirements of greenhouses. Heater with Latent storage energy on two bed
urmuş tested an experimental device constructed shows the real device of the experimental sys
air collectors with latent heat storage system. The
f collectors integrated PCM provided 6e9 C higher 2.1. The experimental hydroponic greenhouse de
side the greenhouse compared to outside. This
allowed until 23% of total daily thermal energy The experimental Hydroponic Greenhouse (
f the greenhouse for 3e4 h compared to the con- of area and 3 m of height with Southern-Easter
ng systems (Benli and Durmuş, 2009a). Benli have hydroponic greenhouse is constructed with
nd source heat pump heating system with a latent structure (Z300) covered by a sandwich panel w
orage tank and investigated the use of the phase insulator. It is characterized by a light weight,
ls for energy saving in the greenhouse. He found strength, a low toxicity and a thermal conductiv
SAHL
SAHL
See all › See all ›
2.2. The Download citation
control panel Shareand ventil Download full-text PDF
of irrigation
41 References 12 Figures
The second compartment occupies a tota
is fitted out with the germination equipmen
irrigation and ventilation systems as shown
g. 1. The experimental Heated Hydroponic Greenhouse.
composed of electric cabinet, Hunter X-cor
water filter, dosing pump, DAB water pump
Hunter solenoid valves and chint inverter.
composed of two isothermal boxes; the principal
t is destined for the hydroponic culture and the small
- The electric cabinet contains push butt
or the germination and the control systems.
circuit-breakers, (3) electric switches, (8
pal compartment has 54 m 3 of volume and destined
Off, power transformer and (2) tempera
ponic culture (Fig. 2). A metallic support is installed to
- The Hunter X-core controller regulates cu
ulture trays. The dimensions of the tray are: 4mm of
run time and water days for the automa
mm of width and 350 mm of length. The trays are
- The cartridges water filter (XS Type SEN
o rows, each row is composed of five vertical levels
water flowing in the irrigation system.
m. The metallic support is constructed in such way
- The dosing pump Green Line model D
s of each level are placed with a low inclination. The
nutriment solution to enrich the water.
f all trays are perforated in extremities for the water
- The DAB 0.5HP Peripheral Centrifugal w
30/16 M actuates the water circulation.
equipped with a double-glazed window with an area
- The AquaOxy 4800 aerator with a power
nd a thermal transmittance U < 1.3 W/m 2 K placed in
60 W and a maximum flow rate of 4800 l/
n wall and represents 30% of the total area of this
during the germination.
Solenoid valve
Culture tray
Support
Extractor
Shading screen
Lamp
Manual valve
Drip tubing
Recovery pipe
(a)
(b) (e)
(c)
(f)
(d) (g)
PGV 24V scheduling solenoid valve used for the uniformly a measured quantity of water in
ment. ensure that the plants do not suffer from st
VF2-1.5/TS4 inverter modifies the velocity of the air watering. The trays holes allow the flow wa
ged with the fans. another until reaching the recovery pipe and th
(Fig. 4).
Table 2
The PCM thermo-physical characteristics.
PCM CaC
(a) (b)
( c) (d)
g. 6. DSC measurement curve of latent heat of fusion and melting temperature of CaCl2.6H2O at different cycles (Tyagi and Bud
m and insulted with 0.05 m of glass wool to reduce have a remarkable life span of more than 10 00
es. 27 years of normal use) (Cristopia, 2013).
h d i d i d
theSee
desired
all › operating temperature
See range and a
all › It melts
hange during phase transition. in a stable The measurement device was
Download citation equipped w Download full-text PDF
Share
41and
ature References 12 Figures
has shown minor variations in the latent struments and sensors noted as:
during the thermal cycling process; only about
% average variation respectively during the 1000 - (2) HMP155A sensors, the first one was pla
Tyagi and Buddi, 2008). Fig. 6 illustrates the DSC 1.2 m above the floor to measure the tem
urve of latent heat of fusion and melting tempera- relative humidity (T HMPin and RH HMPin )
H2O at different cycles. The CaCl2.6H2O nodules the second HMP155A sensor was placed ou
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Y 1.5 3 4.5
temperature and relative humidity (T HMPex and Z ¼ {0, 2, 1, 0, 1 or 2} presented the
. vertical position from the ground.
meters KIPP & ZONEN measured the horizontal global
ation: one was placed at 1.2 m inside the greenhouse
econd pyranometer was fixed in horizontal plane at 3.2. Measuring equipment in the SAHL
e the greenhouse.
ocouples to measure temperature in the center of the To measure the temperatures of the SA
se at different vertical levels (T1, T 2, T 3, T4 and T 5), type thermocouples were used (Fig. 5).
ocouples (T6, T7, T8 and T9) placed in the horizontal
2 m above the floor to measure the air temperature at - (2) thermocouples to measure the inlet (T
uth, Est and West sides, temperatures of the SAHL,
ocouples placed on different windows glass sides (T 10, - (2) thermocouples to measure the surfac
and T 13), perature in the center of the first bed (T
See to
ocouple allmeasure
› theSee all ›
temperature of the floor (T 14). perature (Tglass),
matic41layout illustrated 12
in Figures
(Fig. 7) describes (14) local- Download citation
- (6) thermocouples Share
were integrated in the Download full-text PDF
References
f K-type thermocouples (accuracy ± 0.01 C) distrib- the last nodules of each bed named re
e the greenhouse at different triple positions (X, Y, Z). T bed1 bed2
13 ) and (T1 , T bed2
7 , T bed2
13 ).
ence center of the localizations parameters corre-
the middle of the greenhouse at 1.2m above the
corresponds to the thermocouple T3 position. 3.3. The meteorological station
rmocouple position is defined by (X, Y, Z) detailed as The NRG weather station of the Research
of Energy of Borj Cedria is equipped with
recording every 10 min the average, the m
1, 0, 1 or 2} presented the values that define the po- and the standard deviation values for the am
he thermocouple -from the North to the South. global sun flux on a horizontal plan and the
or 1} presented the values that define the position on rection at 20 m. The wind velocity at other hi
m the East to the West. from the wind speed measurement at 20 m u
d uncertainties details.
umidity RH HMP-in % HMP155A in the center of the greenhouse at 1.2 m above the floor ±2%
humidity RH HMP-ext % HMP155A outside near the collector (Fig. 5) ±2%
2
ar radiation e W/m KIPP & ZONEN pyranometer in horizontal surface at 1.2 m inside the greenhouse ±
2
lar radiation e W/m KIPP & ZONEN pyranometer in inclined surface near the collector (Fig. 5)
ture T amb C K-type thermocouple outside at 3 m above the floor ±0.01
ure T1 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 2.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T2 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 1.7 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T3 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 1.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T4 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 0.7 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T5 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 0.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T6 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the northern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T7 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the southern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T8 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the eastern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T9 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the western side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T10 C K-type thermocouple on the internal southern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T11 C K-type thermocouple on the external southern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T12 C K-type thermocouple on the internal northern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T13 C K-type thermocouple on the external northern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01
ure T14 C K-type thermocouple on the floor in the center of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01
eT glass C K-type thermocouple the glass of the solar heater (Fig. 5) ±0.01
perature T out C K-type thermocouple (Fig. 5) ±0.01
bed i
T j C K-type thermocouple the j position of the bed i, i ¼ {1,2}, j ¼ {1,7,13} ±0.01
e e CR 5000 data logger inside the hydroponic greenhouse ±0.1
2Þ ¼ ðz 1 =z2 bÞ where U is the wind speed, z is the 4. Thermal analysis and efficiencies
e power law exponent and the subscripts 1 and 2
erent heights (Nightingale et al., 2013). 4.1. Thermal analysis
and measured parameters of HHG system are
a Campbell Scientific CR5000 measurement and The thermal analysis corresponds to the hyd
ger connected to a microcomputer with LoggerNet before the cultivation (without crops). The iso
ram. Due to the shortcut interface and the CRbasic as described above can be assimilated to a bui
rogram measuring the different parameters every this section, the thermal analysis is developed
g the average values every 10 min was realized. The ternal thermal gains and losses inside the HG
system recorded the measurements during all the the heating requirements of the greenhouse
eriod. period (Fig. 8).
The amount of energy provided via the
chosen to maintain the desired environment c
analysis the greenhouse losses and gains. Otherwise, it
thermal losses minus the sum of useful gains
ted measurements, experimental results may have and internal energy sources (Cassagne and
mentioned, energy requirements are generally
uncertainty analysis is then needed to estimate the
uncertainty analysis is then needed to estimate the
See all › accuracies and
asurements See to
all increase
› the precision
d experiments. Download citation
X Share X Download full-text PDF
41 ReferencesExperimental
12 Figures errors came mainly Heating requirements ¼ Losses Gain
ure, relative humidity, solar irradiation measure- 0 Heat Req ¼ Ltot Gtot
sensitiveness and measurement error of data
em (type CR 5000). Table 3 itemizes the details of The total thermal losses are assumed as th
and uncertainties.
eness were obtained from a catalog of the in-
e uncertainties were likely to be related to instru-
es as measurement inaccuracy, sensitivity and
rtainties.
ed uncertainties of the dependent parameters were
(1). The result R is a given function in terms of the
riables. Let w R be the uncertainty in the result and
be the uncertainties of the independent variables.
given function of the independent variables x 1 , x2 ,
ertainties in the independent variables are all given
dds, then the uncertainty in the result having these
ed by (Holman, 1994):
2 2 2
vR vR
þ w2 þ ,,, þ wn 1=2 (1)
vx2 vxn
Fig. 8. The thermal balance of the H
T i Þ is the difference between interior and exterior hec ¼ 5:2 þ 3:8 Vamb
( C) and H is the total thermal loss coefficient of the
greenhouse expressed in (W=m 2). H includes the where Vamb is the ambient wind velocity (m
ms of thermal losses, it can be written as: The useful gains include all source prov
ergy to the greenhouse. These gains contain
f þ H Un þ HTr (4) and all outputs heat inside the greenhouse (o
lighting …).
ents the coefficient of losses by specific air renewal. It The useful gains are determined as follo
m of:
Gtot ¼ GS þ GP þ Geq
V (5)
GS : is the solar inputs calculated as fo
Wh=m 3 K) is the value of the volumetric heat capacity of GICQUEL):
C, Qmin and Q max are respectively the minimum and X
alues of the total extracted air flow and Q V is the Gs ¼ ðAFtr F red CÞI
olumetric flow rate (m 3 =h) and expressed as
where A is surface of each wall(m 2), F tr is
þ QmaxÞ=6 (6) factor of the wall, F red is the solar energy re
coefficient of orientation and inclination o
he coefficient of losses by infiltration. These losses can solar irradiation intensity (W=m 2 ).
: The internal gains include G eq and GP .
X Geq : is the internal gain of equipment:
ðP : wÞ (7)
Geq ¼ Pel f
permeability of each façade and written as:
P el is the heat outputs supplied by the d
X correction factor.
þ ðmA dwÞ (8)
GP : is the internal gain of occupation d
are respectively the ventilation holes and the opening GP ¼ n P occ
ndows) surfaces, m is a permeability coefficient ðm=hÞ
coefficient of exposure to wind. where n represents the number of occupan
he coefficient of losses by transmission through un-
t t td i it (W
outputs per occupant during its presence (W
s. See all › See all ›
se, we consider H Un 12
0HFigures
T: denotes the transmission Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References
ient. They are given as follow: 4.2. The HG thermal performance
700 40
Solar radiation Ambient temperature
Temperature inside the HG
600 35
500 30
Solar radiation (W/m )
2
Temperature (°C)
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
5
0
0
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 24:00
Time (hh:mm)
8/12/2016 (Reference da y)
i d t t th i d h ti
See allthe
› HG. See all › was sized to warrant the required heating ev
ses through favorable climatic
Downloadconditions. InShare
fact, the amou
41 References 12 Figures to compensate for citation
the greenhouse requir Download full-text PDF
hermal loss (W)
defined the quantity of encapsulated phas
110
around 95 kg, considering the amount of heat s
144
40
nodule. The 310 nodules necessary to satisf
19 defined then the packed beds absorber confi
26 after the SAHL sizing.
nd infiltration 40
379
5. Economic analysis
le 6
mmary cost analysis.
45 18 1000
Ambient temperature Wind speed
Solar irradiation 900
40 16
800
35 14
700
Solar irradiation (W/m2)
30 12
Temperature (°C)
600
Wind speed (m/s)
25 10 500
20 8 400
300
15 6
200
10 4
100
5 2
0
See all › 0 See all › 0 -100
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References
00:00 12 Figures
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb 21 Feb 22 Feb 23 Feb 24 Feb
Da et a nd time
Fig. 10. The climatic parameters evolution.
urn is defined as the costs of equipment, installation thermal behavior of the HG (without heatin
on. The operation cost C op corresponds to the boiler heating).
ump for the conventional system (fuel boiler), and the The external global solar radiation, the
n costs for the solar heating (SAHL þ backup system). and the wind velocity at 2 m above the h
ance cost C maint corresponds to the annual cost of during one week in February 2017 are pres
each component of the systems. Capital costs of the climatic weather prevailing in the experim
ms were based on the price quotations obtained from terized by significant fluctuations. The sol
during this period attained mainly 80 0 W/m
demand required is the amount necessary to keep the and the 23rd of February marked perturb
within the appropriate temperature range, between tensity were characterized by the lower val
7 C, during five months (November to March). In 600 W/m 2. Concerning the ambient tem
ntirely possible to remove the need for heating during period, the maximal diurnal values ranged b
ods. Then the heating duration is about 1800 h. The In accordance with the solar intensity variat
nergy that must be supplied by the heating system is of ambient temperature was recorded in 20
Wh. day. At night, the outdoor temperature va
marizes the main results. 15 C but it was mainly lower than 10 C.
tion of the annual energy production due to the solar The wind velocity in the experiment's sit
over 4600 kWh. The average mean life of the SAHL was standards which equals 4 m/s. However, the
be 20 years and the payback period of using the SAHL characterized by unstable rates and varied w
years and this period of time could be shortened by and 11.6m/s. The least values of wind veloc
most suitable methods to increase the annual yield tween the 19th and 20th of February when
sunny and the temperature exceeded 23 C.
ndicate that important energy saving benefits were recorded in 22 February at 16 h.
m the reduction in consumption of the fuel used
ly to provide energy. Due to the solar air heater with
nt storage, the total energy inputs were reduced and 6.1. Performance of the hydroponic greenhous
emands were satisfied freely. The solar heating led to
mprovements in the energy use efficiency. To evaluate the hydroponic greenhouse p
the saving in heating costs of the SAHL, the environ- heating, measurements have been taken du
fits of using this system are considerable due to the 10 February 2017) with fluctuated weather c
CO 2 emission. Therefore, the use of the SAHL in the temperature evolution inside the hydropon
heating process would be an appropriate system. temperature inside the HG and the external
illustrated in (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 shows that the internal air temp
d discussion trend as the ambient temperature and it
global solar radiation. For a diurnal ambien
rimental measurements of this study were taken in among 14 and 27 C, the HG air temperatu
7. They concerned the climatic conditions, the solar air and 34 C. During this testing week, the diur
rmance, the phase change materials states and the the HG was always higher than the outdoor
45 800
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
Temperature inside the HG
40 700
35 600
Solar irradiation
30 500
perature (°C)
25 400
Temp
n (W/m )
See all ›20 See all › 300
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
15 200
2
10 100
5 0
0 -100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
04 Feb 05 Feb 06 Feb 07 Feb 08 Feb 09 Feb 10 Feb
Dat e and time
Fig. 11. The air temperature evolution inside the HG.
mperature varied among 20 and 23 C while the HG the HG (Fig. 6 section 2.1). The stratification
s over 34 C at 13 h. The 9th of February, when the from midday till the sunset and almost absent
didn't attain 270 W/m 2 and the ambient temper- higher air temperature corresponded to the u
16 C, the HG temperature was around 19 C. The ever, from 10 h to 13 h, temperatures in lower p
side the HG was permanently higher than the greater than other positions which can be e
ature and the difference was around 11 C and even position and the irradiation direction during t
during the early hours of the day the difference As acknowledged, it is crucial to control th
the temperature of the HG was even colder than humidity. In fact, it is a critical factor affectin
till mostly over 12 C. At night, the ambient tem- demics of certain crop diseases and inappropri
between 10 and 13 C and the HG temperature was humidity threaten growth plants and damage
between 12 and 16 C. Fig. 13 exhibits the shape of the external,
ates the temperature of three positions (T1, T2 and midity and ambient temperature curves during
high levels (respectively 2.2, 1.7 and 0.7 m) inside previous conditions. Temperature and hum
45 800
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
T1
40 700
T2
T4
35 600 Solar irradiation ( W/m )
30 500
Temperature (°C)
25 400
20 300
15 200
2
10 100
5 0
0 -100
04/02/2017 00:00 05/02/2017 00:00 06/02/2017 00:00 07/02/2017 00:00 08/02
D at e andtime
Fig. 12. The vertical stratification inside the HG.
40 110
Ambient temperature Internal humidity
External humidity 100
35
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41 References
30 12 Figures
80
60
20
50
15 40
30
10
20
5
10
0 0
13/02/2017 00:00 14/02/2017 00:00 15/02/2017 00:00 16/02/2017 00:00 17/02/2017 00:00
Date and time
Fig. 13. The relative humidity inside and outside the HG.
Low humidity values accompanied the maximal 6.1.1. The shading screen effect on the HG (wi
during the sunny periods. Fig. 14 exposes the HG temperature evol
of the relative humidity inside the HG is visibly more temperature before and after the use of
he external humidity, this fact explains the importance screen in practically comparable weathe
ulation in reducing the weather fluctuation effect and February, when the hydroponic greenhouse
e interior humidity. The internal humidity was mainly the sun through the Southern double glazin
he relative humidity outside. The higher difference was greater than ambient temperature by
internal and external humidity attained was recorded reached 34 C in 13 February at 14 h when th
it was over 30%. The lower internal humidity was was about 15.6 C. After using the mov
4 h and it was around 23% while the temperature continuously during 15 and 16 February, th
C. Then, the humidity started to increase and attained inside the greenhouse didn't attain 28 C
s from midnight to the sunshine until reaching over irradiation intensity exceeded 1000 W/m 2.
e emplacement of the greenhouse (to close to the sea) Using the shading screen decreased the
high values of relative humidity. the day by reducing the amount of sol
45 1200
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
Temperature inside the HG 1100
40
Without shading With shading 1000
35 900
Solar irradiation (W/m 2)
800
30
Temperature (°C)
700
25
600
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
100
5
0
0 -100
13/02/2017 00:00 14/02/2017 00:00 15/02/2017 00:00 16/02/2017 00:00 17/02/2017 00:00
Date a nd t ime
Fig. 14. The temperature evolution inside the HG without and with the shading.
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41 References 12 Figures
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379
ad leveling (TLL) 1
mperature is a function of time, the fluctuation of 0.9
e inside the greenhouse plays a crucial role. Hence, 0.8
to determine the thermal load leveling (TLL) to 0.7
wings in temperature. The TLL is a relative index 0.6
about the fluctuation of temperatures inside a 0.5
is an important factor for optimizing heating in 0.4
d is defined by equation Eq. (19). For a greenhouse 0.3
g with minimum fluctuations, the thermal load 0.2
should have low values due to the increase of 0.1
well as the decrease of T i;max Ti;min (Sutar and 0
4/2 5/2 6/2 7/2 8/2
1000
T Solar irradiation
ature inside the HG 900
800
1
700
0.9
Solar irradiation (W/m2)
600 0.8
500 0.7
400 0.6
300 0.5
200 0.4
0.3
100
0.2
0
0.1
-100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 0
3 Feb 24 Feb 25 Feb 26 Feb 27 Feb 28 Feb 22/2 23/2 24/2 25/2 26/2
Date an d itm e
15. The air temperature evolution inside the HHG. Fig. 17. Variation of thermal load leveling o
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41 References 12 Figures
60 1000
SAHL intel temperature Solar irradiation
55 SAHL outlet temperature 900
Absorber temperature
50 800
45
700
40
600
35
500
30
400
25
300
20
200
15
10 100
5 0
0 -100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb 21 Feb 22 Feb
Date and t ime
Fig. 18. The SAHL air temperature evolution.
ws that the SAHL temperatures were closely related to Fig. 19 depicts the phase change materials
dition. The daily average thermal efficiency of the SAHL in nodules13 and 7 of the bed_1(T bed 1
and T
13
days is also given. 2 bed 2
and 1 of the bed_2(T bed
13 and T 1 ) of the s
nny days, the absorber temperature exceeded 30 C
charging and discharging processes (Fig. 5 se
et temperature was over 40 C. The 20th of February
The PCM temperature variations of the d
rized by the important values of temperatures. For an
slight difference concerning the charging an
perature of 24 C and a solar radiation intensity over
as well as the fusion and solidification peak
he absorber temperature reached 35 C and the SAHL
Concerning the nodules temperatures pl
rature-was above 43 C at 13 h. The lowest tempera-
in both beds (Fig. 19 (a)), the PCM tempera
n 22 February when the ambient temperature was
2 more important than the PCM temperature
and the solar intensity didn't attain 600 W/m . The
phase change material constituting the fi
ter allowed mainly 20 C higher output temperature
solar intensity than the second bed which
bient temperature. The absorber temperature evolu- 1 2
T bed
13 exceeded 58 C while T bed
13 didn't
marked distinct pace which can be explained by the
nodule is near the transparent cover of the
phase change materials encapsulated in the spherical
temperature is greater.
he absorber.
Comparing two nodules temperatures in
70 45
bed1 bed2
T 13 T 13 Tbed1
7
Tbed1
13 T
bed2
1
Charging process Charging process 40
60 Charging process
35
50
PCM temperature (°C)
PCM temperature (°C)
30
40
25
30
20
20
15
See all › See all › 10 10
Discharging process Download citation
Discharging process Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
5
0
0 18:00 06:0 06:00 18:00
06:00 18:00 06:00 Time (hh:m
Time (h h:mm) Time (hh:mm)
40
bed2
T 13
35
T melting
Hysteresis Supercooling
30
PCM temperature (°C)
25
Tcrystallization
20
15
10
5
19/02/2017 06:00 19/02/2017 18:00 20/02/2017 06:00 20/02/2017 18:00 21/02/2017 06:0 0
D at e and time
Fig. 20. The PCM phenomena.
temperatures in upper location are greater than discharges faster. The PCM temperature T be 1
res in lower position. The thermo-siphon effect was rapidly than other nodules and drop less than 1
e upper part of the collector which explains the fact discharging duration of nodules near the cold
ore important than Tbed 1
(56.6 C against 38.7 C at than nodules of upper locations which disch
7
bed 2 2 period (after 7 h).
b)) and T 13 is higher than T bed
1 (36 C against
(Fig. 20) clarifies the phenomena of the
(Fig. 19 (c)).
phenomena of the supercooling presented d
charging process, the PCM temperature started
discharging processes in the nodule 13 of th
til reaching around 27 C at 10:30. Then, temper-
section 1.3).
constant about 2 h when the PCM stored an amount
During the sunshine when the PCM stored
ent heat. This phenomenon is more perceived in
from the solar irradiation, its temperature
er positions by the thermo-siphon effect. For the
until reaching the melting temperature, ap
cess, more the nodule is near the air inlet more it
160 0.7
140 0.6
ciency (%)
120
0.5
heat (kJ)
100
Daily thermal effic
Accumulated h
See all › See all › 0.4
80 Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
0.3
60
0.2
40
20 0.1
0 0
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb 21 Feb 22 Feb
Date
rst drops of liquid appeared. During the changing 6.3.1. The thermal efficiency of SAHL
PCM, the melting temperature was slightly greater The daily average thermal efficiency of th
stallization temperature; and then, the temperature the quotient of the amount of the accumulat
raise until reaching about 37 C. This particularity the collector during the discharging process
to the phenomenon of hysteresis. The hysteresis is accumulated absorbed heat during the cha
d by a lag of the solidification temperature compared the form as:
ion. It is due to some thermo-physical properties of
s the slow formation of the crystalline lattice, the Extracted heat amount
P
of the crystalline organization of the solid during h ¼ P
Absorbed heat amount
ange. P
QExtracted
e discharging process, the temperature of the PCM Discharging process
low the solidification temperature and the PCM was in 0h ¼
QAbsorbed
P
state. This state was maintained over a period of time Chargin gprocess
temperature evolved slowly and remained constant
wer temperature than the temperature of the melting Fig. 21 illustrates the daily thermal effi
the total crystallization. The PCM temperature mulated useful and absorbed heat. The daily
terward till dropping less to 15 C. This state corre- ciency of the solar air heater with latent
he supercooling which is a delay in crystallization; the between 0.29% and 0.38%.
ed to a temperature below the theoretical phase
mperature (sensible heat of the liquid phase) because
tal did not appear. Supercooling is generally charac-
difference between the melting temperature and the 7. Survey of greenhouse heating applicati
emperature of appearance of the first crystal.
Sensible heat technique by storing solar energy - the average daily rates of the thermal energy and exergy recovered
ik using the volcanic material were 601.3 and 20.9 W during the charging period
- the heat storage unit assured 18.9% of the total heating requiremen
wari Inner thermal curtain and natural flow of - the air temperature surrounding plants under thermal blanket was m
geothermal warm water through the floor 23 C during winter night and early morning
Solar-assisted ground-source (geothermal) heat - the greenhouse air had a maximum diurnal temperature of 31.05
005) pump system 14.54 C and a relative humidity of 40.35%.
arma, Aquifer coupled cavity flow heat exchanger system - the average greenhouse room air temperature was maintained at 7e
during winter nights
- the average relative humidity inside the greenhouse decreased by
muş Ground-source heat pump-phase change material- the heat pump increased the temperature by 5e10.8 C and the ch
latent heat storage system by 1e3.8 C
T l ll t ith l t th t t d ith th ti lh ti t th ll t id
muş, Ten solar collectors with latent heat storage - compared with the conventional heating systems, the collectors provide
See all › See all › daily thermal energy requirements of the greenhouse for 3e4 h
Horizontal and vertical ground- source heat Download
- the overall system efficiency rangedcitation
between 2.7Share
and 3.3 for hori Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
pumps pump and 2.9e3.5 for vertical ground-source heat pump system
han Six solar air heaters with a single glass cover on the - the greenhouse inside air temperature was kept at 18 C
roof - the daily heating load of the greenhouse was provided
015) Seasonal solar soil heat storage system - the energy saving realized by using the seasonal solar soil heat storage sys
conventional solar heating system was 27.8 kWh/m2
n Linear Fresnel lens (LFL) and Spot Fresnel Lens - SFL collector performance was about 7e12% higher than that of LF
) (SFL) solar collectors - the thermal efficiency was higher for the SFL than for the LFL colle
na PCM as a root zone temperature control system - significant environmental and economic benefits were obtained
) - an increase of 18% of farmers net benefit was obtained
- crop productivity increased of 20%
Solar collector system for low and high - the system was able to cover up to 65% of the annual greenhouse h
temperature applications - solar collector and thermal energy storage efficiency for the low
significantly higher than that of the high-temperature system
Ground source geothermal heat pump with to - the overall system efficiency obtained, starting from the amount of s
photovoltaic panels daylight hours was 11%
al., Evacuated tube solar collector as a solar water - the internal air temperature in the greenhouse raised by 2e3 C, wh
heater assisted an electric heat pump decreased by 10%
- the system provided more than 35% of the annual required heat.
- the thermal efficiency of the solar collector was 0.49.
udy New solar air heater with two packed beds of - the solar air heater increased the temperature by over 6 C all the
latent storage energy - the nocturnal temperature inside the greenhouse varied between
- the thermal efficiency of the SAHL reached 0.38%
i f l il bl h i
Review of Currently Available Data on the Internatio
entsSee all › See all › bles in Greenhouses.
Download
Holman, J., 1994. citationMethods
Experimental Share for Engineers, s Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
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eferences (41)
D
ernardo Martin-Gorriz · Victoriano Martínez Álvarez · Jose Maestre
house-integrated
See all › photovoltaics
See all › on crop production
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41 References 12 Figures
ment of a small scale photovoltaic, hydrogen and geothermal stand-alone system for greenhouse
ble
G
Andrea Colantoni · Simone Pascuzzi
herichia coli in reclaimed and surface water used in hydroponically cultivated greenhouse
nce of fertilizer solutions
ROL
z· María I Gil · Francisco pedrero salcedo · Ana Allende
ar soil heat storage system for greenhouse heating: Design and pilot study
omic analyses of linear and spot Fresnel lens solar collectors used for greenhouse heating in
sain
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