Highway Engineering

Geometric Design -
Sight Distance

Lecture 3

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 Elements of Geometric Design

“Design of visible elements of highway”

 Cross section elements
 Sight distance:
• Stopping (non-passing) sight distance
• Passing sight distance
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Intersections

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 Elements of Geometric Design

 Cross section elements

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 Elements of Geometric Design

 Sight distance:
It is the length of the roadway that a driver can see
ahead at any particular time, in order to stop or pass.

• Stopping (non-passing) sight distance

• Passing sight distance

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 Elements of Sight Distance
 Driver
– Alertness
– Recognition of hazard
– Action available to driver, stop or change direction
 Vehicle
– Type
– Friction between the tyre and the road
– Eye height
– Speed
 Road environment
– Geometry, grade and curvature
– Road surface, sealed or unsealed, smooth or rough
– Road lighting at night
5 – Placement of road furniture, planting
 Sight Distance

 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

It is the minimum sight distance required for a driver travel at near
the design speed to stop a vehicle after seeing a stationary object
in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object.
At all times, must provide sufficient sight distance to allow a
driver to see an object, react and stop.

– SSD controls the selection of:

• horizontal curves (HC) radius,
• lengths of vertical curves (VC), and
6 • intersection design elements.
 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

SSD = distance travelled during reaction time RT (d1) + distance travelled

while decelerating to a stop (d2)
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 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD
 SSD = perception and reaction distance (d1) + braking distance (d2)
 SSD = d1 + d2

d1 = V * t
Where: V= speed, km/h (kph)
t = perception time (0.5 to 1.5 sec) + reaction time (1sec)
= 1.5 to 2.5 sec

d1 = (1000/3600) V * t

d1 = in meters (m)
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 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD
• d2
work done by friction = kinetic energy

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(w*f) * d2 = m V , w=mg
2
2
d2 = V
254 f
Where: V= design speed, kph
w = weight of vehicle
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
f = coefficient of friction between tyres and pavement surface
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 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD
 On level surface
V*t V2
SSD  
3.6 254 f

 On inclined surface
V*t V2
SSD  
3.6 254 (f  g)

where: g = grade in %, in direction of travel

Uphill ( +ve), downhill ( -ve)

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 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

Example 1: Find the safe SSD on highway section using the

following data: design speed = 100 kph, t = 2.5 sec and f = 0.28.
V * t V2
Sol.: SSD  
3.6 254 f
100 * 2.5 (100) 2
SSD  
3.6 254 * 0.28
SSD = 210 m

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 Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

Example 2: Find the minimum stopping sight distance for a

vehicle travelling at a speed of 70 km/hr on a highway having a
slope of – 5% and coefficient of friction between tyres and
pavement surface is 0.35.
Sol.:
V*t V2
SSD  
3.6 254 (f  g)

70 *1.5 (70) 2
SSD  
3.6 254 (0.35  0.05)
SSD = 93.5 m
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 Passing Sight Distance, PSD
It is the minimum sight distance required on a 2-lane 2-way
highway that will permit a driver to complete a passing
maneuver without colliding with an opposing vehicle and
without cutting off the passed vehicle.

Certain assumptions are made:

1- The passing vehicle is travelling at the same speed as the impeder
(the vehicle being passed)
2- The impeder is travelling at a uniform speed
3- The average passing speed is about 16 km/hr more than the speed
13 of the impeder vehicle.
 Passing Sight Distance, PSD

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 Passing Sight Distance, PSD
The minimum passing sight distance is the total of four
components:
• d1: distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just enters the left
lane.
• d2: distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
• d3: distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the
end of the passing maneuver. The clearance length between the opposing
and passing vehicle at the end of the passing maneuvers was found to range
between 30m to 75m.
• d4: distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two-thirds of the time
the passing vehicle occupies the left lane (usually taken 2/3 d2 which is the
dangerous part of d2).
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 Passing Sight Distance, PSD
PSD = d1 + d2 +d3 +d4
• d1= 0.278 t1 (V- m + t1*a/2)
Where: t1: time for initial maneuver (sec)
a: average acceleration (km/hr/sec)
V: average speed of the passing vehicle (km/hr)
m: difference in speed of passing and impeder vehicle (usually
taken as 16km/hr)
• d2= 0.278 V t2
Where: t2: time when passing vehicle is travelling in left lane (sec)
V: average speed of the passing vehicle (km/hr)
• d3= ranged from 30 to 75 m
• d4= 2/3 d2
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 Passing Sight Distance, PSD

Example: Find the minimum passing sight distance at a section

of highway assuming the following data: v= 70 km/hr, m=16
km/hr, a=2.3 kph/sec, t1 =4 sec, t2 =10 sec
Solution:
d1= 0.278 t1 (v- m+ a. t1/2) = 0.278* 4(70- 16 +2.3*4/2) = 66m
d2= 0.278 v t2= 0.28*70*10 = 196m
d3= assumed to be 55m for this speed
d4= 2/3 d2= 2*196/3= 131m

Total passing sight distance is: PSD = d1 + d2 +d3 +d4 = 448m

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 Highway Engineering

Sight Distance on
Horizontal Curve

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

When an object located

near the inside edge of the
road way, the object
interferes with the view of
the driver and reduces the
line of sight. So, it is
necessary to provide the
minimum stopping sight
distance in designing the
highway.

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

V*t V2
SSD  
3.6 254 (f  g)
In this figure:
• S is the minimum stopping
sight distance.
• R is the radius of the curve to
the centerline of the inside
lane.
• M is the minimum distance
of an obstructing object from
the centerline of the inside
21 lane.
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

When L is the length of curve and S is the minimum

stopping sight distance, then:
L>S L<S

22 Note: distance travelled are measured along the Arc i.e. NOT horizontally.
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

1. When L ≥ S
S2
M(min) 
8R (required)

OR M  R (1  COS )
2

2. When L< S
L (2 S - L)
M(min) 
8R
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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

Example 1: A horizontal curve having R (to the centerline of the

inside lane)= 240m, design speed= 60km/hr. Determine the minimum
distance that an object can be placed from the centerline of the inside
lane of the curve without reducing the required SSD. Assume a flat
road segment, perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec and f = 0.34.

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

Example 2: If the sight at a horizontal curve = 30 m, the radius to the

inside centerline of the curve = 50 m. Find the minimum distance of
an object can be placed from the centerline of the inside lane of the
curve without reducing the required SSD.

O
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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

Example 3: Find the minimum distance of non-removable obstruction

from the inner edge of pavement for two lane roadway at its curved
section knowing that the width = 7.2 m, R = 500 m, SSD = 160 m and
L = 200 m.

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve

Example 4: Find the maximum driving speed on an existing roadway

curve of R= 100m in which the width of roadway= 7.2m knowing that
there is a non-removable obstruction which is located at 6.2m from the
edge of the inner side of curve and curve length L= 400m with grade
of 5% in the direction of inner side of travel. Assume f= 0.2 and t= 2.5
sec ?

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