UNIVERSIDAD DE CARABOBO

FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA
ESTUDIOS BÁSICOS
DEPARTAMENTO DE IDIOMAS MODERNOS

Prof. Mirian Level

Prof. Larissa Suárez
 UNIVERSIDAD DE CARABOBO
FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA
ESTUDIOS BÁSICOS
DEPARTAMENTO DE IDIOMAS MODERNOS
VALENCIA

ENGLISH II – CHEMISTRY

Autoras:
Prof. Mirian Level
Prof: Larissa Suárez
 ÍNDICE

Pág.

Unidad I – Repaso............................................................................................................... 04

1. Introduction to the Biosphere: The Nitrogen Cycle...................................................... 04

2. Methane Hydrate.…………………………………………….…………………..…... 09

Unidad II – Idea Principal e Ideas Secundarias.................................................................. 14

3. Catalysis.......................................................................................................................... 17

4. Bioremediation Explained ………………………………………………….………..... 20

5. Organic Materials and Supramolecular Chemistry.................................................…... 24

6. Engineers Develop New Chemical Sensor Based on Experimental Physics Breakthrough 27

Unidad III – La Función de la Descripción........................................................................ 31

7. Types of Electrochemical Cells …………………………..………………………….. 33

8. How can Pure Hydrogen Gas be Prepared and Detected? ........................................... 37

9. A New All Gas-Phase Chemical Iodine Laser............................................................... 40

Unidad IV – La Función de la Clasificación....................................................................... 45

10. The Nature of Matter .................................................................................................... 46

11. Electrical Conductivity ................................................................................................. 48

12. Metals and Metallurgy................................................................................................... 49

13. The Plastic and Polymerization……………...………………………...….…………. 52

14. Heat Exchanger………………………………………………………...…………….. 57

Extensive Reading ……………………………………………………..………………… 66

Bibliografía …………………………………………………………..………………….. 72

Apéndice ………………………………………………………………...……………….. 73
UNIDAD I

REPASO

CHAPTER 9: Introduction to the Biosphere

(s). The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems
(Figure 9s-1). Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex organic molecules
like amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The largest store of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere
where it exists as a gas (mainly N2). The atmospheric store is about one million times larger than the
total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other major stores of nitrogen include organic matter in
soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient
for plant growth. This problem occurs because most plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms:
ammonium ion (NH4+ ) and the ion nitrate (NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as
inorganic nitrate from the soil solution. Ammonium is used less by plants for uptake because in large
concentrations it is extremely toxic. Animals receive the required nitrogen they need for metabolism,
growth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic matter containing molecules
composed partially of nitrogen.

Figure 9s-1: Nitrogen cycle.

In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matter. This organic
nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via
decomposition. Decomposers, found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in
organic matter from ammonia (NH3 ) to ammonium salts (NH4+ ). This process is known as
mineralization and it is carried out by a variety of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi.

Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil. The
ion of ammonium that has a positive molecular charge is normally held by soil colloids. This process is
sometimes called micelle fixation (see Figure 9s-1). Ammonium is released from the colloids by way
of cation exchange. When released, most of the ammonium is often chemically altered by a specific
type of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria that belong to the genus Nitrosomonas) into nitrite (NO2- ).
Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus Nitrobacter) converts the
nitrite to nitrate (NO3- ). Both of these processes involve chemical oxidation and are known as
nitrification. However, nitrate is very soluble and it is easily lost from the soil system by leaching.
Some of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until it reaches the oceans where it
can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitrification is also common in anaerobic soils
and is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria. The process of denitrification involves the reduction of
nitrate into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then diffuse into the
atmosphere. This process is important to the bacteria because it supplies them with oxygen for
respiration.

Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere.
Small proportions enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is
biochemically fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and
cyanobacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of plants form mutualistic
symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacterial. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria
receive from the plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a
moist environment. Scientists estimate that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million
metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year.

The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes involved
in this alteration include:

 The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of

denitrification and leaching of nitrate into groundwater. The additional nitrogen
entering the groundwater system eventually flows into streams, rivers, lakes, and
estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to eutrophication.
 Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel
combustion and forest burning. Both of these processes release a variety of solid
forms of nitrogen through combustion.
 Livestock ranching. Livestock release large amounts of ammonia into the
environment from their wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the
hydrologic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and runoff.
 Sewage waste and septic tank leaching.

Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9s.html
Read the text “The Nitrogen Cycle” and then carry out the following activities. Answer in Spanish.

1. Translate the following noun phrases:

a. one of the most important nutrient cycles: _______________________________________________

b. a number of complex organic molecules: _______________________________________________
c. The largest store of nitrogen: _________________________________________________________
d. the most limiting nutrient for plant growth: ______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
e. the consumption of living or dead organic matter: ________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
f. the upper soil layer: ________________________________________________________________
g. the surfaces of clay particles: _________________________________________________________
h. a positive molecular charge: __________________________________________________________
i. some of this leached nitrate: __________________________________________________________
j. Mutualistic symbiotic relationships: ___________________________________________________
k. sewage and septic tank leaching: ______________________________________________________

2. Answer the following questions:

a. For what is nitrogen used by living organisms?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

b. Name the stores of nitrogen.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

c. Why is nitrogen often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
d. `What is known as mineralization?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

e. What is sometimes called micelle fixation?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

f. What are autotrophic bacteria?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

g. What is known as nitrification?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

h. What is denitrification and why is it important?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

i. Name the first two processes involved in the alteration of the nitrogen cycle.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
j. What can lead to eutrophication?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

k. How does livestock ranching alter the nitrogen cycle?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What do the following referential words and phrases refer to?

a. it, P1, L4: ________________________________________________________________________
b. they, P1, L8: ______________________________________________________________________
c. it, P1, L10: _______________________________________________________________________
d. This organic nitrogen, P2, L1 and 2: ___________________________________________________
e. it, P2, L5: ________________________________________________________________________
f. it, P3, L9: ________________________________________________________________________
g. This process, P3, L13: ______________________________________________________________
h. it, P3, L13: _______________________________________________________________________
i. them, P3, L13: ____________________________________________________________________

4. What kind of transitional signal is the word “because”, P1, L9? ______________________________
Write the ideas connected by it.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. What kind of transitional signal is the word “however”, P4, L2? _____________________________
Write the ideas connected by it.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 Methane Hydrate
A surprising compound
WHAT do you get when you combine water and swamp gas under low temperatures and high pressures?
You get a frozen lattice-like substance called methane hydrate, huge amounts of which underlie our
oceans and polar permafrost. This crystalline combination of a natural gas and water (known technically
as a clathrate) looks remarkably like ice but burns if it meets a lit match.

Methane hydrate was discovered only a few decades ago, and little research has been done on it until
recently. By some estimates, the energy locked up in methane hydrate deposits is more than twice the
global reserves of all conventional gas, oil, and coal deposits combined. But no one has yet figured out
how to pull out the gas inexpensively, and no one knows how much is actually recoverable. Because
methane is also a greenhouse gas, release of even a small percentage of total deposits could have a
serious effect on Earth's atmosphere.

Research on methane hydrate has increased in the last few years, particularly in countries such as Japan
that have few native energy resources. As scientists around the world learn more about this material,
new concerns surface. For example, ocean-based oil-drilling operations sometimes encounter methane
hydrate deposits. As a drill spins through the hydrate, the process can cause it to dissociate. The freed
gas may explode, causing the drilling crew to lose control of the well. Another concern is that unstable
hydrate layers could give way beneath oil platforms or, on a larger scale, even cause tsunamis.

Lawrence Livermore's William Durham, a geophysicist, began studying methane hydrate several years
ago with Laura Stern and Stephen Kirby of the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California. With
initial funding from NASA, they looked at the ices on the frigid moons of Saturn and other planets in the
outer reaches of our solar system. One of these ices is methane hydrate.

Ice That Doesn't Melt

For their research, Durham, Stern, and Kirby needed good-quality samples of methane hydrate. But
samples of the real thing are tough to acquire, requiring expensive drilling and elaborate schemes for
core recovery and preservation. Previously developed methods for synthesizing the stuff in the
laboratory generally resulted in an impure material still containing some water that had not reacted with
the methane.

The Livermore-USGS team attempted an entirely new procedure. They mixed sieved granular water ice
and cold, pressurized methane gas in a constant-volume reaction vessel and slowly heated it. Warming
started at a temperature of 250 Kelvin (K) (-10°ree;F) with a pressure of about 25 megapascals (MPa).*
The reaction between methane and ice started near the normal melting point of ice at this pressure (271
K, or 29°ree;F) and continued until virtually all of the water ice had reacted with methane, forming
methane hydrate.

The team studied the resulting material by x-ray diffraction and found pure methane hydrate with no
more than trace amounts of water. This simple method produced precisely what they needed: low-
porosity, cohesive samples with a uniformly fine grain size and random crystallographic grain
orientation.
Says Durham, "In a way, we got lucky. We used the same technique we use for producing uniform water
ice samples from `seed' ice. We tried adding pressurized methane gas and heating it. And it worked."

It worked, but some unexpected things happened along the way. The ice did not liquefy as it should
have when its melting temperature was reached and surpassed. In fact, methane hydrate was formed
over a period of 7 or 8 hours, with the temperatures inside the reaction vessel reaching 290 K (50°ree;F)
before the last of the ice was consumed. Repeated experiments produced the same result: ice that did not
melt (Figure 1).

A control experiment replaced the methane with neon, which does not form the cage-like latticework of
gas and water molecules that is a gas hydrate. Under otherwise identical experimental conditions, the ice
melted as it should. Other experiments replaced the methane with both gaseous and liquid carbon
dioxide, which does form a hydrate. Here the superheating phenomenon reappeared, indicating that it is
not unique to methane hydrate.

Durham and his team believe the superheating phenomenon is related to active hydrate formation. The
reaction at the free ice surface somehow suppresses the formation of a runaway melt. Figure 1 shows
that when the reaction ceases, melting happens immediately. The American Chemical Society was
impressed enough with these rather bizarre results to give the team a cash prize and award in late 1997.

Source: http://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/3_99.3.pdf
Read the text “Methane Hydrate, A surprising compound” and then carry out the following activities.
Answer in Spanish.

1. Translate the following noun phrases:

a. A frozen lattice-like substance: _______________________________________________________

b. The global reserves of all conventional gas, oil, and coal deposits: ___________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
c. The last few years: _________________________________________________________________
d. Few native energy resources: _________________________________________________________
e. Ocean-based oil-drilling operations: ___________________________________________________
f. Methane hydrate deposits: ___________________________________________________________
g. The outer reaches of our solar system: __________________________________________________
h. Good-quality samples of methane hydrate: ______________________________________________

2. Give the meaning of the following underlined verb phrases:

a. …little research has been done on it until recently. ________________________________________

b. …the energy locked up in methane hydrate deposits… _____________________________________
c. But no one has yet figured out how to pull out the gas inexpensively… ________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Answer the following questions:

a. Explain the concerns arising from researches on methane hydrate.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Why are samples of methane hydrate tough to acquire?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

c. Explain the procedure attempted by the Livermore-USGS team for synthesizing methane hydrate in
the laboratory.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

d. What was the result of the experiment?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

e. What kinds of problems were encountered during the experiment?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

f. What other control experiments were carried out to replace methane? State the results obtained.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Underline all the transitional signals in paragraphs 2 and 3. Translate and classify them according to
their function.

Transitional Signal Meaning Type

5. Translate the following sentences:

a. Previously developed methods for synthesizing the stuff in the laboratory generally resulted in an
impure material still containing some water that had not reacted with the methane.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

b. We used the same technique we use for producing uniform water ice samples from ‘seed’ ice.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

c. We tried adding pressurized methane gas and heating it.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

d. Here the superheating phenomenon reappeared, indicating that it is not unique to methane hydrate.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
UNIDAD II

LA IDEA PRINCIPAL*

Así como la oración es la unidad mínima con sentido completo, el párrafo es la unidad mínima
de un texto. En la redacción de un texto, cada párrafo contiene, por lo general, una idea central, la cual
se llama Idea Principal. A veces, sin embargo, se pueden encontrar dos o más ideas centrales, pero
estrechamente relacionadas entre sí. La principal diferencia entre la(s) idea(s) principal(es) y las
secundarias, es que las segundas tienen como objetivo sustentar esa idea o ideas centrales a través de
ejemplificaciones, repeticiones, explicaciones, información adicional, etc.

Una destreza fundamental para la comprensión lectora, es el aprender a identificar la idea

principal de un párrafo. Por lo general, en los párrafos de desarrollo deductivo, la idea principal está al
comienzo del párrafo. Cuando se utiliza un desarrollo inductivo, el autor comienza por las ideas
secundarias o de sustentación, para concluir con la idea principal. También es posible conseguirla a la
mitad del párrafo y hasta tenerla que inferir porque no está explícita en el texto. Todo depende de la
intención y estilo del autor.

En la identificación de la idea principal, las palabras y frases conectivas pueden ser de gran
ayuda, ya que nos indican las relaciones que el autor quiere establecer entre las ideas. De este modo, los
conectivos de contraste y los de causa y efecto dirigen la atención del lector hacia dos o más aspectos
que se quieren resaltar acerca de un tópico; los de adición enlazan ideas de igual importancia, mientras
que los de resumen, repetición y conclusión refuerzan la idea central. Por otra parte, los conectivos de
ejemplificación, los de comparación (y a veces también los de contraste), preceden ideas secundarias
que ayudan a comprender el mensaje central, pero que no forman parte del mismo.

En los párrafos de carácter descriptivo, en realidad no se aplica lo antes dicho, ya que la

información que forma parte de la descripción es igualmente importante. Por lo tanto, en estos casos se
dice que la idea central es la descripción en sí de lo que se trate. Por ejemplo: la idea central es una
descripción de la forma y función de X cosa.

En conclusión, ubicar una idea principal es poder discriminar entre lo fundamental y lo

secundario en un párrafo. (*Jeannette Silva, 1999)

Los temas científicos generalmente consisten de conceptos e información que sustenta tales
conceptos. El concepto usualmente está expresado en una oración tópico que abarca toda la información
contenida en el párrafo. El resto del párrafo contiene información que explica, aclara o prueba lo
expresado en la oración tópico. La oración tópico normalmente es la primera oración del párrafo, a
veces, es la segunda y puede aparecer después de una señal de transición. Otras pueden estar al final del
párrafo. Una clara indicación de que estamos frente a la oración tópico es que si se suprime ésta, el resto
del párrafo pierde coherencia. Si suprime las ideas que explican, dan ejemplos o repiten lo mismo, se
quedará con la oración tópico. Las siguientes son algunas señales de transición que se usan en la oración
tópico: in general, on the whole, always, usually, most, basically, generally speaking, in conclusion, in
short, in summary.
 La clave de la comprensión de lo que se lee está en las ideas principales. Cuando uno lee, la
pregunta básica que uno debe hacerse sobre cualquier lectura es: ¿Cuál es el asunto que este autor trata
de comunicar? Por ejemplo, lea el siguiente párrafo:

Is watching violence on television harmful? In fact, we now know that TV

violence does affect people in negative ways. One study showed that frequent TV
watchers are more fearful and suspicious of others. They try to protect themselves from
the outside world with extra locks on the doors, alarm systems, guard dogs, and guns.
That same study also showed that heavy TV watchers are less upset about real-life
violence than non-TV watchers. It seems that the constant violence they see on TV
makes them less sensitive to the real thing. Another study, of a group of children,
found that TV violence increases aggressive behavior. Children who watched violent
shows were more willing to hurt another child in games where they were given a
choice between helping and hurting. They were also more likely to select toy weapons
over other kinds of playthings.

¿Cuál es el punto principal de este párrafo? Para descubrir el punto principal, es útil, a menudo,
primero determinar qué tópico está discutiéndose. En el párrafo de arriba, por ejemplo, el tópico es “la
violencia en la televisión”; la idea principal sobre el tópico de la violencia en TV es que “si afecta a las
personas de forma negativa”. El párrafo sustenta la idea haciendo listas de las formas negativas y
explicándolas en detalle.

Se puede considerar a la idea principal (main idea) como una idea “paraguas”. Es el punto
primario del autor sobre un tópico; todo otro material en el párrafo encaja bajo la idea principal. El “otro
material” consiste en las ideas secundarias – ejemplo, razones, hechos y otras evidencias. El siguiente
diagrama muestra las relaciones.

Idea principal
 En un párrafo, los autores a menudo presentan la idea principal en una oración llamada
ORACIÓN TÓPICO (Topic Sentence), vea otra vez el párrafo en inglés. Como ya hemos visto, el tópico
de ese párrafo es la violencia en la televisión (TV Violence), y el punto principal sobre la violencia en
la televisión es que “esta sí afecta a la gente de forma negativa (“it does affect people in negative
ways”). Ambos el tópico y el punto sobre el tópico se expresan en la segunda oración, la cual es, por lo
tanto, la oración tópico o “topic sentence”. Todas las oraciones que le siguen proporcionan detalles
sobre los efectos de ver violencia en la TV. Las partes del párrafo se pueden mostrar bajo forma de
bosquejo o esquema:

Topic: TV violence

Main idea (as expressed in the Topic sentence): TV violence does affect people in negative ways.

Supporting details:
1. Frequent TV watchers are more fearful and suspicious of others.
2. Heavy TV watchers are less upset about real-life violence than non-TV watchers.
3. TV violence increases aggressive behavior in children.

Recuerde el tópico es el tema de una selección. Es un término general que usualmente puede
expresarse en pocas palabras. Generalmente, el tópico se da en el título de la selección.

El párrafo es un grupo de oraciones que ayudan a desarrollar un punto o idea central (tomado de:
Ten Steps to Advancing College Reading Skills, John Langan, 1998).

Ejercicio

Lea cada párrafo. Pregúntese: ¿Cuál es el tópico? ¿Cuál es la idea del escritor sobre el tópico?
Luego, escriba, en español, la oración de la idea principal.

a. Population growth is a serious problem around the world. At the beginning of the 20 th century there
were about 1.5 billion people in the world. In 1984 the world population was 4.8 billion people. By
the year 2000, it will be about 6.1 billion.

Main idea: ____________________________________________________________________

b. This growth in population is not happening everywhere. For example, in Europe the population is
not growing at all. Families in these countries are smaller now. Only about 2.1 children are born for
every woman. The United States also has smaller families. Its population is only growing a little
every year.

Main idea: ____________________________________________________________________

(Tomado de: Reading Power)

 Catalysis
Catalysis, alteration of the speed of a chemical reaction, through the presence of an additional
substance, known as a catalyst, that remains chemically unchanged by the reaction. Enzymes (see
Enzyme), which are among the most powerful catalysts, play an essential role in living organisms,
where they accelerate reactions that otherwise would require temperatures that would destroy most of
the organic matter.

A catalyst in a solution with—or in the same phase as—the reactants is called a homogeneous catalyst.
The catalyst combines with one of the reactants to form an intermediate compound that reacts more
readily with the other reactant. The catalyst, however, does not influence the equilibrium of the reaction,
because the decomposition of the products into the reactants is speeded up to a similar degree. An
example of homogeneous catalysis is the formation of sulfur trioxide by the reaction of sulfur dioxide
with oxygen, in which nitrogen dioxide serves as a catalyst. Under extreme heat, sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide react to form sulfur trioxide and the intermediate compound nitric oxide, which then
reacts with oxygen to re-form nitrogen dioxide. The same amount of nitrogen dioxide exists at both the
beginning and end of the reaction.

A catalyst that is in a separate phase from the reactants is said to be a heterogeneous, or contact, catalyst.
Contact catalysts are materials with the capability of adsorbing (see Adsorption) molecules of gases or
liquids onto their surfaces. An example of heterogeneous catalysis is the use of finely divided platinum
to catalyze the reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This reaction is used in
catalytic converters mounted in automobiles to eliminate carbon monoxide from the exhaust gases.

Some substances, called promoters, do not have catalytic ability by themselves but increase the
effectiveness of a catalyst. For example, if alumina is added to finely divided iron, it increases the ability
of the iron to catalyze the formation of ammonia from a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen. Materials
that reduce the effectiveness of a catalyst, on the other hand, are referred to as poisons. Lead compounds
reduce the ability of platinum to act as a catalyst; therefore, an automobile equipped with a catalytic
converter for emission control must be fueled with unleaded gasoline.

Catalysts are of major importance in today's industrial world. It has been estimated that about 20 percent
of the U.S. gross national product is generated through the use of catalytic processes. One current area of
active research in catalysis is that of enzymes. Natural enzymes have long been used by a few industries,
but fewer than 20 such enzymes are presently available in industrial amounts. Biotechnologists are
seeking ways in which to expand this resource and also to develop semisynthetic enzymes for highly
specific tasks.

Source: "Catalysis," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2004

http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
© 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
Read the text on “Catalysis” to carry out the following activities. Answer in Spanish.

1. What is the main idea developed by the writer in paragraph #1?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Does paragraph # 2 have a main idea of its own? Support your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the main idea developed by the author in paragraph # 4?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Is there only one main idea in this paragraph? Yes ____ No ____ Support your answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. According to the text, give an example of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. What happens when alumina is added to finely divided iron?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. On what are Biotechnologists working?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

7. Determine whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).

a. The formation of sulfur trioxide by the reaction of sulfur dioxide with oxygen
is an example of homogeneous catalysis. T ___ F___
b. A contact catalyst is a catalyst in a solution in the same phase as the reactants. T ___ F___

c. Lead compounds increase the ability of platinum to act as a catalyst. T ___ F___
d. Substances that by themselves lack a catalytic ability but increase the effectiveness
of a catalyst are known as promoters. T ___ F___

8. What does the following phrase refer to?

This reaction (P3, L5): ______________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

9. Throughout the text, find two transitional signals indicating contrast, one indicating reason and one,
consequence. Give their meaning according to the context. Give paragraph (P) and line (L) number.

Type Transitional Signal Meaning P and L

Contrast ____________________ ________________________ ___________

Contrast ____________________ ________________________ ___________
Reason ____________________ ________________________ ___________
Consequence ____________________ ________________________ ___________
Bioremediation explained
Over long periods of time and without human intervention, nature eliminates both natural
and most man-made pollution. This happens as naturally occurring microorganisms,
enzymes, chemicals and weather combine to eliminate toxins. Recent advances in
technology have made it possible to greatly accelerate these natural processes by
selecting, concentrating and acclimating microorganisms to attack and eliminate many
hydrocarbon based toxic materials in a matter of weeks rather than decades. The use of
these microorganisms to consume and eliminate dangerous or unwanted hydrocarbon
based contaminants like petroleum products is called bioremediation. Bioremediation can
achieve the elimination of contamination in many environments with a speed and
thoroughness much greater than traditional methods and at significantly lower costs.

The process is fundamentally simple. Contaminants like creosote, fuel oil, toluene, and
even PCBs are composed of carbon chain molecules. Some of the most toxic hydrocarbon
contaminants also contain chlorine. Although too complex or too toxic for most living
organisms to metabolize, there are naturally occurring microorganisms that can be cultured
to attack these compounds. When these microorganisms, along with materials that provide
them other requirements like oxygen are put in contact with the contaminants, they attack
the complex hydrocarbon molecules and break them down into harmless byproducts. In the
process the microorganisms ultimately die, leaving nothing but harmless organic residues
like any other microorganisms leave behind.

The versatility of this method of clean up is remarkable. In many cases bioremediation can be
used without any significant site disruption. For example, hydrocarbon contamination in
aquifers can often be treated by injecting the microorganisms into the well where they
follow the contaminant plume and reduce the contamination to harmless materials. In some
cases soil contamination can be eliminated with topical applications. In other cases the
microorganisms may need to be introduced into the soils with mechanical assistance like
deep plowing of the soils. In the more extreme cases the contaminated soils may be put
into large containers where they are treated with the organisms and then returned directly
to the site.

Unique application potentials also exist. For example, contamination under concrete slabs
can be remediated by introducing the organisms with horizontal boring or throu gh the slab
borings. This can eliminate the need for removal of slabs or buildings as traditional clean
up processes would require.

The economics of bioremediation are almost always significantly more favorable than
other techniques. The primary reason is that there is no need for the hauling and
expensive disposal costs of contaminated soils. On sites where contamination is confined
to clearly defined areas it can be possible to begin the development process on the clean
areas while bioremediation is in progress on the remainder of the site. This is possible
because the process is generally not very disruptive and does not require the removal
and replacement of large amounts of soil. Furthermore, while conventional remediation
often just moves the pollution from one place to another, bioremediation actually
eliminates the unwanted materials.

Bioremediation should be considered as an environmentally and economically desirable

option for any site where hydrocarbon based remediation is required.
Read the text “Bioremediation explained” and then carry out the activities. Answer in Spanish. You
may work in pairs.

1. How many paragraphs does the text have?

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Which paragraph(s) are developed deductively?

_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Which paragraph(s) are developed descriptively?

_________________________________________________________________________________

4. Give the main idea of paragraph # 1. Where in the paragraph did you find it?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. Give the main idea of paragraph # 2.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

6. In paragraphs # 3 and 4, identify the transitional signals introducing a supporting idea.

_________________________________________________________________________________

7. Give the main idea of paragraph # 5.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. Identify the transitional signal indicating addition in paragraph # 5 and write down two ideas
connected by that signal. What kind of ideas are they? Main or supporting?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Answer the following comprehension questions in Spanish:
a. How does nature eliminate natural and most man-made pollution?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

b. What happens when cultured microorganisms are put in contact with contaminants?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

c. Give two specific examples of the versatility of the bioremediation method.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

d. How can contamination under concrete slabs be remediated?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 University of Nebraska – Lincoln Department of Chemistry

Organic Materials and Supramolecular Chemistry

The nearly infinite tunability of organic molecules has allowed their exploitation for applications as
diverse as drugs and optical coatings. However, this chemical flexibility has not been as widely
exploited for materials application save for the extremely important class of polymers. Inorganics have
found much greater use in materials as the large number of materials science programs focused on
inorganic materials testifies. With the advent of organic metals, non-linear optical materials and
molecular electronics, it has become clear that the unique adaptiveness of organics should be exploited
for creating increasingly sophisticated materials. This usually implies that organic molecules must be
designed with specific properties so that, when they are aggregated into larger, so-called supramolecular
structures, they will exhibit unique materials properties. Organic crystals are perhaps among the simplest
example of such supramolecular structures where the aggregate can take on properties different from
those of the individual molecules, e.g. certain crystals of dye molecules are of quite different color than
is a solution of the molecules themselves.

Polymers, while certainly the oldest of the organic materials, remain among the most promising. Several
research groups are active in this area. Some are focused on non-linear optical properties of polymeric
materials. These efforts include the physical characterization of such systems, as well as the creation of
dye/polymer systems that through corona discharge or other methods are given non-linear optical (NLO)
properties. Other efforts are concerned with (1) design and synthesis of novel polymer systems that will
exhibit NLO behaviors, (2) creation of conductive polymers with possible application as molecular
wires, and (3) investigation of solid state reactions of monomer crystals to yield single crystal polymers.
The department possesses significant capability for characterization of polymeric materials. In addition
to the optical capabilities mentioned elsewhere, a large number of specialized instruments for processing
and characterizing polymeric materials are available: differential scanning calorimeter (DSC),
thermogravimetic analysis (TGA), vapor deposition chamber, vapor pressure osmometer, and Instron
rheometer.

The department has a great diversity of programs in the area of organic solid state chemistry, which is
rivaled by few institutions in the nation: Energetic materials ( i.e. explosives and propellants) are of
interest to some research groups, while inclusion compounds, important to pharmaceuticals, are of
particular interest to others. Considerable effort is directed toward the study of films and, in particular,
the creation of two-dimensional crystals. Related work in adhesion and microelectronic micromachine
systems (MEMS) is also underway. Investigation of organic solids requires specialized instrumentation
and the Department has an extensive collection of the necessary equipment. Among these are: surface
science apparatus such as LEED and Auger spectrometer, solid state NMR (CMAS, pulsed, zero-field),
X-ray diffractometers (rotating anode, four-circle and image plate capable of structures down to 20 K),
Langmuir trough, atomic force microscope, ESR and mass spectrometers for solid analysis as well as the
optical instrumentation listed elsewhere.

Source: http://www.chem.unl.edu/gradinfo/orgmet.html
Read the text “Organic Materials and Supramolecular Chemistry” and then carry out all the activities.
Answer in Spanish.

1. Translate the title:__________________________________________________________________

2. Give the Spanish equivalent for the following phrases and clauses:
a. The nearly infinitive tunability of organic molecules: ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. … save for the extremely important class of polymers: _____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
c. With the advent of organic metals:_____________________________________________________
d. the aggregate can take on properties…:_________________________________________________
e. certain crystals of dye molecules: _____________________________________________________
f. Polymers,…, remain among the most promising: _________________________________________
g. Other efforts are concerned with …: ___________________________________________________
h. Solid analysis as well as the optical instrumentation: ______________________________________

3. What is the main idea in paragraph # 1?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

Give two supporting ideas from this paragraph.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the main idea in paragraph # 2?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

5. Name the efforts concerned with the research on organic polymer materials.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

6. Name the specialized instruments for processing and characterizing polymeric materials that are
available, according to the text.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

7. What is the main idea in paragraph # 3?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Give two supporting ideas from this paragraph.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. Name four (04) of the required specialized instrumentation available at the Department of Chemistry
for the investigation of organic solids.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Engineers Develop New Chemical Sensor Based on Experimental Physics
Breakthrough
For the first time, scientists have found evidence of a long-suspected
phenomenon, tiny electrical currents produced when molecules interact
with metal surfaces. The discovery may usher in a new generation of
chemical detectors, and reveals details about catalytic processes used to
produce more than half of the chemicals manufactured worldwide.

Investigators at the University of California, Santa Barbara, funded by

the National Science Foundation (NSF), were searching for what they Image of the Schottky diode sensor.
call "chemicurrent," - electrons excited by low-energy chemical
A larger version is here.
reactions.
Image courtesy of the University of
The team incorporated a pre-existing device called a "Schottky" diode California, Santa Barbara, Department
of Chemical Engineering.
into a new chemical sensor, and they describe the sensor and their
findings in the December 21st issue of Science. .

Doctoral student Brian Gergen is lead author for the findings. Says Eric McFarland, principal
investigator and the NSF grant awardee, "They (electrical phenomenon and sensor) open up a new field
of 'chemoelectronics,' where there is a direct coupling of chemistry to electronics using the chemically
induced electrons produced in the metal."

A Schottky diode consists of a thin metal film nearly one hundred-millionth of a meter thick, made of
silver, gold, platinum or another metal, sprayed onto a silicon wafer. What the researchers found was
that the diode can function as a "species-specific" gas detector, meaning that different kinds of
molecules will produce different signals, and different metals are better for detecting particular
molecules.

Since every detectable chemical produces a characteristic signal, the sensor can differentiate common
contaminants such as water from useful gasses in a manufacturing environment. Multiple sensors can
also work together as arrays. The arrays can detect a variety of species and produce the types of systems
used for "artificial noses."

Previously, researchers thought that the energy liberated when certain chemicals interact on a metal
surface was released as vibrational (heat) energy - at least under common reaction conditions. But some
theorized that most of the energy might instead be transferred to electrons, much as light beams excite
electrons in the photoelectric process.

McFarland and his colleagues showed that the latter hypothesis is true; nearly all interactions between
molecules and solid metal surfaces produce energized electrons.

"The team has filled a substantial gap in our knowledge," says Geoffrey Prentice, NSF program director
for kinetics, catalysis, and molecular processes, the program that funded the new study. "Prior to this
work," says Prentice, "there was no direct experimental evidence," for this phenomenon.
The Schottky sensor can capture the energized electrons, producing a measurable electrical signal. In
addition, because the electrons are freed for a significant time, they may interact with the chemicals
adhering to the metal surface, leading to new reactions.

Because so many chemicals - such as ammonia, sulfuric acid and various hydrocarbons including
gasoline - are manufactured on solid catalyst surfaces, "and we in general do not fully understand how,"
says McFarland, the findings have "direct implications toward developing a more complete
understanding of these important reactions."

Other types of thin-metal sensors are in use. But, they typically measure the presence of a chemical
indirectly, through changes in metal resistance or another property. The signal in the chemicurrent
sensor is a direct manifestation of the detected molecule. In addition, the Schottky detector can operate
at a wide range of temperatures, between 23 C to 150 C, is inexpensive to produce, and can be
reactivated simply by warming its surface.

The new findings, and the associated detector technology, may one day find wide use in a variety of
industrial applications, and the group has already sold prototype devices to a major electronics
manufacturer for use in semiconductor materials production.

Other co-authors for this study include Hermann Nienhaus, now at Laboratorium für Festkörperphysik,
Gerhard-Mercator-Universität, Germany, and W. Henry Weinberg, now affiliated both with the
University of California, Santa Barbara and Symyx Technologies in Santa Clara, California.

-NSF-

NSF is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of
science and engineering, with an annual budget of about $4.8 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states, through
grants to about 1,800 universities and institutions nationwide. Each year, NSF receives about 30,000 competitive
requests for funding, and makes about 10,000 new funding awards. NSF also awards over $200 million in
professional and service contracts yearly.

Source: http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/press/01/pr01105.htm
Read the text “Engineers Develop New Chemical Sensor Based on Experimental Physics Breakthrough”
and then carry out all the activities. Answer in Spanish.

1. Translate the title: __________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Which evidence have scientists found?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the main idea in paragraph #1?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

4. What were investigators at the University of California searching for?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is a “Schottky” diode?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the main idea in paragraph #5?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

7. Explain which hypothesis is true.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. What is the main idea in paragraph #7?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

9. Does paragraph #9 have a main idea? Support you answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

10. What is the main idea in paragraph #10?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

UNIDAD III

LA FUNCIÓN DE LA DESCRIPCIÓN

Esta Unidad trata de que Ud. observe y entienda cómo se puede organizar la información en el
idioma inglés para describir.

La descripción sirve para presentar la visión del mundo que tiene el científico; sirve para describir
condiciones, resultados de un experimento, cambios químicos, movimientos físicos, etc. También puede
describir cómo luce, suena, funciona o se produce un objeto. La naturaleza de algo se puede explicar por
medio de la descripción. Por ejemplo, el concepto de un átomo es difícil de comprender sólo por su
definición, pero con una descripción de su apariencia, detallando su estructura y función, se hace más
fácil de visualizar.

Al considerar la naturaleza del inglés escrito que se utiliza en el área de ciencia y tecnología, se
pueden aislar tres tipos principales de información descriptiva: descripción física, descripción de función
y descripción de proceso. Éstos no son mutuamente excluyentes. Por lo tanto, el lector puede observar
que un texto que ha sido desarrollado mayormente a través de la descripción física puede también
contener descripción de función y un texto desarrollado principalmente a través de la descripción de
proceso o de función puede contener algo de descripción física.

A continuación Ud. encontrará las características básicas de las diferentes funciones descriptivas:

a. Descripción Física

 Ésta da las características físicas de un objeto y las relaciones espaciales de las partes del objeto
entre sí y con el todo y éste con otros objetos relacionados.
 Las características físicas que se describen con más frecuencia son dimensiones, forma, peso,
material, volumen, color y textura.
 La descripción física va de lo muy general a lo muy específico.
 La descripción física general usa términos locativos tales como “arriba” (above), “debajo”
(below),”en el centro” (at the center), “a la derecha” (to the right), “en un ángulo” (at an angle),
“cerca” (near), etc.
 La descripción física específica requiere términos mucho más precisos, por ejemplo: 1mm
directamente hacia arriba en un ángulo de 45°; 2 cm. fuera del perímetro.
 La técnica retórica relacionada o patrón de desarrollo es orden espacial.
 En términos de descripción física, el propósito básico de los párrafos es describir los objetos
físicamente.
b. Descripción de Función

 Ésta, por lo general, da información al lector sobre mecanismos de algún tipo.

Información

Uso o propósito del Función de cada una de las partes

mecanismo principales del mecanismo

 La técnica retórica relacionada o patrón de desarrollo es causa y resultado (efecto)

c. Descripción de Proceso

 Ésta se refiere por definición a una serie de pasos o etapas que se interrelacionan en cuanto a
que cada una de las etapas, excepto la primera, depende de la precedente y en cuanto a que cada
una de estas etapas lleva a un objetivo definido.
 La descripción de procesos siempre incluye todas las etapas que llevan hacia el objetivo. Es
decir, no deja fuera nada que pueda ser de utilidad para el lector. Por el contrario, la descripción
de función podría describir sólo los elementos claves de un mecanismo utilizado en determinado
procedimiento, y en la descripción física, el escritor podría seleccionar sólo las características
que considere importantes.
 La descripción de procesos es con frecuencia una serie de instrucciones.
 La técnica retórica mayormente asociada con la descripción de procesos es el orden o
secuencia de tiempo la cual incluye tanto la secuencia u orden cronológico como la de proceso.
Es de observar que la secuencia cronológica se presenta en textos históricos y la de procesos en
experimentos de tiempo controlado.
 La secuencia u orden de procesos se utiliza siempre que se tiene une serie de etapas que llevan a
un objetivo o meta predeterminada y también se ve con frecuencia en lenguaje de instrucción.
 Types of electrochemical cells
The electrochemical literature describes a plethora of electrochemical cell types. Many of these were
designed for specific applications. Here we describe only the most popular general-purpose cell types.

A. Single compartment vial cell

Shown in figure 1, this is the simplest three-electrode cell. It can

be constructed from a common 20 ml screw-cap laboratory vial,
with holes drilled in the cap to accommodate the electrodes. A
fourth hole can be included for purging with inert gas if
necessary. This type of cell is inexpensive, easy to set up and
easy to clean. In addition, having the electrodes in the same
compartment and in close proximity to one another keeps IR
drops to a minimum. A disadvantage is that there is typically not
enough room to fit a real reference electrode, and a pseudo
reference electrode is usually employed. However, this is really
only a problem for highly critical analytical work, and the single
compartment vial cell should be your first choice for routine
voltammetry in the research or teaching laboratory.

B. Single compartment electrochemical cell

Similar to the vial cell described above, the single compartment cell can be made to fit any
combination of working, counter, and reference electrodes. Many cells of this type are commercially
available; however they can be easily constructed with a minimal amount of glassblowing and
machining. The cell is essentially a flat-bottom test tube with a machined Teflon (or HDPE) cap in
which holes are drilled for the electrodes, gas inlet tubes, thermocouple, or any other equipment the
experiment requires (figure 2a). The main advantage over the vial cell is the ability to use a full
reference electrode. However the main disadvantage is the larger volume of analyte solution required. If
solution volume is a problem, and a moderate amount of glassblowing is available, the modification
shown in figure 2b can be constructed. Cells of this type use only a few ml of solution.

Figure 2. The single compartment electrochemical cell

C. Two compartment electrochemical cell

Occasionally it is necessary to separate the reference electrode from the analyte solution with a glass frit,
as illustrated by the cell in figure 3a. This is done to circumvent problems caused by leakage of the
reference filling solution into the analyte. The disadvantage is to decrease the effectiveness of the
reference electrode to stabilize working electrode voltage. Another use of the two compartment cell is
shown in Figure 3b. Here, problems caused by the buildup of electroactive contaminants generated at
the counterelectrode are prevented from reaching the working electrode by the glass frit. This type of
electrode arrangement has the serious disadvantage of introducing a resistance towards ion flow between
the counter and working electrodes, creating current dependent voltage discrepancies due to IR drops.
Fortunately, the concentrations of counterelectrode generated contaminants in typical electroanalytical
procedures are quite small and rarely a problem.

Figure 3. The two compartment electrochemical cell

Source: http://www.obbligato.com/productsSite/software/F01/cell-types.pdf
Read the text “Types of electrochemical cells” and then answer the following questions in Spanish.

1. Name the general-purpose cells described in the text.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Name the disadvantages of all types of general-purpose cells.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe the second type of general purpose cell.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the uses of the third type of general purpose cells?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is the type of description used throughout the text? Give an example.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

6. Determine whether the following statements are true (T) of false (F).

a. Single compartment electrochemical cells are inexpensive, easy to set up and

easy to clean. T___ F___

b. Two compartment electrochemical cells should be the first choice for routine
voltammetry in the research laboratory. T___ F___

c. The main advantage of vial cells is the ability to use a full reference electrode. T___ F___

d. Single compartment vial cells use only a few ml of solution. T___ F___

e. The concentrations of counterelectrode generated contaminants in typical

electroanalytical procedures are quite small and rarely a problem. T___ F___
 How can pure hydrogen gas be prepared and detected?
Hydrogen can be made by reaction of any active metal like magnesium or zinc with a strong acid such as H2SO4
or HCl, for example,
Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)

Since hydrogen gas is almost insoluble in water, it can be collected by displacement of water using an inverted
bottle:

The trough is filled with water, and a wide mouth bottle is completely filled with water and inverted on the shelf.
Magnesium or zinc metal is placed in the bottom of the flask and the acid (3 M HCl) is introduced through the
thistle tube (which is just a long-stemmed funnel). Fill the flask with enough solution to cover the bottom of the
thistle tube as shown to prevent air from entering and hydrogen from escaping through the funnel. Hydrogen gas
will begin to escape from the rubber tube; allow the reaction to run for a few minutes before connecting it to the
inverted bottle as shown, to sweep air out of the flask.

The collected hydrogen will be saturated with water vapor and contaminated with small amounts of air. You can
force the gas through a tube packed with calcium chloride pellets to remove the water. Hydrogen can be further
purified by exploiting the fact that the gas is extremely soluble in many solid metals. The metal palladium (Pd) is
especially good at dissolving hydrogen. If the gas is forced through a tube blocked by a membrane of palladium,
hydrogen passes through the membrane but the gaseous impurities do not.

To determine the purity of a sample of dried hydrogen, you can burn it in excess dry oxygen and pass it through a
tube packed with a strong dehydrating agent like Dehydrite or Anhydrone. The weight increase of the tube gives
the amount of water produced by the combustion reaction, and so, the amount of hydrogen in the sample. There
are many technical difficulties that need to be considered to get good results by this method; see Official Methods
of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, AOAC, 13th ed., 1980, pp 855-857 for more details.
Hydrogen has a distinctive line spectrum, and it can be qualitatively and quantitatively detected using emission
spectroscopy.

The laboratory preparation using magnesium or zinc is too expensive for industrial production of hydrogen.
Hydrogen is produced more cheaply by the reaction of iron with steam at about 600°C.
3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4 H_2(g)

Hydrogen can also be produced by passing a strong electric current through water:
2 H2O( ) 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

A salt like Na2SO4 is added to the water to increase its conductivity. See a previous question for tips on
demonstrating water electrolysis safely.
Author: Fred Senesemailto:%20senese@antoine.frostburg.edu
Copyright © 1997-2001 by Fred Senese
Comments & questions to senese@antoine.frostburg.edu
Last Revised 03/14/02.URL: http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/hydrogen-prep.shtml
Read the text “How can pure hydrogen gas be prepared and detected?” and then answer the following
questions in Spanish.

1. With the help of the dictionary, the figure and the context, try to determine the meaning of the
following words in the text:

Trough: ___________________________ Bottle: ____________________________

Shelf: _____________________________ Flask: _____________________________
Thistle tube: ________________________ Funnel: ____________________________
Rubber tube: ________________________

2. Name the ways in which hydrogen can be made or produced.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Explain the process for collecting hydrogen.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. How can water be removed from hydrogen gas?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. What happens if hydrogen gas is forced through a tube blocked by a membrane of palladium? Why?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

6. How can the purity of a sample of dried hydrogen be determined?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

7. What is the main type of description used in the text?

_________________________________________________________________________________

8. Write two examples of physical description that can be found in the text.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
 A New All Gas-Phase Chemical Iodine Laser
Scientists developed and demonstrated a new chemically pumped laser.
AFRL's Directed Energy Directorate, Laser Division, High Power Gas Lasers Branch,
Kirtland AFB NM

Solid-state lasers convert electrical energy into light using optical excitation. Although
efficient, scientists continue research into scaling these devices for high-power
applications. Chemical lasers efficiently convert energy derived from chemical bonds and
reactions into laser photons.1 Scientists use chemical lasers for applications that require
high-power, lightweight, and self-contained sources of laser radiation because of their
inherent high efficiency and scalability. The two classes of chemical lasers are the
hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser and the chemical oxygen-iodine laser (COIL).

Despite the commercial and military need for high-power lasers, the development of new
chemical laser devices is a relatively rare event. Researchers first demonstrated the HF
laser in the mid-1960's.2 Prior to the work reported here, the last chemical laser invented
was the first COIL device, which Dr. William McDermott and co-workers demonstrated in
1978.3 Since then, scientists focused most chemical laser research on advancing the COIL
and HF technologies to the point where multi-kilowatt devices can be routinely
constructed.

Although very efficient, high-power chemical lasers generally require the use of toxic,
explosive, or otherwise hazardous chemicals. For example, COIL devices use a very
corrosive chemical called basic hydrogen peroxide (BHP) and HF lasers use molecular
fluorine, which is extremely corrosive and toxic. In addition to being corrosive, BHP is a
liquid at room temperature. This does not preclude engineers from using a COIL in the
zero-gravity environment of space, but it certainly poses significant engineering
challenges. The HF laser, which uses all gas-phase chemicals, has its own limitations. HF
lasers generally operate on multiple wavelengths in the 2.7-3.5 µm region of the infrared
spectrum. In addition to the challenge of producing appropriate mirrors for the laser
resonator, 2.7 µm radiation does not transmit well through the atmosphere due to water
absorption. In contrast, a COIL device operates on a single wavelength (1.3 μm) that is
not strongly absorbed by the atmosphere.

Directorate scientists developed the all gas-phase iodine laser (AGIL) to eliminate the
heavy, aqueous-based COIL chemistry and the undesirable wavelength range of the HF
laser. AGIL combines the excellent laser properties exhibited by COIL (single wavelength
at 1.3 µm) with lighter weight, all-gas phase reagents typically associated with an HF
device. AGIL mixes chlorine atoms (Cl) and gaseous hydrogen azide (HN3) to produce an
excited nitrogen chloride (NCl) molecule. Excited NCl molecules exchange energy with
atomic iodine in a manner analogous with oxygen in COIL. 4 HN3, a chemical cousin to
sodium azide, which is used as a propellant in automotive airbags, is an extremely
energetic and potentially explosive substance.

The AGIL team first demonstrated optical gain5 (necessary but not sufficient to generate
lasing) when they combined Cl atoms (generated by an electric discharge), HN3, and a
small flow of atomic iodine in a gas flow duct. After several series of gain optimization
experiments, the AGIL team reported a low-power laser demonstration.6 While the very
first demonstration produced only 6 mW of laser energy, subsequent demonstrations with
the same device produced 180 mW. For comparison, the first COIL demonstration3
produced 10 mW.

The AGIL offers advantages over both the COIL and the HF laser. With AGIL, gases are
lighter than liquids and easier to transport, maintain, and store. This is advantageous for
the Airborne Laser (ABL) (see Figure 1), which will need to keep at least one of its liquid
chemicals under constant refrigeration for safety reasons. If scientists can successfully
scale AGIL to higher powers, it will offer the potential as an ideal laser technology for the
Space-Based Laser (SBL). For space use, lasers can only use gaseous chemicals—the lack
of gravity in space significantly complicates gas-liquid interactions necessary to produce
the desired laser radiation in a COIL device. For this reason, the present SBL design uses
an HF laser because the chemical components are gases, not liquids. However, the HF
laser operates on a wavelength that is not as efficient or effective as the 1.3 µm
wavelength enjoyed by the ABL. By using AGIL, the SBL will have the advantages of a
gaseous laser and COIL's more desirable 1.3 µm wavelength.

The successful demonstration of AGIL technology represents a significant step in the

development of chemical lasers. AGIL is the first continuous-wave chemical laser
developed in over twenty years and the second such device invented at AFRL.

Figure 1. Conceptual drawing of the ABL system

References

1
(a) Handbook of Chemical Lasers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976. (b) Heaven, M. C. "Chemical Dynamics in Extreme
Environments." Edited by R. A. Dressler, World Scientific, 2001.
2
Kasper, J. V. V. and Pimentel, G. C. Phys. Rev. Lett., 14, pp. 352, 1965.
3
McDermott, W. E., Pchelkin, N. R., Benard, D. J., and Bousek, R. R. Appl. Phys. Lett, 32, pp. 469, 1978.
4
(a) Henshaw, T. L., Herrera, S. D., and Schlie, L. A. V. J. Phys. Chem., 102, pp. 6239, 1998. (b) Ray, A. J. and Coombe,
R. D. J. Phys. Chem., 99, pp. 7849, 1995. (c) Ray, A. J. and Coombe, R. D. J. Phys. Chem., 97, pp. 3475, 1993.
5
Herbelin, J. M., Henshaw, T. L., Rafferty, B. D., Anderson, B. T., Tate, R. F., Madden, T. J., Manke II, G. C., and Hager, G.
D. Chem. Phys. Lett., 299, pp. 583, 1999.
6
Henshaw, T. L., Manke II, G. C., Madden, T. J., Berman, M. R., and Hager, G. D. Chem. Phys. Lett., 325, pp. 537, 2000.
Contributing authors in this research include Dr. Thomas Henshaw, Directed Energy Solutions; Dr. Timothy Madden and Dr.
Gordon D. Hager, Directed Energy Directorate; and Dr. Michael Berman, AFOSR.
Dr. Gerald C. Manke II of the Air Force Research Laboratory's Directed Energy Directorate wrote this article. For more
information contact TECH CONNECT at (800) 203-6451 or place a request at http://www.afrl.af.mil/techconn/index.htm.
Reference document DE-01-06.

Source: http://www.afrlhorizons.com/Briefs/Mar02/DE0106.html
Read the text “A New All Gas-Phase Chemical Iodine Laser” and then carry out the following activities.
Use your dictionary when necessary. You may work in pairs. Answer in Spanish.

GLOSSARY:

Pumped: bombeado Wavelength: longitud de onda

Bond: enlace Aqueous-based: en base acuosa
Lightweight: peso liviano, ligero Cousin: primo
Heavy: pesado Propellant: propelente, propulsor
Self-contained: autónomo, independiente Air bag: bolsa de aire
Scale (v.): adaptar, expandir Discharge: descarga
Scalability: expansión Directorate: Dirección General, Directores
Pose (v.): proponer, plantear Keep (v.): mantener

1. Translate the title of this article.

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Read paragraph # 1. What kind of description does it show?

_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Read paragraph # 3. Explain the kind of description used.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. Does paragraph # 4 show any function description? Translate the specific sentence if so.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. Is there any function description in paragraph # 6? If so, translate into Spanish such sentence.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

6. What is optical excitation used for?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. What does COIL stand for?
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. Why do scientists continue research on solid-state lasers?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

9. What is the use of chemical lasers and why?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

10. Which are the two classes of chemical lasers?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

11. On what did scientists focus since 1978?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

12. What do high-power chemical lasers require?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

13. What does not preclude engineers from using COIL?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

14. Why did scientists develop AGIL?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
15. What kind of laser is AGIL?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

16. How does AGIL work?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

17. What did the AGIL team demonstrate?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

18. What are the advantages of AGIL over both the COIL and the HF laser?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
UNIDAD IV

LA FUNCIÓN DE LA CLASIFICACIÓN

Esta unidad se ocupa de la manera en la que se organiza la información en forma de

clasificación.

Las primeras etapas de la investigación científica comprenden hacer observaciones y recoger

información. Sin embargo, recoger datos nada más no es suficiente. El científico necesita ordenar y
clasificar los datos y encontrar relaciones entre ellos.

La palabra clasificación proviene de la palabra clase- lo que significa que un grupo de cosas
tienen un elemento común. Los científicos agrupan información relacionada en un orden dado. Los
químicos, por ejemplo, no pueden estudiar cada elemento, pero pueden hacer generalizaciones
ordenando todos los elementos en grupos de propiedades similares. La clasificación es, de este modo,
básica para el pensamiento y la expresión científica.

Considere este ejemplo:

All matter may be classified as either solid, liquid, or gas.

Aquí, la clase general es “matter”. Los ítemes específicos son “solid”, “liquid”, y “gas”. La base
para la clasificación es el estado físico de la materia, la cual no se menciona en la oración. Pero hay más
de una manera en la que se puede clasificar la materia. Por ejemplo, ésta puede ser clasificada en base a
su composición química como viva o no. Por esta razón, las oraciones que clasifican contienen verbos
modales de posibilidad tales como “can”, “could”, o “may”.

A continuación se presentan los aspectos más importantes a tomar en cuenta respecto a la

clasificación:

 En el inglés escrito para ciencia y tecnología la clasificación se puede observar en el desarrollo

de párrafos descriptivos y de definición.
 La clasificación es un proceso básico del pensamiento humano y de la expresión científica.
 La función de la clasificación es un proceso bidireccional. Si se dan uno o más miembros de una
clase, el procedimiento es encontrar la clase a la cual éstos pertenecen y darle un nombre. Si se
da la clase, el procedimiento es encontrar los miembros que constituyen esta clase.
 La clasificación debe proporcionar tres tipos de información al lector:
a. el nombre de la clase
b. los miembros de la clase
c. la base o criterio de clasificación
 The Nature of Matter

Everything around us consists of matter: this book, your body, the air you breathe, and the water
you drink. Matter is anything that has weight or mass and takes up space.

All matter may be classified as either solid, liquid, or gas. Solids are firm and have a definite
form. Rubber, wood, glass, iron, cotton, and sand are all classified as solids. A considerable force would
be needed to change the shape or volume of iron bar, for example, because the atoms or molecules of a
solid are densely packed and have very little freedom of movement.

Solids may be further divided into two classes: crystalline and amorphous. Rocks, wood, paper,
and cotton are crystalline solids. Crystalline solids are made up of atoms arranged in a definite pattern.
When these solids are heated, the change to a liquid, known as melting, is sharp and clear. Amorphous
substances include rubber, glass, and sulfur. In these substances, the pattern of the atoms is not orderly,
and when heated, they gradually soften.

Liquids, on the other hand, are not rigid. If water, milk, or oil is poured on a table, it will flow all
over the surface. The atoms or molecules of liquids attract each other and thereby enable liquids to flow.
But these atoms are loosely structured and do not keep their shape. Therefore a liquid will take the shape
of any container in which it is poured. However, liquids have a definite volume; a quart of milk cannot
fit in a pint container.

Gases, such as air, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, have no fixed shape or volume of their own.
They diffuse or spread out to fill any container. If water is put into a tire, it will run to the bottom; if air
is put into a tire, it fills the whole space inside the tire. The atoms or molecules of gases are widely
spaced and move very rapidly. They either compress or expand to adapt to any area.

Everything we know is made of matter in solid, liquid or gaseous form. Later in this chapter, we
will discuss other ways matter may be classified.
Read the text "The Nature of Matter" and then carry out the following activities. Answer in Spanish.
You may work in pairs.

1. Fill out the diagram to show how matter may be classified according to its physical nature.
 Electrical Conductivity

Matter is frequently classified according to its electrical conductivity as a conductor,

nonconductor, or semiconductor. Conductors have many electrons that are free to move and are useful in
carrying, or conducting, electric current. All metals, particularly silver, copper, gold, and aluminum, are
good conductors. Substances with free electrons are called nonconductors, or insulators, because they do
not carry electric charge and can be used to prevent electricity from flowing where it is not wanted. Air,
wood, glass, and plastic are insulators. A few substances, like carbon, silicon, and germanium, do not
fall into either of these categories. They are classed as semiconductors and are used in such electronic
devices as transistor radios.

2. Fill out the diagram to show how matter may be classified according to its electrical conductivity.
 METALS AND METALLURGY

The metals and their physical and chemical properties are an extremely important part of the
studies of chemistry... Approximately three-fourths of all the known elements come under the
classification of metals. This large and varied class is characterized by properties, some of which have
been associated with metals for so long a time that the elements and the properties are considered as
synonymous.

In general, metals possess luster, or reflecting ability; conductivity, both of heat and of
electricity; malleability, or the capacity for being hammered out into thin sheets; and ductility, or the
property of being drawn into wires.

Structurally, metals are built up of crystals which differ markedly from those of nonmetals. The
atoms are more closely packed and the valence electrons are more loosely held than in the case of
nonmetallic elements whose atoms are more rigidly covalent. This closer packing results in smaller
interatomic spaces, which in turn accounts for greater densities. With the more labile valence, electrons
render deformation of the particle shape and conductivity easier.

Some metals have completed inner electron shells and many other have incomplete inner shells.
The former are characterized by having little or no color in their salts while the latter form colored ions.
The former show only one valence while the latter exhibit multiple valences. The former enter into
complex ion formation sparingly whereas the latter form many complex combinations. The latter group
contains the paramagnetic metals (metals which act like iron when placed in a magnetic field).

Chemically, the metals lose electrons to form positive ions or cations. The hydroxides of the
metals are basic, especially those of the ions existing in the lower oxidation state. The higher valence
state of a metal has more acidic tendencies than the lower and may lead to the formation of stable anions
containing the metal, e.g., CrO4, MnO4, etc.

Upon the mixing of two or more metals in the molten state, one of three results may be obtained:
they may be immiscible and separate into layers; they may dissolve in one another in a solvent-solute
relationship; or they may unite with one another, resulting in intermetallic compounds. The latter two
conditions result in the formation of alloys.

The nature of an alloy depends largely on its constituents and the subdivision of the metallic
crystals. Fineness of crystal size results in hardness of the alloy. Since the presence of impurities lowers
the melting point of a crystalline substance, the presence of the one metal will lower the melting point of
the other. Thus the mixture melts lower than either metal in the pure state. The lowest melting mixture
of two metals is termed the cutectic. Upon cooling such a mixture, very fine, homogeneous crystals
result...
Read the text “Metals and Metallurgy” and then carry out the following activities. Answer in Spanish.

1. What is the main idea in paragraph #3?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

2. What is the main idea in paragraph #4?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

How is the information developed in this paragraph? ________________________________

3. Fill in the following diagram.

Tipos de
Capas de
los Metales

Contiene el grupo de los metales

paramagnéticos.

4. Based on the information given in the text, draw a diagram showing the general properties of metals.
5. Fill in the following diagram.

Mezcla de dos
o más metales
fundidos Formación de
aleaciones

6. Structurally, what is the difference between metal and nonmetal crystals?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

7. What characteristic do the more labile valence electrons show?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. What characteristic does the higher valence state of a metal present?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

9. On what does the nature and hardness of an alloy depend?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

10. What is the main type of description used throughout the text?
_________________________________________________________________________________
 THE PLASTIC AND POLYMERIZATION
Plastics, term applied to organic polymeric materials (those consisting of giant organic molecules) that
are plastic – that is, they can be formed into desired shapes through extrusion, molding, casting, or
spinning. The molecules can be either natural – including cellulose, wax, and natural rubber – or
synthetic – including polyethylene and nylon. The starting materials are resins in the form of pellets,
powders, or solutions; from these are formed the finished plastics.
History
The development of plastics began about 1860, after Phelan and Collander, a United States firm
manufacturing billiard and pool balls, offered a prize of $ 10,000 for a satisfactory substitute for natural
ivory. One of those who tried to win this prize was U. S. inventor John Wesley Hyatt. Hyatt developed a
method of pressure-working pyroxylin, a cellulose nitrate of low nitration (see Cellulose) that had been
plasticized with camphor and a minimum of alcohol solvent. Although Hyatt did not win the prize, his
product, patented under the trademark Celluloid, was used in the manufacture of objects ranging from
dental plates to men's collars. Despite its flammability and liability to deterioration when exposed to
light, Celluloid achieved a notable commercial success.
Kinds of Plastics

Three of the ways in which plastics can be categorized are by the polymerization process that forms
them, by their processibility, and by their chemical nature.
Polymerization
The two basic polymerization processes for producing resins are condensation and addition reactions.
Condensation produces a variety of polymer chain lengths, whereas addition reactions produce only
specific lengths. Furthermore, condensation polymerizations produce small byproduct molecules such as
water, ammonia, and glycol, whereas no byproducts are generated in addition reactions. Typical
condensation polymers are nylons, polyurethanes, and polyesters. Addition polymers include
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene. The average molecular weights for
the addition polymers are generally orders of magnitude larger than those of condensation polymers.
Processibility
The processibility of a plastic depends on whether it is thermoplastic or thermosetting. Thermoplastics,
which are made up of linear or branched polymers, are fusible: They soften when heated and harden
when cooled. This is also true of thermosets that are lightly cross-linked. Most thermosets, however,
harden when heated. This final cross-linking, which fixes the true thermosets, takes place after the
plastic has already been formed.

Chemical Nature

The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by the monomer (repeating unit) that makes up the chain of
the polymer. For example, polyolefins are made up of monomer units of olefins, which are open-chain
hydrocarbons with at least, one double bond. Polyethylene is a polyolefin; its monomer unit is ethylene.
Other categories are acrylics (such as polymethylmethacrylate), styrenes (such as polystyrene), vinyl
halides (such as polyvinyl chloride), polyesters, polyurethanes, polyamides (such as nylons), polyethers,
acetals, phenolics, cellulosics, and amino resins.
Manufacture

The manufacture of plastic and plastic products involves procuring the raw materials, synthesizing the
basic polymer, compounding the polymer into a material useful for fabrication, and molding or shaping
the plastic into its final form.
Raw Materials

Originally, most plastics were made from resins derived from vegetable matter, such as cellulose (from
cotton), furfural (from oat hulls), oils (from seeds), starch derivatives, or coal. Casein (from milk) was
among the non-vegetable materials used. Although the production of nylon was originally based on coal,
air, and water, and nylon 11 is still based on oil from castor beans, most plastics today are derived from
petrochemicals. These oil-based raw materials are more widely available and less expensive than other
raw materials. However, because the world supply of oil is limited, other sources of raw materials, such
as coal gasification, are being explored.
Additives

Chemical additives are often used in plastics to produce some desired characteristic. For instance,
antioxidants protect a polymer from chemical degradation by oxygen or ozone; similarly, ultraviolet
stabilizers protect against weathering. Plasticizers make a polymer more flexible, lubricants reduce
problems with friction, and pigments add color. Among other additives are flame retardants and
antistatics.

Many plastics are manufactured as composites. This involves a system where reinforcements (usually
fibers made of glass or carbon) are added to a plastic resin matrix. Composites have strength and
stability comparable to that of metals but generally with less weight. Plastic foams, which are
composites of plastic and gas, offer bulk with low weight.

Shaping and Finishing

The techniques used for shaping and finishing plastics depend on three factors: time, temperature, and
flow (also known as deformation). Many of the processes are cyclic in nature, although some fall into
the categories of continuous or semicontinuous operation.

One of the most widely used operations is that of extrusion. An extruder is a device that pumps a plastic
through a desired die or shape. Extrusion products, such as pipes, have a regularly shaped cross section.
The extruder itself also serves as the means to carry out other operations, such as blow molding and
injection molding. In extrusion blow molding, the extruder fills the mold with a tube, which is then cut
off and clamped to form a hollow shape called a parison. This hot, molten parison is then blown like a
balloon and forced against the walls of the mold to form the desired shape. In injection molding, one or
more extruders are used with reciprocating screws that move forward to inject the melt and then retract
to take on new molten material to continue the process. In injection blow molding, which is used in
making bottles for carbonated beverages, the parison is first injection molded and then reheated and
blown.
Read the text “The Plastic and Polymerization” and then carry out the following activities. Answer in
Spanish.

1. What are plastics?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. How can plastics be categorized?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Complete the following table based on polymerization processes for producing resins:

Type Main Characteristics Examples

4. What does the manufacture of plastic and plastic products involve?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. Draw a diagram classifying the raw materials of plastics:

6. Explain the operations of blow molding and injection molding.

Blow molding
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Injection molding
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

7. What is the main idea in paragraph #4?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. What is the main idea in paragraph #8?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

9. What type of description is used in paragraphs 5, 6, and12?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

10. Determine whether the following statements are true or false.

a. Celluloid achieved a notable commercial success due to its flammability and

liability to deterioration when exposed to light. T___ F___

b. Thermosets are made up of linear or branched polymers. T___ F___

c. Antioxidants are chemical additives that protect a polymer from chemical

degradation by oxygen or ozone. T___ F___

d. Antistatics reduce problems with friction. T___ F___

e. The techniques used for shaping and finishing plastics depend on time, temperature
and deformation. T___ F___
Heat exchanger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another, whether the
fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids are directly contacted. They are
widely used in petroleum refineries, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing,
refrigeration, power plants, air conditioning and space heating. One common example of a heat
exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which a hot engine-cooling fluid, like antifreeze, transfers heat to
air flowing through the radiator.

Flow arrangement

Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) flows

Heat exchangers may be classified according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat
exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to
the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The
counter current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat. See countercurrent
exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through
the exchanger.

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two
fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance
can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase
surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.

Fig. 3: Shell and tube heat

Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat
exchanger, single pass
(1-1 parallel flow)
Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat
exchanger, 2-pass shell side,
exchanger, 2-pass tube side
2-pass tube side
(1-2 crossflow)
(2-2 countercurrent)
Types of heat exchangers

A typical heat exchanger, usually for higher-pressure applications, is the shell and tube heat exchanger
which consists of a series of finned tubes, through which one of the fluids runs. The second fluid runs
over the finned tubes to be heated or cooled.

Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. One is composed of multiple, thin, slightly-
separated plates that have very large surface areas and fluid flow passages for heat transfer. This
stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a given space, than the shell and tube heat
exchanger. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate type heat exchanger
increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type are called plate-and-
frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of the gasketed type to allow
periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are many types of permanently-bonded plate heat
exchangers such as dip-brazed and vacuum-brazed plate varieties, and they are often specified for
closed-loop applications such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that
are used, and the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with "chevron" or other
patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves.

A third type of heat exchanger is the regenerative heat exchanger. In this, the heat from a process is used
to warm the fluids to be used in the process, and the same type of fluid is used either side of the heat
exchanger. (These heat exchangers can be either plate and frame or shell and tube construction.)

A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat, which is then
moved to the other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels,
which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and heat
exchangers with a gas passing upwards through a shower of fluid (often water) and the water then taken
elsewhere before being cooled. This is commonly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain
impurities, solving two problems at once.

Another type of heat exchanger is called dynamic heat exchanger or scraped surface heat exchanger.
This is mainly used for heating or cooling with high viscosity products, crystallization processes,
evaporation and high fouling applications. Long running times are achieved due to the continuous
scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the
process.

Phase-change heat exchangers

In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat exchangers can be used
either to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor to condense it back
to a liquid. In chemical plants and refineries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers
are often heat exchangers. Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors
back into liquid.

Power plants which have steam-driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam.
Heat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers. In the nuclear
power plants called pressurized water reactors, special large heat exchangers which pass heat from the
primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam plant) system, producing steam from water in the
process, are called steam generators. All power plants, fossil-fueled and nuclear, using large quantities
of steam have large condensers to recycle the water back to liquid form for re-use.

In order to conserve energy and cooling capacity in chemical and other plants, regenerative heat
exchangers can be used to transfer heat from one stream that needs to be cooled to another stream that
needs to be heated, such as distillate cooling and reboiler feed pre-heating.

This term can also refer to heat exchangers that contain a material within their structure that has a
change of phase. This is usually a solid to liquid phase due to the small volume difference between these
states. This change of phase effectively acts as a buffer because it occurs at a constant temperature but
still allows for the heat exchanger to accept additional heat. One example where this has been
investigated is for use in high power aircraft electronics.

HVAC air coils

One of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air conditioning of buildings and vehicles. This class of
heat exchangers is commonly called air coils, or just coils due to their often-serpentine internal tubing.
Liquid-to-air or air-to-liquid HVAC coils are typically of modified crossflow arrangement. In vehicles,
heat coils are often called heater cores.

On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam,
or a refrigerant. For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this heated fluid is
supplied by boilers, for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common.
Chilled water is supplied from a chiller that is potentially located very far away, but refrigerant must
come from a nearby condensing unit. When a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. HVAC coils that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are
commonly called DX coils.

On the air side of HVAC coils a significant difference exists between those used for heating, and those
for cooling. Due to psychrometrics, air that is cooled often has moisture condensing out of it, except
with extremely dry air flows. Heating some air increases that airflow's capacity to hold water. So heating
coils need not consider moisture condensation on their air-side, but cooling coils must be adequately
designed and selected to handle their particular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling) loads.
The water that is removed is called condensate.

For many climates, water or steam HVAC coils can be exposed to freezing conditions. Because water
expands upon freezing, these somewhat expensive and difficult to replace thin-walled heat exchangers
can easily be damaged or destroyed by just one freeze. As such, freeze protection of coils is a major
concern of HVAC designers, installers, and operators.

The heat exchangers in direct-combustion furnaces, typical in many residences, are not 'coils'. They are,
instead, gas-to-air heat exchangers that are typically made of stamped steel sheet metal. The combustion
products pass on one side of these heat exchangers, and air to be conditioned on the other. A cracked
heat exchanger is therefore a dangerous situation requiring immediate attention because combustion
products are then likely to enter the building.
Selection

Due to the many variables involved, selecting optimal heat exchangers is challenging. Hand calculations
are possible, but many iterations are typically needed. As such, heat exchangers are most often selected
via computer programs, either by system designers, who are typically engineers, or by equipment
vendors.

Monitoring and maintenance

Condition monitoring of heat exchanger tubes may be conducted through eddy current inspection. This
is often simulated through the use of computational fluid dynamics or CFD.

A serious problem of some heat exchangers is fouling. As very often cooling water from rivers or sea is
used, a lot of biological debris enters the heat exchanger and build layers, decreasing the heat transfer
coefficient. Another possible problem is scale, which are chemical deposit layers such as calcium
carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

In case of plate heat exchangers they need to be cleaned periodically. To do this they will be de-
assembled and re-assembled. In case of tube heat exchangers there are possibilities like acid cleaning,
bullet cleaning etc. (off-line cleaning).

In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment such as purification, addition
of chemicals, and testing, is used to minimize fouling of the heat exchange equipment. Other water
treatment is also used in steam systems for power plants, etc. to minimize fouling and corrosion of the
heat exchange and other equipment.

Heat exchangers in nature

Heat exchangers occur naturally in the circulation system of whales. Arteries to the skin carrying warm
blood are intertwined with veins from the skin carrying cold blood causing the warm arterial blood to
exchange heat with the cold venous blood. This reduces overall heat loss by the whale when diving in
cold waters. Wading birds use a similar system to limit heat losses from their body through their legs
into the water.

In species that have external testes (such as humans), the artery to the testis is surrounded by a mesh of
veins called the pampiniform plexus. This cools the blood heading to the testis, while reheating the
returning blood.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exchanger
Based on the information in the text “Heat exchanger”, carry out the following activities. Answer in
Spanish.

1. What is a heat exchanger?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Fill out the diagram classifying heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement.

3. What is the main idea in paragraph # 3?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the main idea in paragraph # 9?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

5. What type of description is used in paragraphs 1, 5 and 8?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Draw a diagram classifying the types of heat exchangers.

7. Give a supporting idea from paragraphs 1 and 9.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

8. For what can regenerative heat exchangers be used in chemical and other plants?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Explain the difference between HVAC coils on the air side of heat exchangers used for air
conditioning.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

10. Why is freeze protection of coils a major concern of HVAC designers, installers, and operators?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

11. Describe heat exchangers in direct combustion furnaces.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

12. Why is the selection of optimal heat exchangers a challenge? How are they selected?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
13. Explain the problems encountered by some heat exchangers.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

14. How are plate heat exchangers and tube heat exchangers cleaned?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

15. How can fouling be minimized in water systems using heat exchangers?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

16. Give two examples of naturally occurring heat exchangers.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
17. Draw a table classifying heat exchangers according to their use in different types of plants.

Heat exchanger Use Type of plant

18. To what do the following referential words and phrases refer?

a. they, paragraph 1, line 2: ____________________________________________________________

b. They, paragraph 1, line 2: ___________________________________________________________
c. which, paragraph 1, line 5: ___________________________________________________________
d. it, paragraph 2, line 4: ______________________________________________________________
e. this type, paragraph 5, line 5: _________________________________________________________
f. they, paragraph 5, line 8: ____________________________________________________________
g. This, paragraph 8, line 2: ____________________________________________________________
EXTENSIVE READING
 How Things Work: Understanding Gas Detection Technology
Selection and use of portable gas detection technology for confined-space entry

By Patrick Hogan, PhD, and Dr. Ian Robins

Confined space entry is the most hazardous working environment, because the poor
ventilation creates an environment with the greatest chance of a build up of hazardous gas.
Sometimes, in utility and construction industries for example, the operator is working in a
cramped underground area that is wet, dirty, contaminated with pollutants and prone to
changes in humidity and temperature.

Portable gas detectors are small, lightweight, battery-powered devices that can be worn by
those who perform their job in hazardous areas where there is potential exposure to flammable
and toxic vapors. The devices use chemical sensing methods to sample the air in the
environment and raise early warning alarms that alert the user to the presence of three major
threats: flammable gases; toxic gases and the diminution of breathable oxygen.

Selection Criteria

The ideal portable gas detector is robust, waterproof, lightweight, has a long battery life,
detects and alarms hazardous levels quickly and is able to respond to all likely hazardous
gases, including hydrogen, while remaining immune to other species that could contaminate or
adversely affect the reading of the target gases.

Especially with large fleets of gas detectors, selection criteria may also include cost of
ownership and technical features that reduce the cost of maintaining the devices in full working
order.

Modern portable gas detectors use a range of sensing technologies that are now commercially
available for inclusion in portable devices.

Catalytic Bead Technology

Catalytic bead (pellistor) gas detectors are small, lightweight, low power consuming and shock
resistant. They are a proven, low-cost, low-maintenance option for detection of the percentage
of LEL (lower explosive limit) presence of all types of combustible gas in aggressive confined
space environments.

The technology is based on the use of two coated-filament wires (beads) connected to a
Wheatstone Bridge electronic circuit; one in the sample air and one a reference environment.
The electrical changes in the sample area are compared to those in the reference circuit, and a
direct signal is generated that is proportional to the gas concentration.

Pellistors detect the largest range of flammable hydrocarbons, including hydrogen, regardless
of molecular weight, concentration, or mixture and are ideal for use with the higher alkane and
aromatic products found in petroleum and diesel-based fuels. Moreover modern pellistors are
exceptionally resistant to vibration, and withstand aggressive drop test and ingress protection
requirements.
These sensors are cheap to replace, easy to calibrate and have the shortest lead-time for
manufacturing and delivery.

Electrochemical Cells

Electrochemical cells (EC) consist of a pair of electrodes immersed in a special chemical

solution or electrolyte that is sealed with a semi-permeable membrane that allows the passage
of the target molecules into the electrolyte. Various chemical reactions can take place within
the cell canister that produce a raw electrical signal between the electrodes that is proportional
to the actual gas concentration. The signal is electrically amplified within the portable gas
detector and used to display the gas levels.

Unlike other electrochemical cells, oxygen sensors are designed to generate a continuous
signal, and so lend themselves to fail-to-safe modality. In the event of sudden (mechanical)
damage to the sensor, the signal increases much higher than normal, which can trigger a
warning that the cell has failed.

All other types of electrochemical cells, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide
generate an electrical signal only when the target gas is present. In otherwise "clean" ambient
air, the cells do not generate electrical output and so have no built-in means with which to alert
the operator of impending failure.

Software algorithms can be applied to provide a basic "watch dog" observation of the detector
performance, but these mathematical models are approximate and experience shows that it is
essential not to rely on them for primary test modality. Aggressive pulsing of the cells with
electronic signals to test them has also shown to deteriorate the cell lifetime. This is an area of
active research but is arguably not yet a practical solution for the rigors of confined space.

Infrared Portable Cells

Infrared gas detectors count the number of gas molecules present that pass between a source
of infrared radiation and a solid state detector of the radiation. A measurement is made of ratio
in signal change between the sensing chamber and the reference chamber, which is blocked
from sensing the actual gas. The relative change in transmitted light energy in the sample
beam is compared with that from the reference source and this is converted into a signal
proportional to the actual gas concentration.

Infrared is a good technology for measuring many of the common flammable gases found in
industrial applications, but its deployment in a portable device for use in harsh confined spaces
is questionable.

In a typical dirty and wet confined space environment, there is a risk that the detector is
blocked by direct cover from clothing or build up of mud, grease or condensation. In this highly
dangerous scenario, the infrared detector could appear to be operating correctly, when it is
actually measuring only the air inside its own canister.
Infrared is also unable to measure hydrogen, because the hydrogen molecule does not have a
strong enough infrared absorption band. Users must be completely confident that hydrogen will
not be present in their uncontrolled environment.

Other arguments against infrared as a portable technology are its relatively slow response time
(more than 30 seconds) and the need for heated optical surfaces to drive off moisture that can
condense on the sensitive optical surfaces. Its high power demand is also impractical for
portable gas detectors where long battery lifetime is a necessity.

Photo Ionization Detectors

Photo ionization detectors (PIDs) are solid-state devices that can detect a range of toxic and
flammable gases. They use a powerful light source to ionize the molecules and a special
detector that picks up the transport of charged molecules, converting this into a proportional
signal output.

These specialist tools are usually deployed for the broadband detection of certain molecules
that may be found in chemical emergencies such as spill or open air monitoring.

PID cells are expensive to purchase and complex to maintain. They require frequent
calibrations to generate "correction factors" as they are highly cross sensitive to many other
molecules. New lamps are required on a routine basis.

The cells are also sensitive to the presence of water vapor, which needs to be considered
when calibrating (ultra dry gases are required) and more importantly when monitoring in
humid, confined-space applications. They are also highly sensitive to methane, which reduces
their availability to detect the presence of other hydrocarbon gases. They should not be
deployed in zones prone to the presence of high levels of natural gas.

Conclusion

Catalytic bead and electrochemical cells provide reliable, affordable, fit-for-purpose gas
detection of the major flammable and toxic gases in robust portable devices that operate safely
in the rigors of confined space applications. Although some manufacturers are now offering
infrared cells in portable detectors, the technology is not proven for applications of this kind.

There is intensive research being carried out by sensor manufacturers into practical
technology that can prolong the lifetime of the sensor or forewarn of the sensor's unavailability
to detect gas. The potential for sensing devices that can proactively alert the user if they have
failed is an attractive design goal. However, there are already practical gas testing methods
routinely executed by users of portable gas detectors which, when used correctly, do meet
global health and safety requirements and best practice guidelines, and afford peace of mind
that workers are well protected from the risks of hazardous gas in confined spaces.

Patrick Hogan PhD, is director of business development, Portables, for Zellweger Analytics and Dr. Ian Robins, is
director of sensor development, Zellweger Analytics. Contact them at (954) 514-2700; Internet:
http://www.compliancemag.com/www.zelana.com.
Organic reactions
Many of the biochemical reactions in landfill sites occur as a result of the presence of the reactive,
organic wastes which, according to Hester and Harrison (2002, p.29), account for more than half of the
average household's waste. There are five major reaction processes involved (described in greater detail
in the website), with different micro-organisms involved at each stage:

Stage 1: Hydrolysis & aerobic degradation

The initial stage of organic decomposition occurs during the emplacement of the waste in the landfill
and for the period of time after, when oxygen is available within the waste. There chemical processes
are initiated and facilitated by the presence of aerobic micro-biota which metabolise a fraction of the
organic waste to produce simpler hydrocarbons, water, carbon dioxide and, as this is an exothermic
reaction, heat (the heat generated can raise the temperature of the waste to up to 70ºC - 90ºC, however
compacted waste achieves lower temperatures due to the reduced availability of oxygen). In these
reactions, water and carbon dioxide are produced in the greatest concentrations. The carbon dioxide can
dissolve in the water, forming a leachate that is rich in carbonic acid, which, in turn, lowers the pH of
the surroundings. This stage generally lasts for a matter of days or weeks, depending on the amount of
oxygen that is available within the waste.

Stage 2: Hydrolysis and fermentation

The removal of oxygen in Stage 1 facilitates a change in conditions from aerobic (oxygen present) to
anaerobic (oxygen absent). Thus the majority of micro-biota found within the waste change to anaerobic
species. Carbohydrates are hydrolysed (a chemical process in which a molecule is split into two parts by
the addition of a water molecule) to sugars, which are then further decomposed to form carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, ammonia and organic acids. Proteins decompose via deaminisation (the removal of an amino
- NH2 group) to form ammonia, carboxylic acids and carbon dioxide. The leachate that is produced at
this stage contains ammoniacal nitrogen in high concentration. Acetic acid is the main organic acid
formed but propionic, butyric, lactic and formic acids and acid derivative products are also produced,
and their formation is affected by the composition of the initial waste material. The temperatures in the
landfill drop to between 30ºC and 50ºC. Gas composition may rise to levels of up to 80% carbon dioxide
and 20% hydrogen.
Stage 3: Acetogenesis

In this stage, anaerobic conditions are still present and the organic acids that were formed in the
hydrolysis and fermentation stage are now converted, via specific microorganisms to acetic acid, acetic
acid derivatives, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Other microorganisms convert carbohydrates directly to
acetic acid in the presence of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide levels begin to
diminish towards the end of this stage, with the lower hydrogen concentrations promoting the methane-
generating microorganisms (methanogens), which subsequently generate methane and carbon dioxide
from the organic acids and their derivatives generated in the earlier stages.

Stage 4: Methanogenesis
This stage encompasses the main processes that lead to the production of landfill gas. At this point, the
chemical processes involved are comparatively slow and can take many years to complete. Oxygen-
depleted, anaerobic conditions still remain as in the previous two stages. Low levels of hydrogen are
required to promote the methanogenic organisms, which generate carbon dioxide and methane from the
organic acids and their derivatives such as acetates and formates formed in the earlier stages. Methane
generation may also occur from the direct conversion of hydrogen and carbon dioxide (via
microorganisms) in to methane and water: Hydrogen concentrations, produced during Stages 2 and 3,
therefore fall to low levels during this fourth stage.

Stage 5: Oxidation

Oxidation processes mark the final stage of the reactions involved in the biodegradation of waste. As the
acids are used up in the production of landfill gas (as seen in Stage 4), new aerobic microorganisms
slowly replace the anaerobic forms and re-introduce oxygen to the region. Microorganisms that convert
methane to carbon dioxide and water may also become established.

These five stages play an important role in the proportions of the leachate constituents that the landfill
produces. Leachate and the factors that affect its quality are described in more detail in the leachate
chemistry section.

Source: http://www.chemsoc.org/exemplarchem/entries/2004/plymouth_Whittleton/organic.html
 BIBLIOGRAFÍA

Carvallo, Jacqueline de y Silva, Jeannette (1999). Curso de Inglés para la Adquisición de

Vocabulario de las Ciencias de la Salud (Nivel Intermedio). Valencia. Venezuela.

Gershon J., Shwyar, Jack, T. Ballinger. Chemical Technician’s Ready Reference Handbook.
Third Edition.

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. Fifth Edition.

Greenall, Simon and Swan, Michael (1993). Effective Reading. Reading skills for advanced
students. Cambridge University Press. England.

Reading and Thinking in English. Discovering discourse. Teacher’s Edition (1980). Oxford
University Press. England.

Trimble, Louis (1989). English for Science and Technology. A Discourse Approach. Cambridge
University Press.
APÉNDICE - PALABRAS/EXPRESIONES CONECTORAS DE IDEAS
COMPARACIÓN
*like como, al igual que
just like al igual que, así como
likewise de la misma manera
*so así, de este modo
similarly igualmente
*as como, así como

CONTRASTE
although aunque
though aunque
*but pero
*however sin embargo, no obstante, de cualquier modo
nevertheless sin embargo, no obstante, a pesar de todo
*in spite of a pesar de, no obstante
*yet sin embargo, no obstante
whereas mientras que
*while mientras que
otherwise de otro modo, de lo contrario
*unlike a diferencia de
on the contrary por el contrario
despite a pesar de
rather than en vez de

CONDICIÓN
if si, dado que, en caso que
provided con tal que, siempre que
unless a menos que
whether ya sea, si, en caso que

EJEMPLIFICACIÓN O ILUSTRACIÓN
such as tal como
for example por ejemplo
e.g. (latín: "exampli gratia") por ejemplo

EXPLICACIÓN O CLARIFICACIÓN
in other words en otras palabras
i.e. (latín: "id est") es decir
*that is es decir
namely es decir

CAUSA EFECTO
*as debido a
*since ya que, debido a
because debido a, por cuanto, porque
*for debido a, por cuanto, porque (prep. para, por)
due to debido a
CONSECUENCIA
therefore por lo tanto
thus así, de este modo, por tanto
hence de allí que, por lo cual
consequently en consecuencia
as a result como resultado
so that de modo que, tal que

ADICIÓN
furthermore además, aun más
moreover además, aun más
*besides además
*indeed por cierto, verdaderamente
in addition (to) además (de)
as well as así como también
also también, además

SECUENCIA
to begin with para comenzar
*first primero
firstly primeramente
in the first place en primer lugar
*second segundo
secondly en segundo lugar
*next luego, después
then entonces, luego
*third tercero
*as a medida que
*while mientras que
at the same time al mismo tiempo, a su vez
finally finalmente
lastly por último

RESUMEN O CONCLUSIÓN
in brief en breve, en resumen
in review en resumen
in short en pocas palabras, en resumen
in conclusion en conclusión
to sum up resumiendo

*No siempre funcionan como conectoras de ideas, ya que pueden actuar como modificadores.