THE STORY OF EL-SAYYID AHMAD EL-BADAWI WITH FATMA

Hasan U. El-Shamy
Indiana U n i v e r s i t y

El-Sayyid Ahmad El-Badawi (1200?-1276) is one of t h e most powerful s a i n t s i n Egypt,

with a c u l t t h a t comprises l a r g e segments of t h e Egyptian population a s w e l l a s
people o u t s i d e ~ g y p t . This
~ c u l t d e r i v e s much of i t s power from S u f i (mystic)
philosophy and r i t u a l s , which l e a d t o e c s t a t i c experiences and r h e t o r i c a l p o e t i c
expressions. Of a l l t h e s a i n t s venerated i n Egypt, and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e axes
o r a r c h - s a i n t s who support t h e e a r t h , Ahmad i s t h e only one whose deeds a r e
~ e c o u n t e di n t h r e e major t r a d i t i o n a l poems which may be c a l l e d e p i c s . 3

Writings which d a t e back t o t h e l h t h and 1 5 t h c e n t u r i e s record t h e l i f e h i s t o r y

of El-Sayyid Ahmad ~ l - ~ a d a w i . ' These sources authored mainly by h i s f o l l o w e r s ,
t r a c e t h e geneology of Ahmad through twenty-seven l i n k s t o ' A a l i Ibn Abi T a l i b ,
a p a t e r n a l cousin o f Prophet Mohammad and t h e f o u r t h Caliph. The t i t l e "El-
Sayyid" denotes t h i s kinship t o t h e p r o p h e t ' s family. Like many nomads, e s p e c i -
a l l y Berbers i n North A f r i c a , Ahmad wore a v e i l which allowed only t h e a r e a
around h i s eyes t o be seen. The t i t l e "El-Badawi" r e f e r s t o t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

A f t e r t h e a s s a s i n a t i o n of Aali by t h e K h a r i j i t e r e b e l s , and t h e d e f e a t of h i s
f o l l o w e r s ( t h e 'Aalawites) by t h e Omayyads, many members of Ahmad's family f l e d
t o remote a r e a s t o avoid p e r s e c u t i o n . A branch of t h e family r e s i d e d i n North
Africa, where i t s members i n t e r m a r r i e d with l o c a l Berber groups.

Ahmad was born i n t h e town of Fez i n t h e y e a r 1200 A.D. (597 A.H.). He was t h e
s i x t h c h i l d i n h i s family; two o l d e r b r o t h e r s and t h r e e (sometimes f o u r ) s i s t e r s of
Ahmad a r e u s u a l l y mentioned. He wore t h e r e d S u f i mantle i n h i s childhood, r e d
being t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o l o r f o r Ahmad's followers. When Ahmad was seven h i s
f a t h e r decided t o move back t o Mecca. On t h e i r way t h e family stopped i n Egypt,
where they stayed from t h r e e t o f i v e y e a r s . I n Mecca Ahmad l e d a l i f e of c h i v a l r y
a t f i r s t ; t h a t phase of h i s l i f e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by courage and p i e t y . He
t h e r e f o r e earned t h e t i t l e of " a l - ' ~ a f t a b , " i . e . , t h e one who causes damage t o t h e
enemy. Ahmad r e f u s e d t o marry and rebuked h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r Hasan (who became t h e
head of t h e family a f t e r t h e d e a t h of t h e i r f a t h e r and middle b r o t h e r ) f o r h i s
suggestion t h a t he should do so.

Following t h i s e a r l y phase Ahmad turned t o a u s t e r e l i v i n g and worshipped i n

s o l i t u d e i n a cabe o u t s i d e Mecca. About t h e y e a r 1237, Ahmad persuaded h i s
b r o t h e r Hasan, a l s o a S u f i , t o accompany him t o I r a q where two major S u f i s had
founded p h i l o s o p h i c a l schools of mysticism and impressive organized brotherhoods.
These were Ahmad al-Rifa'Ai (d.1175 A.D.) and 'Aabdul-Qadir a 1 J e e l a n i (d.1166).
The two b r o t h e r s toured I r a q . In the n o r t h they were received i n a h o s t i l e
manner by rugged Kurdish mountain tribesmen. Some w r i t t e n sources c i t e h i s
b a t t l e w i t h Fatma Bint-Birry i n t h e c o n t e x t of d e s c r i b i n g t h i s t r i p . 5 The
b r o t h e r s r e t u r n e d t o southern I r a q where Hasan, t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r , decided t o
r e t u r n t o h i s family i n Mecca while t h e younger Ahmad decided t o r e t u r n t o t h e
n o r t h ; however, Ahmad d i d r e t u r n t o Mecca soon a f t e r w a r d s , i n t h e year 1238.
Ahmad's l i f e , according t o t h e s e sources, was motivated by manams, i . e . i n s t r u c t i v e
dreams of a r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e . A manamadvised h i s mother of h i s b i r t h and f u t u r e
g r e a t n e s s ; another i n s t r u c t e d h i s f a t h e r t o move t o Mecca, while a t h i r d urged
Ahmad t o t r a v e l t o Iraq. A s h o r t while a f t e r h i s r e t u r n t o Mecca, Ahmad received
through another m r n i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t r a v e l t o k d a t a , a small v i l l a g e i n t h e
Nile Delta i n Egypt. He obeyed t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s and l e f t Mecca, t a k i n g with him
t h e book of h i s genealogy and another book of " s t o r i e s . " H i s t r i p t o Egypt
s t a r t e d i n t h e year 1238, t h e same year he r e t u r n e d from I r a q . Ahmad a r r i v e d a t
Tandafa about a year l a t e r , where he headed d i r e c t l y t o a s p e c i f i c house where he
was well received.

Ahmad r e s i d e d on t h e t o p of t h e house,where he met with h i s e a r l y followers. This

group of e a r l y S u f i s was r e f e r r e d t o as"Sutuhiyyah," i . e . , t h e "House-Toppers," a
t i t l e f o r one of t h e brotherhoods which i s organized around Ahmad's person and
teachings.

The r e p o r t s of Ahmad's karamit (miraculous manifestations) a r e numerous. Even

a f t e r h i s death, he has been continuously reported t o have performed outstanding
supernatural deeds. According t o t h e s e accounts, which a r e e s o t e r i c i n n a t u r e ,
both Ahmad and h i s family were motivated by man&. In c o n t r a s t t o t h i s viewpoint,
a contemporary Egyptian h i s t o r i a n , SdAeed ' ~ x s h o u r ,reviewed Ahmad El-Badawi's
l i f e h i s t o r y from an o b j e c t i v e perspective.6 I n a bold and painstaking a n a l y s i s ,
'Aashur c o r r e l a t e d t h e movements of Ahmad's family from North Africa t o Hejaz with
p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s changes. The new conditions would have a f f e c t e d t h e family
adversely.

'Aashour a l s o pointed out t h a t Ahmad's t r i p t o I r a q influenced him i n two b a s i c

ways: it f i l l e d him with admiration f o r t h e S u f i c u l t of al-Rifa'Ai, which made
him a s p i r e t o a s i m i l a r s t a t u s , and it l e d him t o r e a l i z e t h a t it was impossible
f o r him t o occupy any place of prominence i n Iraq. H i s t r i p took p l a c e only
twenty years before t h e f a l l of Baghdad t o t h e Mongols, a period which was
characterized by confusion, decadance, and an ugly s e c t a r i a n c o n f l i c t between Sunni
and S h i i t e Moslems. Moreover, I r a q already had i t s S u f i masters (agtab, i . e . , a x e s ) .
Ahmad could only be a follower. H i s t r i p t o northern I r a q , where h e a s confronted
by h o s t i l e Kurdish mountain tribesmen, strengthened h i s conviction t h a t i f he were
t o have h i s own way, it had t o be elsewhere.

'Aashour suggests, among o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h a t young Ahmad's s t a y i n t h e Nile

Delta during h i s t r i p through Egypt must have made a strong impression on him.
This explains h i s heading t o Tandata and t o a s p e c i f i c house t h e r e . Sha'Aban argues
convincingly t h a t Ahmad chose t h i s l o c a t i o n f o r a number of w e l l c a l c u l a t e d reasons:
its c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n a s a crossroads t o populated a r e a s ; t h e d o c i l e n a t u r e of i t s
peasant population; its r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n from t h e s e a t of p o l i t i c a l power, which
might have s t i f l e d h i s organization before it grew; and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e were no
prominent s a i n t s i n t h e a r e a .

I n t h i s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n Ahmad's c u l t was born; it grew and spread t o become one

of t h e most powerful c u l t s i n Egypt, i f not i n t h e e n t i r e Middle Eastern a r e a . Ahmad
seems not t o have l e f t Tandata o r t h e t o p of t h e house where he stayed u n t i l h i s
death i n August 1276.

'Aashour a t t r i b u t e s t h e " f a b r i c a t i o n and propagation of Ahmad's miraculous manifesta-

t i o n s " t o a group of " b e n e f i c i a r i e ~ . " ~These followers gained v a s t p o l i t i c a l ,
r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and above a l l , economic power from maintaining t h e c u l t and
enhancing i t s causes.
Transformation o f Character

Scholars of v a r i o u s persuasions a g r e e t h a t s a i n t s ' c u l t s i n Egypt d a t e back t o

a n c i e n t t i m e s . 9 The t r a n s i t i o n from an a n c i e n t p o l y t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y
and then t o Islam d i d not r a d i c a l l y a l t e r t h e b a s i c r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s
of t h e n a t i v e Egyptian peasant. The p r e s e n t v e r s i f i e d s t o r y of El-Sayyid Ahmad
El-Badawi i s a s t r o n g proof f o r t h i s argument.

The m a j o r i t y o f Egyptians, e s p e c i a l l y i n r u r a l a r e a s , l i v e according t o t h r e e

s e p a r a t e temporal systems. The o l d e s t o f t h e s e is t h e a n c i e n t s o l a r system known
a s t h e Coptic Calendar, which i s used e x c l u s i v e l y i n a g r i c u l t u r a l and r e l a t e d
a c t i v i t i e s . 1 ° The second is t h e more r e c e n t l u n a r system, which begins with t h e
year of prophet Mohammad's Hegira ( f l i g h t ) from Mecca i n t h e y e a r 622 A . D . , was
introduced with Islam during t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e 7 t h c e n t u r y A . D . ( f i r s t c e n t u r y
A.H.). The t h i r d and most r e c e n t system i s t h e European C h r i s t i a n s o l a r c a l e n d a r ,
which was introduced only during t h e French Campaign (1798-1801). Currently,
Egyptian f o l k groups reckon a n c i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l occasions according t o t h e Coptic,
Islamic r e l i g i o u s occasions according t o t h e I s l a m i c , and governmental formal
occasions according t o t h e European C h r i s t i a n system. It has been observed t h a
c e l e b r a t i n g Ahmad's birt- Grpllid) i s linked only t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c a l e n d a r . I
Ahmad's f e s t i v a l s a r e g e n e r w e l d around t h e i r s t half o f October ( a f t e r t h e
c o t t o n h a r v e s t ) and around A p r i l (aft- wheat and bean h a r v e s t ) ; a t h i r d and
l e s s e r f e s t i v a l i s held on 17 o r 18 January but seems t o have diminished.

A number of s c h o l a r s consider a b e l i e f i n t r e e s , w e l l s , and animals t o be a s u r v i v a l

from a n c i e n t r e l i g i o u s systems .I2 The e f f e c t of a n c i e n t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , however,
seems t o have been much g r e a t e r than merely i s o l a t e d concepts, p r a c t i c e s , and
calendar f e s t i v a l s . We may propose here t h a t i n Tandata t h e c u l t of Ahmad El-Badawi
was transformed from t h a t of a S u f i f a k i r t o a c u l t of an Ancient Egyptian d e i t y .
This transformation involved Ahmad's p h y s i c a l appearance and f u n c t i o n s , a s w e l l a s
his overall character.

Early sources d e s c r i b e Ahmad a s f o l l o w s : "He was t h i c k legged, long armed, l a r g e

f a c e d , black eyed, t a l l , wheat colored [ i . e . , coppertone s k i n ] . There were t h r e e
smallpox marks on h i s f a c e , one on h i s r i g h t cheek and two on t h e l e f t . His nose
was a q u i l i n e . It had two moles on it--one on each s i d e ; each [mole] was s m a l l e r
than a l i n t i l e seed. Between h i s eyes was a r a z o r - b l a d e wound caused by t h e son
of h i s b r o t h e r al-Husayn ...
while he was i n Mecca and s t i l l young ."I3 ..
Another source d e s c r i b e s Ahmad a s having " t h i n s k i n , s t r a i g h t s l e n d e r f l e s h and a
l e a n body. "14

Early ' h i s t o r i c a l ' r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n t h e manner of t h e a u s t e r e S u f i s , Ahmad

a t e very l i t t l e . He spent a g r e a t d e a l of h i s S u f i l i f e on t h e t o p of t h e house
i n a t r a n c e , j u s t s t a r i n g a t t h e heavens. He spoke s p a r i n g l y , laughed o r f r o l i c k e d
r a r e l y , and c e r t a i n l y d i d not p a r t i c i p a t e i n e i t h e r one of t h e two major wars:
a g a i n s t t h e Mongols i n t h e e a s t and a g a i n s t t h e c r u s a d e r s i n Egypt i t s e l f .

With t h e exception of t h e a l l e g e d b a t t l e with Bint B i r r y (which i s r e p o r t e d t o have

taken p l a c e before h i s a c t u a l s a i n t h o o d ) , e a r l y accounts a g r e e on t h e s e g e n e r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . According t o f o l k b e l i e f , however, Ahmad combines a number of
r o l e s found i n a n c i e n t Egyptian r e l i g i o n . As one of t h e f o u r "Axes," he i s b e l i e v e d
t o c a r r y t h e world. A c o u n t e r p a r t f o r t h i s b e l i e f i s found i n t h e a n c i e n t Egyptian
b e l i e f i n f o u r gods, t h e sons of Horus, supporting t h e l e g s and arms of Nut, t h e heavens.15
Ahmad's physical characteristics are depicted in oral lore as follows: a dwarf with
a huge mouth and belly, a scabby head usually covered with a long conical cap,
a joker, a military war lord, a helper, and an avenger. None of these traits
(except the last two, which are normally assigned to any saint) are congruent with
Ahmad's image portrayed in historical reports.

"He is usually depicted in the form of a dwarf with a huge bearded head, protruding
tongue . . . long but thick arms and bowed legs . .. on his head he wears a tiara
of feathers . . . [he is] a god of music and the dance; he is a god of war and
.
slaughter, and . . a destroying force of nature. . ."I6 This is not a description
of Ahmad as he appears in our text, but of the ancient Egyptian god Bes, also of
foreign descent. Budge states that ". .. Bes is certainly ~frican."l'l In other
folk accounts of Ahmad, he is said, among other things, to control the wind and
help in childbirth. These functions were also assigned to Bes in Ancient Egypt.
Veronica Ions wrote that Bes ". . . was enthusiastically adopted by the common
people and became one of the most popular deities ... Though sometimes portrayed
in military dress as slayer of his worshippers1 enemies, he was primarily a god
of good humor and of merrymaking."I8 Similarly, Wallis Budge wondered: "It
is difficult to understand the change of view on the part of the Egyptians which
turned the god of mirth, and laughter, and pleasure into an avenging deity, but
it may be explained by assuming that he only exhibited his terror and ferocity
to the wicked, while to the good in the Underworld he was a true friend and merry
companion."19

We may ask the same question about Ahmad El-Badawi, who underwent a similar process
of transformation in his physical appearance, roles and character. The answer may
be found in the political and psychological conditions of Ahmad1s era.

Mysticism and Escape from Reality

As mentioned earlier, the cult of El-Sayyid Ahmad El-Badawi is embedded in Sufi

folk philosophy and practices. On the whole, formal Moslem orthodoxy (Sunni Islam)
opposes such cults and most of their mystic doctrines and rituals.20 It is often
argued that mysticism (Sufism) is connected in varying degrees with early
Christianity. The Roman persecution of the first Christians led to their dispersion
and the establishment of monasteries in remote parts of Egypt during the 3rd and
4th centuries A.D. A number of writers also advance the idea that the Shiite
sect of Islam resorted to mysticism after its defeat and persecution at the hands
of the 0 m a ~ ~ a d s . ~Sufi
1 philosophy seems to have acquired early strength among
Moslems in North Africa (the stage for Ahmad's birth and early childhood), which
served as a refuge area for a number of "oppressed" groups.
The defeat of Sunni Moslems in the crusades and the establishment of Christian
European colonies in various parts of Moslem lands also enforced the drive towards
repentance and return to early austere and pious ways of life. In other parts of
the Moslem state, especially in the east, austere Sufi trends developed on a
limited scale. In that area Sufism seemed to be an extreme reaction against the
extravagant life style which characterized Moslem countries during their political
and economic peak (8th and 9th centuries A.D.). It is worth noting, however,
that both the luxurious and the austere extremes are against Sunni Islamic teachings.
The Mongols ( r e f e r r e d t o by a prominent Moslem h i s t o r i a n a s "the i n f i d e l enemy,"
"see v e r s e no. 64:'22 and t h e c r u s a d e r s ( r e f e r r e d t o by t h e same h i s t o r i a n a s " t h e
Euro ean enemy,"rsee v e r s e s no. 118-119,"have occupied v a s t s t r e t c h e s of Moslem
land:, where numerous massacres were r e p o r t e d . 23 The c r u s a d e r s advanced deeply i n t o
t h e Nile Delta. I n Egypt Sufism seems t o have developed under t h e s e adverse
c o n d i t i o n s . I n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s , however, S u f i philosophy d i d n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e
l i f e o f Egyptians i n any major way. It was only during t h e e r a of t h e Mameluks (1250-
1517 A.D.) t h a t Sufism acquired s t r e n g t h and became widespread.

The new group r u l i n g Egypt, t h e Mameluks, added t o t h e Egyptians' s e n s e of t o t a l

d e f e a t and h e l p l e s s n e s s ; f o r "In s p i t e of t h e i r having embraced Islam, and of t h e i r
e f f o r t s i n defending t h e Islamic homeland, t h e b i t t e r f a c t which was d i f f i c u l t f o r
Egyptians t o ignore e a s i l y is t h a t t h e Mameluks were f o r e i g n e r s ...
and t h a t a t
one time they were s l a v e s and t h a t they r u l e d Egypt a s a haughty a r i s t o c r a c y ...
[which] p r o h i b i t e d n a t i v e Egyptians from even r i d i n g horses."2k

Among such vanquished masses, S u f i t e a c h i n g s and f a n t a s i e s found f e r t i l e s o i l f o r

t h e i r development i n t o c u l t s . Generally speaking, Sufi philosophy and r i t u a l s
and S u f i brotherhoods a r e opposed by formal r e l i g i o n , y e t they n o t only continue
t o e x i s t , but t o prosper and expand.

Narrative Poetry; a F o l k l o r i c Genre

Narrative p o e t r y i s almost t o t a l l y l a c k i n g i n c l a s s i c a l ( l e a r n e d o r academic)

Arabic l i t e r a t u r e , including t h a t of Egypt. A number o f s t o r i e s t o l d e x c l u s i v e l y
i n p o e t i c format, however, a r e found i n t h e contemporary f o l k c u l t u r e of Egypt.
One of t h e s e genres i s t h e s e e r a h , i . e . , epic-romance, whichcombines p o e t r y w i t h
prose i n t e r m i t t e n t l y .z5

The s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r n a r r a t i v e f o l k p o e t r y (excluding t h e s e e r a h ) is divided

evenly between t h e r e l i g i o u s , a s i s t h e c a s e without p r e s e n t t e x t , and t h e local,
socia1,and h i s t o r i c a l . A number of n a r r a t i v e s included i n t h e f i r s t category of
b e l i e f n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y may be viewed a s e p i c s . 2 6 This t y p e of n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y
i s simply c a l l e d a, i . e . , a s e r i o u s s t o r y . Meanwhile, t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e
s t o r i e s i n t h e second category of e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n s may be
viewed a s b a l l a d s with "true" ( h i s t o r i c a l , legendary) c o n t e n t s . A s t o r y which
belongs t o t h i s type is normally c a l l e d a mawwal, i . e . , a s o n & o r a hadthah, i . e . ,
a t r u e event. 27

Enno Littmann c a l l e d h i s v a r i a n t of our p r e s e n t t e x t a "Lied," i . e . , song. C l e a r l y

influenced by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Babylonian Gilgamesh e p i c , Littmann
observed t h a t "Among t h e Arags and t h e Abyssinians, and a l s o perhaps among t h e
Hebrews and t h e Arameans, t h e e p i c of 'hero-legends' [probably meaning accounts about
a demigod] i s expressed i n p r o s e . Only among t h e U g a r i t i c s and Babylonians
were t h e r e t r u e e p i c s whose o r i g i n is perhaps due t o f o r e i g n i n f l ~ e n c e . " ~ ~
S i m i l a r l y William Kelly Simpson, i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The L i t e r a t u r e of Ancient
m,. . ."
drama
s t a t e s t h a t "The [formal] c u l t u r e of Egypt was not expressed i n e p i c s o r
29

I n its p r e s e n t purely p o e t i c n a r r a t i v e form our t e x t seems t o have been formulated i n

f o l k c i r c l e s a f t e r t h e 1 5 t h century. This view is supported by t h e f a c t t h a t
e a r l i e r accounts were given e i t h e r a s a rhymed p r o s e n a r r a t i v e o r a c l a s s i c a l l y r i c
poem which a l l u d e d t o n a r r a t i v e e v e n t s . Combining t h e s e two forms without merging
them i s a b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e seerah (epic-romance) such a s t h o s e d e a l i n g
with 'Aantar and Abu-zaid.

Eastern and Western Exchange

The period of t h e Crusaders was one of m i l i t a r y c o n f l i c t between Middle E a s t e r n

Moslems and European C h r i s t i a n s , y e t i t s impact on t h e c u l t u r e s of t h e two
peoples was major. C u l t u r a l exchanges during t h e crusades, a s w e l l a s during
s i m i l a r p e r i o d s surrounding i t , l e f t a v a s t legacy of new a c q u i s i t i o n s among
members of both camps.

Of p a r t i c u l a r importance t o our p r e s e n t s t u d y i s t h e movement o f legendary

narratives. A number of s t u d e n t s o f European and Middle Eastern c u l t u r e s have
pointed o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e of Islamic s t o r i e s e x e r c i s e d on Byzantine and Medieval
Eyropean ro%ances such a s Aucass. Among t h e s e we may p o i n t o u t Henri G r e g o i r e ' s
"Exchanges Epique Arabo-Grec S h a r k a n - C h a r ~ a n i s ; ~ Henri
~ Gregoire and Roger
Gossens, Byzantinisches Epos und a r a b i s c h e r ~ i t t e r r o m a n "and ~ ~ Smuel S i n g e r ' s
Arabische und Europaische Poesie i m M i t t e l a l t e r . j 3

Littmann p o i n t s o u t t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e c u l t o f "Ahmed el-Bedawi" and

i t s C h r i s t i a n European c ~ u n t e r p a r t s . ~He~ draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t Ahmad's
f i r s t f e s t i v a l was held during t h e 1 7 t h and 1 8 t h of January contemporaneously w i t h
t h e C h r i s t i a n Epiphany. Littmann f i n d s s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s between Ahmad's l i f e
h i s t o r y and t h a t of S a i n t Nikolaus b e g r i n u s , a s o u t l i n e d i n Heinrich Gunter's
-
Die C h r i s t l i c h e Legende des Abandlandes (1910) and s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a number of
s p o t s t h e ~ h r i s t i a n l e n i s t i cconcepts were s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d with

-
1 5 t h Century Variant of t h e B a t t l e

Some p r i n t e d sources r e p o r t t h a t during Ahmad's t r i p t o I r a q , Axis al-RifaAi v i s i t e d

him i n a manim and t o l d him about Fatma Bint B i r r y (compare v e r s e s no. 27-35); he
a l s o a d v i s e d i m t h a t he, Ahmad, was t h e only one t h a t could d e f e a t h e r .35 Ahmad
asked h i s b r o t h e r Hasan t o j o i n him i n h i s t r i p t o t h e n o r t h , but Hasan decided t o
r e t u r n t o h i s family i n s t e a d . Ahmad t r a v e l l e d t o Fatma Bint B i r r y ' s v a l l e y ( a p p a r e n t l y
i n northern I r a q ) . The s t o r y i s r e p o r t e d a s an account by Ahmad himself; i t s main
events a r e a s follows:

Ahmad pretended t o be dumb and mute ( c f . v e r s e no. 1 3 3 ) . Fatma had 2,000 g i r l s

whom she had i n s t r u c t e d t o b r i n g t o h e r any s t r a n g e r who might appear i n t h e a r e a .
When Ahmad was taken t o her she recognized h i s i d e n t i t y and asked him i f he had come
t o seek revenge f o r all t h e men whom s h e had ' f a s c i n a t e d ' (compare v e r s e no. 34,
236 and 346). She asked him t o marry h e r i n s t e a d ( s e e v e r s e s no. 333-336). Fatma
began showing her beauty t o Ahmad ( s e e v e r s e s no. 292-299); he, however, thought:
"Fama, t h i s i s something t h a t does not concern me o r [even] occur t o my mind." He
remained s i l e n t . She was f i n a l l y convinced t h a t he was not Ahmad, whom she had
seen i n a dream ( s e e v e r s e s no. 123-124).
Fatma's deputy, a good man named Ahmad a l - ' A i r a q i ( i . e . , t h e I r a q i ) suggested t h a t
t h e s t r a n g e r be h i r e d a s a camel herder and communicated t h i s i d e a t o Ahmad; he agreed.
The 7,000 camels managed themselves ( c f . v e r s e no. 1 8 0 ) ; however, on t h e seventh
day Ahmad decided t h a t it was time t o t a k e i s s u e with Fatma. He ordered t h e camels,
"with God's permission," t o d i e and took a handful of a i r and s a i d ". . .
t o the
h e a r t of Fatma Bint B i r r y ; come t o me!" ( c f . v e r s e s no. 124-129).

Fatma was r e p o r t e d t o have been a s i f ". . . s t r u c k by a thunderbolt." She

rode her h o r s e , b u t t h e horse r e f u s e d t o move except i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e
camels. Fatma t r a v e l l e d while surrounded by "people, f a k i r s , d e p u t i e s . . ., while
t h e head deputy t a l k e d t o h e r ... " He asked her t o pray t o God t h a t t h e deaf-
mute s t r a n g e r would r e g a i n h i s l o s t s e n s e s . She answered him, "If he i s my
adversary, Ahmad, we w i l l r e a c h him t o f i n d t h a t he can [ a c t u a l l y ] hear and t a l k . "

The deputy s i g n a l e d Ahmad t h a t Fatma came t o s e e him. "Fatma dipped i n t o t h e

a i r with her hand; a f i l l e d cup was i n her hand." She s i g n a l e d Ahmad t o t a k e
t h e cup; he splashed i t s c o n t e n t s i n t o t h e a i r and caused Fatma and h e r horse t o
s i n k i n t o t h e ground a s f a r a s "the p u p i l s of h e r eyes" ( s e e v e r s e s no. 323-324).

Fatma shouted f o r help and c a l l e d t h e c l a n of B i r r y and t h e c l a n of Na'Aeem.

Fearing d e a t h , Ahmad l i f t e d up t h e t a i l s of h l s robe, r o l l e d up h i s s l e e v e s , and
c a l l e d , "0, Family of [prophet] Mohammad, 0 , Family of ' A a l i , 0 ... " (see
v e r s e s no. 311-317). Immediately, " ... t h e Knights of Najd and I r a q came . .
from every s i d e ... I t was a day w i t h a g r e a t [ b a t t l e ] d u s t , l i k e a s e a
with t u r b u l e n t waves. When t h e c l a n of B i r r y and t h e c l a n of Na'Aeem saw ...
[ t h a t ] , they could not endure. They turned t h e i r backs and f l e d " (compare with
v e r s e s no. 254-290 and 318-325). They asked f o r f o r g i v e n e s s . The Knights of
Najd and I r a q t o l d Ahmad "We wouldn't h u r t whoever i s named Fatma f o r t h e sake
o f your grandmother Fatma a l - z a h r a t h e daughter o f God's Prophet ... Forgive
Fatma, Ahmad" ( s e e v e r s e s no. 348-3L)9).

Ahmad decided t o f a r g i v e her on t h e c o n d i t i o n s " ... t h a t she would not r e t u r n

t o molest any o f t h e men with means [ i . e . , S u f i s ] , l i v e ... on her o r i g i n a l
capital, ... " Fatma agreed and asked t o be administered t h e ' o a t h ' a s a
follower of Ahmad ( s e e v e r s e s no. 352-353), and chanted a l y r i c poem which
d e s c r i b e s her e n t i r e encounter with Ahmad.

Fatma's aseedah i s i n grammatical, c l a s s i c a l Arabic; l i k e Ahmad's account it i s

given ingthe f i r s t person.36 It is composed of 56 v e r s e s and i s s t r o p h i c . The
e n t i r e poem i s without doubt t h e composition of a learned p o e t ; none
of t h e
v e r s e s i n her poem appear i n t h e f o l k r e n d i t i o n o f t h e s t o r y .

The P r e s e n t Text

The p r e s e n t t e x t was recorded i n June 1972. The source i s a j a n i t o r named

Shakir, who worked i n a governmental o f f i c e i n Cairo. He was about f o r t y - f i v e
a t t h e time of c o l l e c t i o n . Shakir i s l i t e r a t e ; he had a few y e a r s of v i l l a g e
r e l i g i o u s elementary education. He used t o be a shaykh (shaman) i n h i s home
v i l l a g e i n moddle upper Egypt u n t i l 1960, when he moved t o Cairo with a n "important
man" whom he had "cured." The important person o f f e r e d Shakir a job i n Cairo.
Shakir accepted on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t it should not be arduous, and explained,
"I am not used t o t i r i n g work." He l e a r n e d t h e poem i n h i s v i l l a g e i n middle
upper Egypt and had not heard it s i n c e he moved t o t h e c i t y twelve y e a r s before
t h e recording took p l a c e .

During an i n t e r v i e w with a number of informants about s a i n t s ' miraculous manifesta-

t i o n s , t h e t o p i c of t h e f o u r axes who support t h e e a r t h came up.37 One n a r r a t o r
named Husain, e v i d e n t l y c o r r e l a t i n g t h e words "El-Sayyid" and "World" with t h e
. . ."
c o n t e n t s of t h e s t o r y , s t a t e d , "The b a s i s f o r t h i s [ b e l i e f ] i s Shakir
t h e n quoted v e r s e s t h r e e and f o u r e x a c t l y a s t h e y appear i n o u r t e x t . He t h e n
r e c i t e d v e r s e no. 30. Evidently being unable t o continue w i t h t h e poem, he
began t o paraphrase and e x p l a i n t h e s t o r y and used one v e r s e which i s a combination
of t h e f i r s t p a r t of v e r s e no. 33 and t h e second of v e r s e no. 34: "While i n t h e
u n i v e r s e a l a s s appeared who has taken away t h e 'Drinks' of t h e pious ones!"

Shakir r e a c t e d "No: No!" He then proceeded t o r e c i t e s t a r t i n g with v e r s e s no. 3 1

and 32 which Husain had l e f t o u t and continued w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e s t o r y . S h a k i r
spoke f a s t ; it was c l e a r t h a t he had memorized t h e t e x t . 3 8 He l a t e r s t a t e d , "I
heard it and r e a d it i n abook[let]which I have." The published t e x t which Shakir
was r e f e r r i n g t o a p p e a r s i n a sixteen-page booklet and c o n t a i n s 351 v e r s e s ; it
is sold i n f o l k q u a r t e r s f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t e n c e n t s .

I n s p i t e of i t s p r i n t e d c h a r a c t e r , t h e published v a r i a n t 5 of f o l k o r a l t r a d i t i o n a l
n a t u r e . I t belongs t o a c y c l e o f v e r s i f i e d s t o r i e s which c o n s t i t u t e a major
segment of t h e a r t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l mdddabeen ( p r a i s e r s , s i n g . madddh). A
madddh, u n l i k e t h e s h a ' A i r ( p o e t ) who performs t h e epic-romance, s p e c i a l i z e s i n
r e l i g i o u s p o e t r y and s i n g s t o t h e accompaniment of musical instruments which a r e
n o t used by t h e Sha'Air. A m e i s considered, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, a
s o r t of beggar and i s so t r e a t e d i n f o l k communities; v e r s e no. 1 3 i l l u s t r a t e s
t h e s t a t u s of t h e p r a i s e r . (Recent p o p u l a r i z a t i o n movements a r e changing t h i s
view of t h e s . 1 Littmann's composite v a r i a n t was d i c t a t e d i n 1912 by
a b l i n d beggar who had learned it e a r l i e r from t h e head of h i s ' g u i l d ' ; it
c o n t a i n s 359 v e r s e s .40

Shakir s t a t e d t h a t c e r t a i n p a r t s of t h e poem a r e a l s o used i n e,

a Sufi r i t u a l
which combines b o d i l y movement w i t h chant and drum b e a t s . He chanted v e r s e s 1
through 16 a s an example of t h e p o r t i o n s which a r e used i n he e;
stated
"I was not a [ l e a d ] c h a n t e r but w e s I stood a s a raddad [chorus] ."
During h i s r e c i t a t i o n Shakir was i n t e r r u p t e d r e p e a t e d l y . His f i r s t performance
of t h i s t e x t was r e l a t i v e l y s p o t t y , y e t it contained = t h e e v e n t s given i n
t h e p r i n t e d t e x t i n t h e i r e x a c t sequence.41 Husain, f o r example, i n t e r r u p t e d
f r e q u e n t l y and suggested t h a t an event should be introduced a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t ;
Shakir d i s a g r e e d . I n a l l c a s e s Shakir proved c o r r e c t , according t o both t h e
p r i n t e d t e x t and t o Husain, who l a t e r agreed with S h a k i r ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Under r e l a t i v e l y adverse c o n d i t i o n s S h a k i r ' s r e n d i t i o n was f a i r l y a c c u r a t e .

Taking t h e p r i n t e d t e x t a s a b a s i s f o r comparison, Shakir s t a r t e d from v e r s e no. 30;
i n t h i s r e s p e c t he was motivated by Husain's attempt t o t e l l t h e s t o r y . Of t h e
remaining 321 v e r s e s he presented 208; 64.8 p e r c e n t of what he had l e a r n e d
and read s e v e r a l y e a r s e a r l i e r .

A t f i r s t S h a k i r ' s performance ( r e c a l l ) was s l i g h t l y s p o t t y ; f o r example, t h e

v e r s e s from nos. 31 t o 61 went a s f o l l o w s : 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40,
41, 42, 42, 44, 46, 47 ( ~ a r a p h r a s e d ) ,50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62.
The e f f i c i e n c y of S h a k i r ' s verbatim r e c a l l declined towards t h e end. He tended t o
paraphrase o r n a r r a t e i n p r o s e and used p o e t r y only s p o r a d i c a l l y . Verses 232 t o 262
went a s follows: 232, 236, 237, 239, 240, 268.

A f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e of t h e f o u r o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s , I asked Shakir t o r e p e a t t h e
poem f o r me. He asked f o r a l i t t l e r e s t and seemed t o be occupied f o r about t e n
minutes.

The second r e n d i t i o n proved t o be v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e p r i n t e d t e x t . It

was given without h e s i t a t i o n s , e x p l a n a t i o n s and, most of a l l , without being
i n t e r r u p t e d . With h i s eyes h a l f - c l o s e d , n o t focussing h i s s i g h t on any s p e c i f i c
o b j e c t , frowning o r c l o s i n g h i s eyes and shaking h i s head o c c a s i o n a l l y , Shakir
f i r e d o f f t h e poem i n 355 v e r s e s . Four v e r s e s which a r e not included i n t h e
p r i n t e d t e x t appear i n S h a k i r ' s second r e n d i t i o n ; t h e s e a r e v e r s e s no. 5, 258, 322,
and 353. Only v e r s e no. 353 adds a s i g n i f i c a n t component t o t h e s t o r y . Verses 4
and 5 e x i s t i n o r a l t r a d i t i o n a s t r u i s m s . The p r i n t e d t e x t combines t h e f i r s t
p a r t of v e r s e no. 4 with t h e second p a r t of v e r s e no. 5 i n t o one v e r s e . Both
S h a k i r ' s two r e n d i t i o n s and Husain's p o r t i o n include v e r s e s 4 and 5 a s s e p a r a t e
u n i t s ; i n t h i s r e s p e c t they a r e i n agreement with t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n a l truism.

Verse 292 of t h e p r e s e n t t e x t appears between v e r s e s 296 and 298 ( v e r s e no. 297)

i n t h e printed t e x t .

Other minor v a r i a t i o n s between S h a k i r ' s r e n d i t i o n and t h e p r i n t e d t e x t appear f r e q u e n t l y .

A l l t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e , however, l i m i t e d t o :

( 1 ) change i n t h e t e n s e from t h e ' p a s t continuousf dialogue t o ' p r e s e n t

continuous' dialogue:

( 2 ) u s e of a d j e c t i v e s ; i n v e r s e no. 53, f o r example, t h e word "nadeem"

(etymologically c o r r e c t b u t an ungrammatical form f o r "nadim," i . e . ,
r e p e n t f u l l appeared f i r s t a s " ' ~ a d ~ e m ,i '. e . , d e s t i t u t e o r u t t e r l y
stripped. In a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t , Shakir had explained, "'Nadeem' o r
'Aadeem' o r 'adeem' ( i . e . , worn o u t ) t h e y a r e a l l t h e same"; and

( 3 ) use of names and p r a i s e and nicknames.

Ahmad may be r e f e r r e d t o a s El-Sayyid, "the Badawi," the1Aisawite, Abu-Farrag,

t h e Bringer-of-the-Captive; t h e Bringer-of-the-She-Captive, t h e Bringer-of-
the-Captives; t h e One-with-the-Long-Reach and t h e Prince. Other t i t l e s such a s
t h e S i l e n t One and t h e One-Who-is-Angry [on behalf of t h e t r u t h ] , appear elsewhere.

Prophet Mohammad may be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e Honest One, t h e Beloved One, t h e

One-with-the-Glowing-Forehead, t h e S e a l of [God's] Messengers, t h e Tuhamite o r
t h e One-Who-Guaranteed-the-Gazelle, among o t h e r nicknames.

Apart from t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s , S h a k i r ' s o r a l r e n d i t i o n and t h e p r i n t e d t e x t a r e

identichl .
This f o l k poem, however, i m i t a t e s t h e l i t e r a r y e l i t e format of t h e c l a s s i c a l
Arabic Qaseedah, a f a c t which suggests t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s a i n t ' s legend was
v e r s i f i e d through a l i t e r a t e source. Unlike most f o l k p o e t r y , which is s t a n z a i c ,
our p r e s e n t t e x t i s s t r o p h i c ; i t s f i r s t two v e r s e s use c o r r e c t prosody and a r e
d e s i n e n t l y i n f l e c t i v e . They a l s o use t h e l i t e r a r y p o e t i c device c a l l e d t a s r e e l A ,
i . e . , t h e dipods of t h e f i r s t v e r s e i n a poem use t h e same end rhyme. AY
example of t a s r e e l A i s :
 (1) ' ~ a l d ~ ktwdkkdltu
a y a mAwl$lmawali/wa'anta waseelati f i k i l l l - h i

(2) f a 'idha samahtani wa g h a f a r t a dh:nbi/fala khawfun ' ~ a l d y y awala IubZli

The r e s t of t h e poem is formulated i n a d i f f e r e n t meter and end rhyme. I n many

i n s t a n c e s , t h e rhyme i s imperfect ( s l a n t rhyme). The language i s t y p i c a l l y t h a t of
f o l k and common speech used i n r u r a l a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y among S u f i groups. Much
of t h e jargon of mysticism, v e r b a l formulas, t y p i c a l t r a d i t i o n a l imagery (mental
o r i n t e l l e c t u a l formulas) and n a r r a t i v e episodes and m o t i f s appear i n t h e poem.

Notes

1. The complete t e x t of t h i s e p i c was published w i t h brief introductory note

-
F o l k l o- 9(1976): 3-4.
r e Forum

2. I n t h e i r Concise Encyclo a e d i a of Arabic C i v i l i z a t i o n : The Arab East (Djambatan:

Amsterdam, 19661, p. 76, S t e i h a n a n r ~ m o n a r rte p o r t e r r G o G Ahmad
died i n t h e year 1258.

3. One of t h e s e v e r s i f i e d n a r r a t i v e s r e l a t e s t h e b i r t h of Ahmad, h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l
q u a l i t i e s a s an i n f a n t , and some of h i s 'miraculous' accomplishments i n h i s a d u l t
l i f e . The second n a r r a t i v e d e a l s with how Ahmad rescued a woman named Khadra " a l -
Shareefah," who was captured by t h e c r u s a d e r s .

A n a r r a t i v e account of t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e axes appears i n Hasan El-Shamy's F o l k t a l e s

of
- a, no. 33 (forthcoming i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s s e r i e s of F o l k t a l e s
of t h e World.)

Only one o t h e r Axis besides Ahmad has a v e r s i f i e d n a r r a t i v e which r e v o l v e s around

h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l deeds. He i s Al-Disuqi; h i s s t o r y d e s c r i b e s how when he was s t i l l
a c h i l d , he took h i s mother, then h i s f a t h e r , f o r a t o u r of t h e u n i v e r s e and showed
them Heaven and Hell and t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s .

The scenes, a c t s , v a l u e s , and languages used i n t h e s e poems a r e t y p i c a l of t h e

p e a s a n t r y . See Enno Littmann's d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s m a t t e r i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
h i s t r a n s l a t i ? ? of an o r a l r e n d i t i o n of our p r e s e n t s t o r y "Ahmad il-Bedawi, e i n
Lied auf den agyptischen N a t i o n a l h e i l i g e n " Akademie d e r Wissenschaft und d e r
L i t e r a t u r ; G e i s t e s und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Mainz (Wiesbaden: 1950,
no. 3 ) , pp. 50-123; a l s o i s s u e d a s an independent book, pp. 1-73; s e e pp. 61-62 and
Footnotes nos. 6 and 8 , pp. 122-123.

4. For a b i b l i o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b a s i c sources on Ahmad s e e Karl

V o l l e r s ' "Ahmed al-Badawi, s i d i , " i n Encyclopaedia of Islam, v o l . I (Leyden: B r i l l ,
1913) pp. 192-195, e s p e c i a l l y p. 195. See a l s o SatAeed 'A. 'Aashour's Al-Sayyid
Ahmad al-Badawi: Shaykh wa t a r e e ah (Al-Sayyid Ahmad al-Badawi: A Sheikh and
[ h i s S u f i ] o r g a n i z a t i o n ) ~ a 2 r o :'a1-Dar al-Misriyyah, n.d. ( p r e f a c e d a t e d 1966),
e s p e c i a l l y p. 40.

5 . Zayn al-Din 'Aabd al-Samad ( f l . 1494) i n h i s Al-Jawahir al-Saniyyah ( C a i r o :

1860) pp. 62-67; a l s o i n Hasan al-Khafagi, al-Nafahat al-Abmadiyyah ( C a i r o : 1321
A.H.), pp. 245.
6. Al-Sayyid Ahmad al-Badawi ...
7. Formal r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e s d i d a c t u a l l y t r y t o s t o p t h e c u l t of Ahmad from expand-
i n g . However, a s w r i t i n g s sympathetic t o Ahmad i n d i c a t e , t h e s e a t t e m p t s f a i l e d .
See 'Aashour, pp. 125-132.

8. 'Aashour, p. 102. The w r i t i n g s of 'Aabd al-Wahhab Al-Sha'Aarani (1493-1565) i n

p a r t i c u l a r seem t o have c o n t r i b u t e d t h e l a r g e s t s h a r e of Ahmad's r e c o r d e d m i r a c u l o u s
manifestations. 'Aashour, p. 106-114, t r a c e s s e v e r a l e r r o n e o u s h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t s ,
i n which r u l e r s a l l e g e d l y p a i d homage t o Ahmad, t o ShatAaran?s w r i t i n g s , p . 138;
a l s o V o l l e r s , p . 194 ( V o l l e r s , it should be p o i n t e d o u t , mistook Al-Sha'Aarani's
name t o be t h e more common one "al-Sha'rawi"), p o i n t s o u t t h a t Al-Sha'Aarani was
one of Ahmad's " g r e a t e s t worshippers." For a b i o g r a p h i c s t a t e m e n t on Sha'Aarani,
whose t h o u g h t s on o t h e r s o c i a l m a t t e r s were s u n p r i s i n g l y p r o g r e s s i v e , s e e Concise
Encyclopaedia ... v o l . I, pp. 482-483.

9. See Ahmad Ameen, A D i c t i o n a r of E g t i a n Customs, T r a d i t i o n s and

Expressions
( A r a b i c ) , C a i r o : 195x, p. 388; :i~manz:"Ahmad , . ."
p . 55. See a l s o Ignaz
G o l d z i h e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n on "Die Heiligenverehrung i n Islam," i n h i s Muhammedanische
S t u d i e n , v o l . 2 (Hildesheim: Olms, 19611, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 336-343; and V o l l e r s ,
p . 194.

10. See Edward W. Lane's The Manners and Customs of t h e Modern Eg t i a n s , w r i t t e n

i n Egypt d u r i n g t h e y e a r s T 3 m ( E d n r T ~ k ~ o * pp. 198-200.

11. Lane, p. 220; Littmann, "Ahmad ... " p . 55; V o l l e r s , p . 194; 'Aashour, pp.
275-276.

1 2 . See Lane, pp. 222-223 and p . 225; s e e a l s o Winifred S. Black-nan's "Sacred T r e e s

i n Modern Egypt ," J o u r n a l of Egyptian Archeology, v o l . I1 (London, 1925), pp. 56-57.

13. 'Aabd al-Samad, Al-mwahir, pp. 14-15; s e e a l s o V o l l e r s , p . 193.

14. Al-Khafagi, Al-Nafahat, p. 233.

1 5 . E r n e s t A. W . Budge, The Gods of t h e Egy t i a n s , v o l . 2 (LonGn: Methuen,

1904) p. 106; Veronica 1 o E %t~n~yt*iddlesex. Eng.: Hamlyn, 1968),
p . 46.

16. Budge, v o l . 2 , p. 284.

17. Budge, v o l . 2, p. 288.

18. I o n s , p. 111.

19. Budge, v o l . 2, p . 287.

20. For a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y of t h e development of mysticism i n

Islam and it^ r e l a t i o n with o t h e r s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h i e s s e e Ignaz G o l d z i h e r ' s
Vorlesungen ~ e den r Islam (Heidelberg: c . Winter, 1925), e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r 4.

21. See 'Aashour, pp. 25-32.

22. Ibn Al-Atheer ( d . 1234) i n h i s h i s t o r y e n t i t l e d Al-Kamil. For some of Ihn

Al-Atheer's r e p o r t s s e e Anthony N u t t i n g ' s The Arabs (New: Mentor, 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 172
23. For a c o n c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f i r s t and second c r u s a d e s s e e N u t t i n g , pp. 171-192;
s e e a l s o h i s resume' of t h e a c c o u n t s on t h e Mongol m a s s a w e s , pp. 192-204.

24. 'Aashour, p . 36.

25. For a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e bard and t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r h i s performances i n

Egypt d u r i n g t h e 1830s s e e Lane, pp. 359-391.

I n h i s s t u d y ( A r a b i c ) on A l - H i l a l i a i n H i s t o r y and F o l k - L i t e r a t u r e ( C a i r o U n i v e r s i t y ,
1956) 'Aabd El-Hamid Younis a s s e s s z s the-o=ip between p o e t i c and p r o s a i c
p a s s a g e s i n t h e %, s e e pp. 139-140; s e e a l s o p . 9 i n t h e E n g l i s h resumg.

26. Examples of t h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e : "The S t o r y of S a r a h and Abraham," which

a c c o u n t s f o r t h e s a c r e d b e l i e f of Abraham's i n t e n t i o n t o s a c r i f i c e h i s son Isma'Aeel
( i n t h e I s l a m i c v e r s i o n ) and t h e consequent emergence of t h e Arabs; t h e "Story
of Maryam (Mary)" which a c c o u n t s f o r s a c r e d Moslem b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e b i r t h o f C h r i s t .
I n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f "Beggars" i n Egypt, pp. 299-300, Lane o n l y a l l u d e s t o t h e i r
a r t of "Chanting v e r s e s i n p r a i s e of t h e Prophet ..
." It i s i n t h i s c o n t e x t
of s a c r e d a c c o u n t s and f i g u r e s t h a t Enno Littmann u s e s t h e term "epos;" s e e h i s
work on Mohammed i n Volksepos (Copenhagen, 1 9 5 0 ) ; s e e a l s o t h e d a t a r e l a t e d t o n o t e
no. 28 i n t h i s e s s a y .

27. A r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number of s e c u l a r n a r r a t i v e f o l k songs a r e found i n Egypt.

A l l account f o r a c t u a l e v e n t s of c o n s i d e r a b l e importance f o r f o l k communities.
Among t h e s e a r e : "Al-adham El-Sharqawi," a s t o r y of an Egyptian o u t l a w w i t h Robin
Hood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; "Hasan and Na'Aeema," a s t o r y which a c c o u n t s f o r t h e murder
of a s i n g e r who d a r e d t o f 3 l l i n l o v e w i t h a g i r l from a n o t a b l e f a m i l y ; "Shafeeqa
and M i t w a l l i , " a s t o r y which t e l l s how a b r o t h e r k i l l e d h i s s i s t e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e
f a m i l y honor. P o l i t i c a l themes a r e a l s o t r e a t e d i n t h e n a r r a t i v e mawwal; one s u c h
song a c c o u n t s f o r t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n of t h e Egyptian Prime M i n i s t e r B u t r u s G h a l i
i n 1910 and p r o v i d e s p o l i t i c a l and economic c a u s e s f o r t h e a c t .

28. Littmann, "Ahmad . . ." p . 60; s e e a l s o n o t e no. 27.

29. New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972, p . 2.

30. See n o t e no. 25.

31. Byzantion: Revue I n t e r n a t i o n a l e d e s f t u d e s Byzantines, v o l . 7 ( B r u x e l l e s .

1 9 3 2 ) , pp. 371-382.

32. Z e i t s c h r i f t d e r deutschen morganlandischen G e s e l l s c h a f t , v o l . 88 ( L e i p z i g ,

1 9 3 4 ) , pp. 213, 232. See a l s o t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y t o t h e i r work, pp. 231-232.

33. (Berlin: G . Reimer, 1 9 1 8 ) .

34. L i t t m a n , "Ahmad . . ."

p . 58. See a l s o F r e d e r i c C . Tubach, Index Exemplorum:
A Handbook
---- of Medieval R e l i g i o u s T a l e s , F o l k l o r e Fellows Communications, v o l . 8 6 ,
P

no. 204 ( e l s i n k i , 1969), p . 270, nos. 3468-3473.

35. See n o t e no. 5.

36. 'Aabd Al-Samad, al-Cawahir, pp. 67-69.

37. Five informants were present a t t h e beginning of t h e s e s s i o n . Shakir (our
main source f o r t h e p r e s e n t t e x t ) Husain, and T i l i b , a r e a l l middle-sged men who
came from t h e same a r e a i n Middle Southern Egypt. Two younger informants, one
t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s o l d and t h e o t h e r twenty, were from t h e e a s t e r n province of t h e
Nile Delta; both younger informants had received a few y e a r s of s e c u l a r elementary
schooling .
3 8 . For t h e psychological s i g n i f i c a n c e of "meaningfulness ," " s t r u c t u r e , " " r e p e t i t i o n ,"
and "ego involvement" i n memorization, s e e Hasan El-Shamy's " F o l k l o r i c Behavior: a
theory f o r t h e study of t h e dynamics of t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e , " (Ph.D. d i s s . ,
Indiana U n i v e r s i t y , 1967), pp. 139-176.

39. Events which normally appear i n t h e s t o r y which account f o r Ahmad's b i r t h ,

and o t h e r s which appear i n t h e s t o r y of Ahmad's f r e e i n g of a woman c a p t i v e , a r e
included i n Littmann's -rersion. See v e r s e s 322ff. and 345ff. i n h i s poem.

40. Littmann, "Ahmad . . ." p. 61.

$1. The term "performance"is used h e r e t o i n d i c a t e two c o l l a t e r a l a s p e c t s of

behavior. The f i r s t is what a person does when faced with a " t a s k n ; o r "a p e r s o n a l
a c t i v i t y considered a s producing a result,"which i s t h e 'psychological' d e f i n i t i o n
of "performance." The second i s "the property of a phenomenon by v i r t u e of which
it can be counted o r measured," o r " t h a t a s p e c t of a phenomenon which can be
described i n terms of t h e numerical systemv' which is t h e psychological d e f i n i t i o n
f o r "quantity." The concept of " q u a l i t y , " which i s an a s p e c t of experience
d i f f e r i n g i n =from a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s , " i s i n a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s use of t h e
term Iperformance." The word "performance," t h u s , i s being used h e r e to r e f e r
t o a combination of both t h e psychological terms of "performance" and "quantity."
It should a l s o be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from t h e c u r r e n t f o l k l o r i s t i c usage of t h e word
"performance," which s t a n d s mostly f o r what psychologists would r e f e r t o a s q u a l i t y .
See Horace B . English and Ava English, 5 Com rehensive Dictionar of Ps c h o l o g i c a l
Psychoanalytical Terms (David HcCoy: Ne; York, 1 9 6 4 9 7 4 3 4 !