Ch.

Displacement, Velocity and

Acceleration Sensors

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 All types of Displacement Sensors
• Resistive Displacement Sensors
• Inductive Displacement Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors—Displacement
• Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors
• Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors
• Magnetic Displacement Sensors
• Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors
• Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors

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Resistive Displacement Sensors
• Commonly termed potentiometers or “pots”.

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Resistive Displacement Sensors
• An electrically conductive wiper that slides
against a fixed resistive element.
• To measure displacement, a
potentiometer is typically wired in a
“voltage divider” configuration.
• The circuit’s output, a function of the
wiper’s position, is an analog voltage
available for direct use or digitization.

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Resistive Displacement Sensors

• (a) A potentiometer is used as a variable voltage divider. RP is the

total resistance of the potentiometer, RL is the load resistance, Vr is
the reference or supply voltage, and V0 is the output voltage. (b) An
ideal linear output function. xP is the maximum position of the wiper.
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Resistive Displacement Sensors
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to use Limited bandwidth
Low cost Frictional loading
High-amplitude output Inertial loading
signal
Proven technology Wear

Passive

Fundamental Potentiometer Characteristics 6

Resistive Displacement Sensors
• Precision Potentiometers are available in
rotary, linear-motion, and string
potentiometer forms.
• Resistive element can be classified as
either wirewound, or nonwirewound.

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 Resistive Displacement Sensors
Conductive plastic Wirewound Hybrid
Resolution Infinitesimal Quantized Infinitesimal
Power rating Low High Low
Temperature Poor Excellent Very good
stability
Noise Very low Low, but degrades with Low
time
Life 10 6 ~ 108 cycles 10 5 ~ 10 6 cycles 10 6 ~ 10 7 cycles

Characteristics of Conductive Plastic, Wirewound, and Hybrid

Resistive Elements

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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Electrical Characteristics
• Before selecting a potentiometer and
integrating it into a measurement system,
some electrical characteristics should be
considered.
• Terminals and taps
• Taper
• Electrical Travel
• Linearity
• Electrical Loading
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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Electrical Characteristics

• Independent linearity is the maximum amount by which the actual

output function deviates from a line of best fit.
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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Mechanical Characteristics
• Mechanical characteristics may also influence
measurement quality and system reliability.
• Mechanical Loading
• Mechanical Travel
• Operating Temperature
• Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration
• Speed
• Contamination and Seals
• Misalignment
• Lifetime of potentiometer

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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Mechanical Mounting Methods

• 2 common rotary potentiometer mounts: (a) bushing mount

(b) servo mount
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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Mechanical Techniques

• (a) belts and pulleys, (b)

rack-and-pinions, (c)
lead-screws, (d) cabled
drums, (e) cams, (f)
bevel gears, (g) spur
gears

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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Implementation
• A good design will:
– Give the potentiometer mount the ability to
accommodate minor misalignment
– Protect the shat from thrust, side, and bending loads
(i.e., not use the potentiometer as a bearing)
– Provide hard limit stops within the potentiometer’s
travel range (i.e., not use the potentiometer’s limit
stops)
– Protect the potentiometer from contaminants
– Strain-relieve the potentiometer’s electrical
connections

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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Implementation
• Compliant couplings
– Joining 2 misaligned shafts of the same or different diameter.
• Sleeve couplings
– Less expensive than compliant couplings. Requirement is that
the shafts should be perfectly aligned.
• Press fits
– Convenient. The bore of a small plastic part is nominally the
same as the shaft diameter. But repeated reassambly will
compromise the fit.
• Shrink fits
– Components with a bore slightly under the shaft diameter can be
heated to expand sufficiently to slip over the shaft.

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Resistive Displacement Sensors—
Implementation
• Pinning
– Small hubbed components can be pinned to a shaft.
• Set-screws
– Small components are available with hubs that secure
with set-screws.
• Clamping
– Results in a secure fit without marring the shaft.
• Spring-loaded contact
– Maintain positive contact against a surface that
moves at reasonable speeds and without sudden
acceleration.
• Adhesives
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Inductive Displacement Sensors
• Based on the principles of magnetic
circuits.
• Classified as self-generating or passive.
• Self-generating type
– When there is a relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in the conductor.
• Passive type
– Requires an external source of power.
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Inductive Displacement Sensors

• A basic inductive sensor consists of a magnetic circuit made from a

ferromagnetic core with a coil wound on it. The coil acts as a source of
magnetomotive force (mmf) that drives the flux through the magnetic circuit
and the air gap. The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in
circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a small
variation in the air gap results in a measurable change in inductance.
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Inductive Displacement Sensors
• The core is made from a ferromagnetic
material.
• The coil acts as a source of magnetomotive
force (mmf) which drives the flux Φ through
the magnetic circuit.
mmf = Flux * Reluctance = Φ * R
where reluctance R limits the flux in a
magnetic circuit.
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Inductive Displacement Sensors
• The magnetic flux is:
Φ = ni/R
• Total flux linking by the entire n number of the
turns of the coil:
Ψ = nΦ = n2i/R
• Self-inductance L of the coil is:

L = Ψ/i = n2/R

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 Inductive Displacement Sensors

R = l/µµ0A

• Where l = total length of the flux path

µ = relative permeability of the magnetic
circuit material
µ0 = permeability of free space
A = cross-sectional area of the flux path

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 Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
and Rotary Variable-Reluctance Transducer
• Based on change in the reluctance of a
magnetic flux path.
• Application—acceleration, displacement
and velocity measurements.

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 Inductive Displacement Sensors—Single-
Coil Linear Variable-Reluctance Sensor

• A typical single-coil, variable-reluctance displacement sensor. The

reluctance of the coil is dependent on the single variable. The
reluctance increases nonlinearly with increasing gap.
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 Inductive Displacement Sensors—Variable-
Differential Reluctance Sensor

• A variable-differential reluctance sensor consists of an armature moving between 2

identical cores separated by a fixed distance. The armature moves in the air gap in
response to a mechanical input. This movement alters the reluctance of coils 1 and 2,
thus altering their inductive properties. This arrangement overcomes the problem of
nonlinearity inherent in single coil sensors.
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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Variable-
Differential Reluctance Sensor

• A typical commercial variable differential sensor. The full-scale

motion may be extremely small, on the order of few thousandths
of a centimeter. 25
Inductive Displacement Sensors—Microsyn

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Variable-
Coupling Transducers

• The core and both coils have the same length

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Induction
Potentiometer

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 Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• It is a passive inductive transducer. The 2 secondaries are having

equal sizes, shapes, and no. of turns. 29
Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• (b) The output voltages of

individual secondaries v1 and v2
are at null position.

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• (c) Output waveform v0

becomes a function of core
position x and phase angle α.

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Linear
Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Rotary
Variable-Differential Transformer

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Eddy
Current Transducers

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Inductive Displacement Sensors—Shielding

• One or more shells of high-permeability

magnetic materials surround the part to be
shielded.
• Interposing highly conductive metal sheets, e.g.
Cu or Al, on the path of the magnetic flux.
– The eddy currents induced in the shield give a
counter mmf that tends to cancel the interfering
magnetic field.
• To avoid stray capacitances—use of center-
tapped supply and appropriate grounding.
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Capacitive Sensors—Displacement
• Application—displacement measurements
for rotational or translational motions,
humidity and moisture sensing.
• The capacitance is a function of the
distance d (cm) between the electrodes,
the surface area A (cm2) of the electrodes,
and the permittivity ε (8.85x10-12 Fm-1 for
air) of the dielectric between the
electrodes.

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 Capacitive Sensors—Variable
Distance Displacement Sensors

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 Capacitive Sensors—Variable
Distance Displacement Sensors

C(x) = εA/x = εrε0A/x

where ε = dielectric const. or permittivity

εr = relative dielectric const.
ε0 = dielectric const. of vacuum
x = distance of the plates in m
A = effective area of the plates in m2
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 Capacitive Sensors—Variable
Distance Displacement Sensors
• The sensitivity of capacitance to changes
in plate separation is:
dC/dx = -εrε0A/x2
• The percent change in C is proportional to
that in x:
dC/C = -dx/x

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Capacitive Sensors—Variable Area
Displacement Sensors

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Capacitive Sensors—Variable Area
Displacement Sensors

C = εrε0(A-wx)/d

where w = width
wx = reduction in the area due to
movement of the plate

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 Capacitive Sensors—Variable
Dielectric Displacement Sensors

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 Capacitive Sensors—Variable
Dielectric Displacement Sensors

C = ε0w[ε0l-(ε2-ε1)x]

where ε1 = relative permittivity of the dielectric material

ε2 = permittivity of the displacing material (e.g.,
liquid)

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Capacitive Sensors—Differential
Capacitive Sensors

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Capacitive Sensors—Integrated Circuit
Smart Capacitive Position Sensors

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 Piezoelectric Transducers and
Sensors
• Piezoelectricity—to describe the ability of certain
materials to develop an electric charge that is
proportional to a direct applied mechanical
stress.
• The effect is reversible.
• Piezoelectric materials will deform (strain)
proportionally to an applied electric field.
• The effect is of the order of nanometers.
• Applications - for example fine focusing of
optical assemblies, etc.
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 Piezoelectric Transducers and
Sensors
• Ferroelectrics—an important class of
piezoelectric materials.
• Closely related to the ferroelectric
polarization that can be reversed by the
application of sufficiently high E-field.
• To induce piezoelectric properties, poling
procedure is often required.
• Poling is analogous to the magnetizing of
a permanent magnet.
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 Piezoelectric Transducers and
Sensors

• Direct and converse piezoelectric effect: (a) an electric field applied

to the material changes its shape (b) a stress on the material yields
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a surface charge.
 Piezoelectric Materials—Single
Crystals
• Quartz (SiO2), Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3)
and Lithium Tantalate (LiTaO3).
• Application—frequency-stabilized
oscillators in watches and radars, and
surface acoustic wave devices in TV filters
and analog signal correlators.

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 Piezoelectric Materials—
Piezoelectric Ceramics

• Polling process in piezoelectric ceramics: (a) in the absence of

an electric field (b) in the electric field.
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 Piezoelectric Materials—
Piezoelectric Ceramics
• Applying a strong dc E-field at a
temperature just below the Curie
temperature, poling procedure is induced.
• Made up of mixed oxides containing
corner-sharing octahedra of O2- ions,
which is the Perovskite family.

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 Piezoelectric Materials—
Perovskites
• General formula is ABO3.
• E.g. BaTiO3.
• It is stable, has a wide temperature range
of operation, and is easily manufacturable.

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 Piezoelectric Materials—
Perovskites

• The crystal structure of GaTiO3: (a) above the Curie pt., the cell is
cubic (b) below the Curie pt., the cell is tetragonal with Ba2+ and Ti4+
ions displaced relative to O2- ions.
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 Piezoelectric Materials—
Piezoelectric Polymers
• When the polymer is drawn, or stretched,
the regions become polar, and can be
poled by applying a high E-field.
• The electromechanical properties of
piezoelectric polymers are significantly
lower than those of piezoelectric ceramics.

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Applications of Piezoelectric effect

• (a) Displacement sensor based on piezoelectric ceramic (b)

Pressure sensor based on piezoelectric polymer film. Arrows
indicate the directions of ferroelectric polarization in the
piezoelectric material.

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 Applications of Piezoelectric effect
• Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy,
vice versa.
• Passive mode
– The transducer only receives signals.
– Obtain voltage from an external stress.
– Applications: microphones, vibrational sensor.
• Active mode
– The transducer changes its dimensions and sends an
acoustic signal into a medium.
– Applications: ink jet printers, micropumps, medical
ultrasonic imaging.
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 Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic
Displacement Sensors

• Principle of a pulse-echo ultrasound system for distance measurements.

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 Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic
Displacement Sensors
• With sound travels in velocity c and time t, the distance
d is:
d = ct/2
• A plane wave propagates in x direction:
∆x = Asinω(t-x/c)
• The velocity of sound depends on the medium in which
it propagates. In a homogeneous and isotropic solid, the
velocity depends on the density ρ and the modulus of
elasticity E:
E
c=
ρ

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 Ultrasound Transducers
• Convert electric energy to mechanical
energy, vice versa.
• Common types of in-air transducers are:
– Mechanical
– Electromagnetic
– Piezoelectric
– Electrostatic
– Magnetostrictive

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 Principles of Time-of-Flight
Systems
• Pulse echo method
• Phase angle method
• Frequency modulation method
• Correlation method

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 Principles of Time-of-Flight
Systems
Method Advantage Disadvantage

Pulse echo method Simple Low signal-to-noise ratio

Phase angle method Rather insensitive to Cannot be used directly at

disturbances distances longer than the
wavelength of the ultrasound

Frequency Robust against disturbances; Measurements on long and

modulation method multireflections detectable short distances can give the
same result (compare with
phase angle method)

Correlation method Very robust against Make relatively high demands

disturbances on hardware and/or
computations

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Magnetic Displacement Sensors
• Rely on electromagnetic fields, and the
magnetic properties of materials.
• Noncontact sensing technique
– No mechanical connection between the
stationary members and the movable
members of the sensor.
– Lifetime is longer.

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Magnetic Displacement Sensors
• Magnetic field intensity (H), or magnetizing
force
– The force that drives the generation of
magnetic flux in a material.
– Unit: Am-1
• Magnetic flux density (B)
– The amount of magnetic flux resulting from
the applied magnetizing force.
– Unit: Teslas (T) or N/(A*m)

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Magnetic Displacement Sensors
• Magnetic permeability (µ)
– The ability of a material to support magnetic
lines of flux.
B = µ0H
where µ = µ0 µr
µ0 –free space permeability
µr –relative permeability

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Magnetostrictive Sensors

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Magnetostrictive Sensors

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 Magnetostrictive Sensors
• Using a ferromagnetic element to detect
the location of a position magnet that is
displaced along its length.

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 Hall Effect (negative charge
carriers)

(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/hall.html)
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 Hall Effect
• If a current flows through a conductor in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field will exert a
lateral force on the moving charge carriers.
• A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductor
will balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two sides of
the conductor. This measurable lateral voltage is
called the Hall effect.

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 Hall Effect
IB
VH =
ned

n = density of mobile charges

e = electron charge

• The Hall effect can be used to measure

magnetic fields with a Hall probe.

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Hall Effect (positive charge carriers)

(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/hall.html)
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 Hall Effect
• Fm = evdB, where vd is the drift velocity of the
charge.
• I = neAvd
eIB
Fm =
neA
• In equilibrium,
eIB
Fm = Fe =
neA

IB
VH =
ned 74
Hall Effect Sensors

• Two magnet hall sensor

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Laser Interferometer Displacement
Sensors

• Helium-neon laser

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Michelson Interferometer

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 Optical Encoder Displacement
Sensors

• (a) Absolute encoders using a natural binary code of 4 digits. 4 tracks

are required. (b) The output of the read head aperture. (c) The binary
digit obtained after squaring digit obtained after squaring the raw
output signal. 78
 Proximity detectors
• They can sense the presence of nearby targets,
usually without requiring any contact or wiring to
the target or any particular target material
properties.
• Various sensors are available for the proximity
detection and measurement:
– Inductive
– Magnetic
– Optical
– Ultrasonic
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 Inductive Sensor Capacitive Sensor

Laser Sensor

Ultrasonic Sensor

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(http://www.clickautomation.com/products/index.php?func=list&cid=34)
 Applications
• Motion detection • Sequence control
– Detection of rotating – Verification and
motion counting
• Motion control • Liquid level detection
– Movement indication – Tube high-low liquid
• Process control level
– Automatic filling • Material level control
– Low level limit

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 Velocity measurement -
Applications
• Measuring the approach speed of a
robotic tool onto its target.
• Monitoring the speed of a generator in an
electric power station.
• Measuring an automobile’s wheel speed in
order to provide feedback to an antilock
brake system.

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Measurement of Linear Velocity

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 Measurement of Linear Velocity
• Average speed is:
y 2 − y1 ∆y
Vavg = =
t 2 − t1 ∆t
• As the time interval becomes small, the average speed becomes
the instantaneous speed Vy,
∆y dy
V y = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt

∫
V y (t ) = Vi − a y (t )dt
ti
where ay(t) is the acceleration in the y direction

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Reference-Based Measurement
• Velocity = displacement / time taken.
• To measure the displacement, there are 2
pickups by displacement sensors.
• Measuring the time interval with an
electronic counter or displaying the output
of the pickups from displacement sensors
on an oscilloscope.

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 Doppler Shift
• When the source and observer are in
motion relative to each other, there is
Doppler Shift.
• It is applicable to waves, e.g. sound, light,
microwaves, etc.
• Application: radar.

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 VISAR System
• Velocity Interference System for Any
Reflector
• Can be used with either specularly or
diffusely reflecting surfaces, and is quite
insensitive to tilting of the target.
• It was developed for shock wave research
work
• Useful for measurement of very high
speeds.
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VISAR System

• Illustrate how fiber optic

components, available from
Valyn, can guide laser light to
and from a shock experiment,
minimizing any laser light
beam hazards.
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 Angular Velocity Measurement
• Often applied to rotating machinery such
as pumps, engines, and generators.
• Most familiar unit: revolutions per minute
(rpm)

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 Electrical (dc and ac) Tachometer
Generator
• A rotating generator produces a voltage signal
proportional to the rotational velocity of the input shaft.

• Permanent-magnet dc tach-generator
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 Counter Types
• Rotating Magnet Sensors—passive speed sensors
convert mechanical motion to ac voltage without an
external power source. These self-contained magnetic
sensors produce a magnetic field that, when in the
proximity of ferrous objects in motion, generates a
voltage.
• Applications for these types of sensors:
– Transmission speed
– Engine rpm
– Pump shaft speed
– Computer peripheral speeds

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 Counter Types

• Magnetic speed sensor output voltage against speed

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 Optical Sensors

• A slotted disk provides one pulse output for each rotation

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 Stroboscope
• An oscillator produces a pulse wave of a
known frequency. This is then used to
drive a bright LED, which can cope with
the fast rate of flashing.
• Note: a bulb cannot be used since when it
is driven at a high frequency, the filament
remains hot when the power goes off, and
the light that is not flashing at all, but is
permanently on.
(http://homepages.which.net/~paul.hills/Circuits/Stroboscope/Stroboscope.html)
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 Stroboscope
• A mark is made on the object.
• If the rotational velocity ω of the object is not
matched with the frequency f of the oscillator,
random appearance of the mark is seen.

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 Stroboscope
• If ω = nf (where n=1, 2…) , the mark becomes
stationary.

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 Stroboscope
• If ω is slightly lower than nf (where n=1, 2…) , the
mark creeps forward .

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 Stroboscope
• If ω is slightly higher than nf (where n=1, 2…) ,
the mark creeps backward .

98
 Wiegand Effect
• It employs unique magnetic properties of
specially processed, small-diameter
ferromagnetic wire.
• By causing the magnetic field of this wire
to suddenly reverse, a sharp, uniform
voltage pulse is generated.
• Wiegand pulse.

99
 Wiegand Effect
• It is useful for proximity sensing,
tachometry, rotary shaft encoding, and
speed sensing.
• Application:
– Electronic indexing for water, gas, and electric
meters.
– Measuring shaft speed in engines.
– Tachometers, speedometers, and other
rotational counting devices.

100
 Angular Rate Sensors—
Gyroscopes
• Many absolute angular rate-measuring devices
fall under the designation of gyroscope.
• It consists of a spinning mass mounted on a
base so that its axis can turn freely in one or
more directions.
• Angular velocity gyros are used to measure
motion and as signal inputs to stabilization
systems.
• Rate-integrating gyros are used as the basis
for highly accurate inertial navigation systems.

101
 Angular Rate Sensors—
Gyroscopes

• A vibrating quartz tuning fork uses the Coriolis effect to sense

angular velocity
102
Gyroscopes

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