5100.2 Design Load

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AS 5100.2:2017
Bridge design
Part 2: Design loads

AP-G51.2-17
AS 5100.2:2017
(Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
This Australian Standard® was prepared by Committee BD-090, Bridge Design. It was
approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 13 March 2017.
This Standard was published on 31 March 2017.
The following are represented on Committee BD-090:
 Australian Industry Group

 Australian Steel Institute
 Austroads
 Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
 Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand
 Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia—Cement
 Concrete Institute of Australia
 Consult Australia
 Engineers Australia
 New Zealand Heavy Engineering Research Association
 Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board
 Steel Construction New Zealand
 Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia
 Sydney Trains
This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR AS 5100.2:2016.
Standards Australia wishes to acknowledge the participation of the expert individuals that
contributed to the development of this Standard through their representation on the
Committee and through the public comment period.
Keeping Standards up-to-date

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using a current Standard, which should include any amendments that may have been
published since the Standard was published.
Detailed information about Australian Standards, drafts, amendments and new projects can
be found by visiting www.standards.org.au
Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at
mail@standards.org.au, or write to Standards Australia, GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001.
AS 5100.2:2017
(Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
Australian Standard®
Bridge design
First published as HB 77.2—1996.

Revised and redesignated as AS 5100.2—2004.
Second edition 2017.
Reissued incorporating Amendment No. 1 (August 2017).
COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia Limited
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher, unless otherwise permitted under the Copyright Act 1968.
Published by SAI Global Limited under licence from Standards Australia Limited, GPO Box
476, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia
ISBN 978 1 76035 715 3
AS 5100.2:2017 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design,
to supersede AS 5100.2—2004.
This Standard incorporates Amendment No. 1 (August 2017). The changes required by the
Amendment are indicated in the text by a marginal bar and amendment number against the
clause, note, table, figure or part thereof affected.
This Standard is also designated as Austroads publication AP-G51.2-17.
The objectives of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are to provide nationally acceptable
requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel, timber and composite construction, which
embody principles that may be applied to other materials in association with relevant
standards;
(c) the assessment of the load capacity of existing bridges; and
(d) the strengthening and rehabilitation of existing bridges.
The objective of this Part (AS 5100.2) is to specify minimum design loads and load effects
for road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges, and other associated structures.
The requirements of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are based on the principles of structural
mechanics and knowledge of material properties, for both the conceptual and detailed
design, to achieve acceptable probabilities that the bridge or associated structure being
designed will not become unfit for use during its design life.
Significant differences between this Standard and AS 5100.2—2004 are the following:
(i) Changes and clarifications to the provision for collision loads from rail traffic.
(ii) Changes to dynamic load allowance for rail traffic load effects.
(iii) Addition to provisions for bridge collision from waterway traffic.
(iv) Updated bridge traffic barrier loads to more closely reflect vehicles currently using
the road network. Barrier test levels and minimum effect heights were adopted from
the AASHTO Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH 2009) which replaced
NCHRP Report 350 (1993).
(v) Earthquake design procedures for bridges rewritten to align with the current
earthquake loading Standard AS 1170.4—2007, Structural design actions, Part 4:
Earthquake actions in Australia. New displacement-based earthquake design
procedures were included.
(vi) Improvement to serviceability and fatigue limit states for road signs and lighting
structures.
(vii) Expansion of water flow forces to include impact from large moving objects during
flood events.
(viii) Addition of light rail vehicles.
Other differences between this Standard and AS 5100.2—2004 are the following:
(A) Improved pedestrian and cyclist path barrier loads.
(B) Expanded dynamic loads for pedestrian and cyclist path bridges.
(C) New table for unfactored vertical pressure due to design rail traffic loads.
3 AS 5100.2:2017
(D) Inclusion of super-t girders in the calculation of bridge thermal effects.

(E) Clarification of loads and load factors for construction loads.
(F) Addition of protective screen design for wind load and robustness.
(G) New fire effect load case.
A number of new or revised appendices have been added to this edition of the Standard,
which provide additional information and guidance as follows:
(1) Update to special performance level bridge barrier loads.
(2) New alternative force-based earthquake design procedures.
(3) Bending moment and shear force for SM1600 and 300LA loads for simply supported
spans.
(4) A summary of load factors and load combinations.
In line with Standards Australia editorial policy, the words ‘shall’ and ‘may’ are used
consistently throughout this Standard to indicate, respectively, a mandatory provision and
an acceptable or permissible alternative.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in Notes to Tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The term ‘informative’ has been used in this Standard to define the application of the
appendix to which it applies. An ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and

guidance.
AS 5100.2:2017 4
CONTENTS
Page
1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ............................................................................................ 5
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES .................................................................................... 6
3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 6
4 NOTATION ................................................................................................................. 7
5 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES ...................... 13
6 DEAD LOADS (G) .................................................................................................... 14
7 ROAD TRAFFIC (Q) ................................................................................................ 18
8 PEDESTRIAN, CYCLIST PATH AND MAINTENANCE TRAFFIC (Q) ................ 29
9 RAIL TRAFFIC (Q) .................................................................................................. 31
10 MINIMUM RESTRAINT LOAD .............................................................................. 42
11 COLLISION LOADS ................................................................................................ 42
12 KERB AND BARRIER DESIGN LOADS AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR
ROAD TRAFFIC BRIDGES ..................................................................................... 47
13 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR ........................................................................................ 51

14 EARTH PRESSURE FROM TRAFFIC LOADS ....................................................... 54
15 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ....................................................................................... 58
16 FORCES RESULTING FROM WATER FLOW ....................................................... 67
17 WIND LOADS .......................................................................................................... 76
18 THERMAL EFFECTS ............................................................................................... 79
19 SHRINKAGE, CREEP AND PRESTRESS EFFECTS .............................................. 84
20 DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT OF SUPPORTS ...................................................... 84
21 FORCES FROM BEARINGS .................................................................................... 85
22 CONSTRUCTION FORCES AND EFFECTS ........................................................... 85
23 LOAD COMBINATIONS ......................................................................................... 88
24 ROAD SIGNS AND LIGHTING STRUCTURES ..................................................... 90
25 NOISE BARRIERS AND PROTECTION SCREENS ............................................... 92
26 FIRE EFFECTS ......................................................................................................... 93
APPENDICES
A DESIGN LOADS FOR SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS............... 95
B DISPLACEMENT-BASED EARTHQUAKE DESIGN............................................. 96
C SM1600 AND 300LA LOAD EFFECTS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS ..... 118
D SUMMARY OF LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS................................. 121
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 130

5 AS 5100.2:2017
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Bridge design
1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 Scope
This Standard sets out minimum design loads, forces and load effects for road, rail,
pedestrian and cyclist path bridges, and other associated structures.
1.2 General
Structures shall be proportioned for the design loads, forces and load effects in accordance
with Clauses 6 to 26, as appropriate.
NOTE: If the relevant authority approves, the designer may vary any of the loads set out in this
Standard, provided the provisions of AS 5100.1 are complied with.
The design loads and forces shall be considered as acting in combinations as set out in
Clause 23.
NOTE: A summary of load factors is tabulated in Appendix D.
Each individual bridge shall be assessed to ascertain whether any other loads, forces or load
effects are applicable for that particular design. The magnitude of these additional forces or
load effects and their combination with other loads shall be consistent with the principles
set out in AS 5100.1.
On the front sheet of the bridge drawings, the following details relating to design loads
shall be shown, where relevant:
(a) The Standard used.
(b) Any significant variation to the minimum design loads as set out in this Standard.
(c) Traffic load, e.g. 300LA and SM1600, including lateral position, if critical, and the
number of design lanes.
(d) Design traffic speed.
(e) Fatigue criteria, including number of cycles and route factor.
(f) Pedestrian loads, both horizontal and vertical.
(g) Collision load on the structure (e.g. substructure and superstructure where applicable)
or alternative load paths provided.
(h) Design wind speeds.
(i) Flood data, e.g. design velocities, levels, debris, and the like.
(j) Earthquake criteria.
(k) Differential settlements and mining subsidence effects allowed for in the design.
(l) Foundation data where not shown elsewhere.
(m) Barrier performance level.
(n) The construction loads, methods and sequence, and any other specific limitations.
www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

AS 5100.2:2017 6
(o) Fire effects.

NOTE: Wave action is not included in this Standard. Where the bridge is subject to wave action,
refer to specialist literature.
1.3 Special studies
Where changes are made to a part or all of the design processes detailed in this Standard or
new information or methods are introduced, they should be established by special studies.
NOTE: For information on special studies refer to AS 5100.1 Appendix B
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES
The following are the normative documents referenced in this Standard:
NOTE: Documents referenced for informative purposes are listed in the Bibliography.
AS
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.4—2007 Part 4: Earthquake actions
1530 Methods for fire tests on building materials, components and structures
1530.4 Part 4: Fire-resistance test of elements of construction
1657 Fixed platforms, walkways, stairways, and ladders—Design, construction
and installation
5100 Bridge design

5100.1 Part 1: Scope and general principles
5100.3 Part 3: Foundations and soil-supporting structures
5100.4 Part 4: Bearings and deck joints
5100.5 Part 5: Concrete
5100.9 Part 9: Timber bridges
AS/NZS
1170 Structural design actions
1170.2 Part 2: Wind actions
5100 Bridge design
5100.6 Part 6: Steel and composite construction
Austroads
Guide to Road Design
Guide to Traffic Management Part 3: Traffic Studies and Analysis
AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic
Signals
Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH)
3 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Standard, the definitions given in AS 5100.1 and those below
apply.
3.1 Air space developments
A structure built over a railway or road to support overhead offices, shops, public space or
accommodation.
3.2 Cantilever sign structure
A sign structure supported at one end only.
 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

7 AS 5100.2:2017
3.3 External developments

A public or private structure adjacent to the road or rail corridor.
3.4 High-mast light poles
Light poles with an overall height exceeding 13 m.
3.5 Portal sign structure
A sign structure comprising one or more horizontal or sloped members supported by at least
two vertical members.
NOTE: The members may be trusses.
3.6 Rail
Rail traffic includes rail freight trains, rail passenger trains, electrified trains, light rail
traffic, trams and cane rail traffic.
3.7 Track category
3.7.1 Heavy haul freight (HHF)
Freight rail transport carrying axle loads over 25 t.
3.7.2 Main line freight (MLF)
Freight rail transport carrying axle loads up to 25 t.
3.7.3 Branch line freight (BLF)

Freight rail transport carrying axle loads below 25 t.
3.7.4 Light rail (LR)
Passenger only rail transport with axle loads not exceeding 15 t, including trams.
3.8 Underground rail
A rail track that is continuously enclosed above, below and both sides by structure and/or
ground for a length of 80 m or greater, or as otherwise specified by the relevant rail
authority.
4 NOTATION
Unless a contrary intention is given, the following applies:
(a) Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
(b) The dimensional units for length and stress in all expressions or equations are to be
taken as millimetres (mm), Newtons (N) and megapascals (MPa) respectively, unless
specifically noted otherwise.
(c) An asterisk (*) placed after a symbol as a superscript denotes a design action effect
due to the design load for the ultimate limit state (ULS).
Symbol Definition
A axle load
ALFi accompanying lane factor for the ith lane where ‘i’ equals 2 of more
Ad wetted area of the pier normal to the water flow, equal to the thickness of
the pier normal to the direction of the water flow multiplied by the height
of the water flow
Adeb projected area of debris

AS 5100.2:2017 8
AL wetted area, equal to the width of the pier parallel to the direction of the
water flow multiplied by the height of the water flow; or
plan deck area of the superstructure
Ap bridge area in plan
As net wetted area of the superstructure, including any railings or barriers,
projected on a plane normal to the water flow
At area of the structure for calculation of wind load
a maximum vertical acceleration
B length of the bearing seat transverse to the bridge longitudinal axis
b width between external barriers ignoring internal kerbs, median barriers and
medians; or
overall width of the bridge between outer faces of barriers
C(Tf) design action coefficient for elastic horizontal earthquake response
Cd drag coefficient
Cd (Tf) design action coefficient
Ch (T) acceleration spectral shape factor
Ch (Tf) acceleration spectral shape factor at fundamental natural period of vibration

of the bridge frame in the direction considered (longitudinal or transverse)
CL lift coefficient
Cm moment coefficient
Cs side force coefficient (which depends on the angle between the water flow
direction and the plane containing the pier)
CT base number of load cycles
C1 coefficient dependent on the end fixity conditions
D total depth of superstructure
Dc section depth in the direction considered
d depth of the superstructure, including solid barrier, if applicable; or
depth below underside of sleepers; or
thickness of the slab over a box cell
d bl diameter of longitudinal reinforcement steel
d sp wetted depth of the superstructure (including any railings or barriers)
d ss wetted depth of the solid superstructure (excluding any railings but
including solid barriers) projected on a plane normal to the water flow
d wgs vertical distance from the girder soffit to the flood water surface upstream
of the bridge
FBM braking force applied by multiple vehicles
FBS braking force applied by a single vehicle
Fc centrifugal force
Fd design drag force

9 AS 5100.2:2017
Fi design transverse force at bridge frame mass location mi proportional to

m i i
FF bridge frame horizontal earthquake force
FL ultimate longitudinal or transverse inward load on a barrier; or
design lift force
Fr Froude number
FT ultimate transverse outward load on a barrier
FV ultimate vertical downward load on a barrier
*
FLu ultimate design lift force
f0 fundamental frequency of vibration

fsy characteristic yield strength of flexural reinforcement
fsye expected yield strength of flexural reinforcement
fsy.t characteristic yield strength of lateral reinforcement
ful characteristic ultimate strength of flexural reinforcement
f* fatigue design stress range
f c characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete at 28 days

f cc confined compressive strength of concrete, which may be taken as 1.5 f c if
not calculated by rational analysis
G dead load
Gb rail ballast and track loads
Ge soil and groundwater loads on retaining walls and buried structures
Gs superimposed dead load
g acceleration due to gravity
H pier height between the centre of plastic hinges at the top and bottom of the
pier in double bending; or pier height from the centre of the plastic hinge to
the point of contraflexure at top or bottom of the pier in single bending; or
height from the base to the intersection of the uppermost principal
horizontal members
h depth of fill cover
height of the post above the base plate
hd average height of piers supporting the superstructure length Ld
Ki individual pier longitudinal or transverse stiffness, expressed as force per
unit longitudinal or transverse displacement at the location of mass i
k coefficient
ke equivalent effective stiffness of the bridge frame
kp probability factor
L effective span; or
loaded length; or
span of member between posts; or

AS 5100.2:2017 10
length from the intersection of the principal members to the tip of the
cantilever arm of a cantilever sign structure
L characteristic length
Lbs minimum overlap length measured normal to the face of an abutment or
pier
Lc distance from the centre of the plastic hinge to the point of contraflexure in
the pier
Ld length of the superstructure to the next expansion joint
Lf span of main girders, trusses or stringers, or cross-girder spacing for cross-
girders
Lg distance of wheel load to the track centre-line
LL vehicle contact length for longitudinal collision load on a barrier
LLF total length of the bridge
Lm mean length of main girders over n continuous spans
L max largest of the values L1 , L2 , ……Ln
Lp plastic hinge length
Lsp strain penetration length for reinforced concrete piers
LT vehicle contact length for transverse collision load on a barrier

Lv distance between centres of axle groups
vehicle contact length for vertical loads on a barrier
L1 , L2 , Ln span lengths of a continuous structure
L characteristic length
Mg design superstructure moment due to water flow
Ms shielding multiplier
*
M Lu ultimate moment due to water flow and/or debris loading, as applicable
me effective mass of the bridge frame
mi one of the n individual masses representing the bridge frame
N* pile ultimate axial force
N duration of construction, in years
n number of standard design lanes; or
effective number of stress cycles; or
number of continuous main girder spans
nT number of equivalent stress cycles of amplitude (f* ) per train
P annual probability of exceedance
PS prestress effect
Pr proximity ratio
Q traffic loading from road, rail, pedestrian, cyclist path or maintenance
traffic
R return period
R damping modifier

11 AS 5100.2:2017
r radius of curve
Sr relative submergence
T period of vibration; or
temperature
Tf fundamental natural period of the bridge; or
bridge frame fundamental natural period in the direction considered
t thickness of the deck
V design traffic speed; or
velocity of water flow
Vi shear force of the ith element of the bridge
seismic shear force at the top of pier or abutment component i
Vs design wind speed for serviceability limit state (SLS)
Vu design wind speed for ultimate limit state (ULS)
WBM load due to multiple lanes of the M1600 moving traffic load for the length
under consideration
WBS load due to a single lane of the M1600 moving traffic load for the length
under consideration
Wc load due to multiple standard design lanes of the M1600 moving traffic
load for the length under consideration
Wi one of the n individual weights representing the bridge frame
Wt serviceability design transverse wind load
Wt* ultimate design transverse wind load
Wv serviceability design vertical wind load
W v
* ultimate design vertical wind load
y average flow depth; or

static displacement due to design pedestrian load; or
variable distance taken in determining temperature change at T(y)
ygs average vertical distance from the girder soffit to the bed assuming no scour
at the span under consideration
Z design seismic hazard factor; or
bearing layout modulus
 dynamic load allowance (DLA)
 logarithmic decrement of decay of vibration
b displacement capacity at superstructure resulting from the pier-cap bearing
deformation
c displacement capacity of the first bridge frame pier or abutment to reach
displacement capacity
d ductile displacement capacity
f displacement capacity at superstructure resulting from foundation
deformation

AS 5100.2:2017 12
i transverse displacement capacity of a bridge pier or abutment

p inelastic displacement capacity
y yield displacement capacity
Fi transverse displacement at bridge frame mass location mi due to the
application of Fi
b , f, s bearing, foundation and pier structural displacement, respectively
d ductile seismic displacement demand
e corner-period elastic seismic displacement demand
e(T) elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response
e(Tf) elastic seismic displacement demand for the bridge frame fundamental
natural period in the direction considered
h(T) elastic seismic displacement spectral shape factor
i ductile seismic displacement demand at the top of pier or abutment
component i
k characteristic horizontal seismic displacement demand of the bridge frame
L longitudinal seismic displacement at the abutment
εsd tensile strain limit in flexural reinforcement; or

tensile strain in reinforcing steel
εsul strain at maximum stress of flexural reinforcement
εsut strain at maximum stress of lateral reinforcement
εy strain at the expected yield strength of the flexural reinforcement (or
structural steel)
g load factor for dead load
gb load factor for rail ballast and track loads
ge load factor for soil and groundwater loads
gs load factor for superimposed dead load
Q load factor for traffic load
WF ultimate load factor for forces resulting from water flow
 design ductility factor
d displacement ductility
 b ,  f, s bearing, foundation and pier structural damping, respectively
e bridge frame equivalent viscous damping ratio corresponding to the design
ductility level of response
i elastic viscous damping
 super elevation of the road
p plastic rotation capacity at the plastic hinge
w angle between the direction of the water flow and the transverse centre-line
of the pier
s volumetric ratio of lateral (transverse) reinforcement

13 AS 5100.2:2017
ϕc value of normalised fundamental displacement mode shape at the first

bridge frame pier or abutment to reach displacement capacity
ϕe characteristic value of the fundamental mode shape of the bridge frame
ϕi value of normalized fundamental displacement mode shape at pier or
abutment
ϕls ductile curvature corresponding to the strain limit at the relevant design
performance level
ϕy yield curvature
 dynamic response factor
5 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES

The matters for resolution listed below shall, where relevant, be confirmed as accepted by
the relevant authority before commencing the design process.
1 Approval to vary any of the loads set out in this Standard, provided the provisions of
AS 5100.1 are complied with (Clause 1.2).
2 Design loads and factors for road bridges carrying rail traffic (Clause 7.4).
3 Load factors for centrifugal and braking loads from heavy load platforms, when
applicable (Clause 7.10).

4 Approval of an analytical procedure for the distribution of road traffic loads through
fill (Clause 7.12).
5 Design load for a pedestrian or cyclist path bridge that is also used for maintenance,
inspection or emergency vehicle access (Claus e 8.1).
6 Design loads for rail bridges carrying cane rail traffic and/or other special
applications (Clause 9.1).
7 Approval to use the rational method for braking and traction forces (Clause 9.7.2 and
9.7.2.3).
8 Bridge-specific design parameters to be used in applying the rational method for
braking and traction forces (Clause 9.7.2.3).
9 Approval of a risk analysis for road bridges designed with an alternative load path
under collision load (Clause 11.1).
10 Approval of a risk analysis for bridge supports located between 10 m and 20 m from
the centre-line of a rail track (Clause 11.4.2.4).
11 Approval of a dynamic collision analysis (Clause 11.4.4.2).
12 Recommendation of the type of vessel, weight of vessel and speed of impact on a
bridge for collision from waterway traffic, and approval of the proposed design vessel
and speed (Clause 11.6).
13 Approval of the minimum equivalent static ship impact force applicable to piers in
navigable waterways (Clause 11.6).
14 Specification of the ultimate design load, load distribution length and minimum
effective height for special barrier performance levels (Clause 12.2.2 and 12.2.3).
15 Approval of a load transfer mechanism across a movement joint in a rigid barrier
(Clause 12.4.2).
16 Approval of a detailed dynamic analysis (Clause 13.2.3).
17 Approval of a vibration assessment of a rail bridge, when required (Clause 13.3).

AS 5100.2:2017 14
18 Bridge earthquake design category classification (Clause 15.4.1).

19 Approval of large items for flood impact (Clause 16.7.3).
20 Construction design load criteria for other types of bridge construction (Table 22.2.2).
21 Approval of the average recurrence interval for wind load on noise barriers and
protection screens (Clause 25.3.2).
6 DEAD LOADS (G)

6.1 General
The nominal dead load shall be calculated from the dimensions shown on the drawings and
the mean value of the weight per unit volume of the materials. A value based on the
densities of the materials, the percentage of reinforcement and other appropriate factors
shall be adopted. Wherever possible, design densities shall be based on measurements of
the materials to be used.
NOTES:
1 The weights per cubic metre given in Tables 6.1(A) and 6.1(B) may be used in calculating the
nominal dead load unless a more precise determination has been made. Where a range of
values is given, calculations should be performed using the extremes of the expected range
and the most critical case used for design.
2 For other materials, refer to AS 1170.1.
Selecting a high value of density may be conservative when considering some limit states,
but may not be conservative when considering stability, stresses at transfer of prestress and
the like. If insufficient information is available to accurately assess the mean weight per
unit volume, calculations shall be performed using a range of values and the most critical
case shall be used for the design. The density of reinforced concrete shall take account of
variations in aggregate density and shall allow for the mass of included reinforcement.
To ensure that the structure satisfies minimum strength and stability criteria, an ultimate
load combination comprising only dead load, superimposed dead load, rail ballast and track
load and soil and groundwater load shall be considered. The load factors for this load
combination shall be in accordance with Clause 23.2.

15 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 6.1(A)
WEIGHT FOR NOMINATED DEAD LOADS
Weight per cubic metre
Material
kN/m 3
Aluminium alloy 26.7
Bituminous wearing surface, asphalt 22.0
Ballast for railways 19.0
Compacted earth filling 22.0 (see Note 1)
Compacted gravel, road metal 19.0–23.0
Concrete, unreinforced (add 0.6 for each 1% by See Table 6.1(B)
volume of steel reinforcement and tendons)
Masonry 23.5
Neoprene 11.3
Sand, fine (dry) 15.5–17.5
Sand, coarse (dry) 18.0–19.5
Sand (saturated) 22.5
Steel and other ferrous metals 77.0
Timber, softwood 7.0 (see Note 2)

Timber, hardwood 11.0 (see Note 2)
Water, fresh 9.8
Water, salt 10.0
NOTES:
1 A value of 22 kN/m3 for unit weight of fill is used for normal fill material; however, the
unit weight of soils of volcanic origin (e.g. pumice sand at 14 kN/m3 ) may be
significantly lower and the unit weight of soils of oxide origin (e.g. iron ore at
27 kN/m3 ) may be significantly higher.
2 For the unit weight of particular timber species, refer to AS 5100.9.

AS 5100.2:2017 16
TABLE 6.1(B)
WEIGHT PER CUBIC METRE OF UNREINFORCED CONCRETE
Density of coarse Cement content Weight per
Typical coarse aggregates aggregates kg/m 3 cubic metre
kg/m 3 kN/m 3
450 24.0
2500
Adelaide quartzite, 330 22.5
Brisbane gravel, Perth
granite, Sydney gravel 450 24.5
2700
Melbourne basalt, 330 23.0
Sydney basalt 450 25.5
2900
330 24.0
Hobart dolerite
450 26.0
3100
330 25.0
NOTE: The values given in the Table apply to normal concrete, have no added air and the accuracy is
approximately 0.5 kN/m3 .
6.2 Dead load of structure

Dead load shall be considered as the weight of the parts of the structure that are structural
elements and any non-structural elements that are considered unlikely to vary during
construction and use of the structure, such as barriers and kerbs of steel or concrete.
To obtain the design dead loads for ULS and SLS, the nominal dead load shall be multiplied
by the appropriate load factor for dead load (g ) given in Table 6.2. The appropriate value
of g shall be applied to the dead load of all parts of the structure.
TABLE 6.2
LOAD FACTORS FOR DEAD LOAD OF STRUCTURE (  g )
ULSs where dead load
Type of material SLSs
Reduces safety Increases safety
Steel 1.10 0.90 1.0
Concrete 1.20 0.85 1.0
Concrete at transfer of prestress 1.15 0.90 N/A
Timber 1.25 0.80 1.0
NOTE: For precast members, where—
(a) appropriate control and monitoring are exercised over dimensions and mass; and
(b) the value for reinforced concrete density is based upon the measured density of the concrete to be used
and accurate estimates of reinforcement inclusion,
the relevant authority may approve a reduction of load factor to not less than 1.1 for ULSs for the cases where
the dead load reduces safety.
6.3 Superimposed dead load (Gs)

Superimposed dead load shall be considered as the weight of all materials forming the loads
on the structure which are not structural elements and which vary during construction and
use of the structure.
NOTE: Examples of superimposed dead load include surfacing material, footway filling, pipes,
conduits, cables and other utility services, and additional concrete to compensate for the hog of
prestressed beams.

17 AS 5100.2:2017
If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is constructed or if placement

of a separate wearing surface is anticipated in the future, allowance shall be made for its
weight in the superimposed dead load.
The design of superimposed dead loads for ultimate and SLSs shall be obtained by applying
the appropriate load factor (gs), given in Table 6.3, to the nominal superimposed dead loads
on the structure.
For special cases, and subject to approval of the relevant authority, the values of gs to be
applied to the nominal superimposed dead load may be reduced to an amount not less than
those given in Item (b) of Table 6.3, provided the nominal superimposed dead load is not
exceeded during the life of the bridge.
TABLE 6.3
LOAD FACTORS FOR SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD ( gs)
ULSs where Gs
Type of structure Type of load Reduces Increases SLSs
safety safety
(a) All structures, except for Item (b) Permanent 2.0 0.7 1.3
Removable 2.0 0.0 1.3
(b) Special cases Where specified by the relevant
Permanent 1.4 0.8 1.0
authority for major structures and superimposed

Removable 1.4 0.0 1.0
dead loads are controlled.
6.4 Soil and groundwater loads on retaining walls and buried structures (Ge)
The design of foundations and soil-supporting structures shall be carried out in accordance
with this Standard and AS 5100.3. The soil and groundwater loads shall be factored by the
load factor (ge) given in Table 6.4.
TABLE 6.4
LOAD FACTORS FOR SOIL AND GROUNDWATER LOADS ( ge)
ULSs where soil
Type of soil SLSs
Controlled fill with regular testing of soil density 1.25 0.85 1.0
All other fills and in situ soils 1.5 0.7 1.2
Groundwater 1.0 1.0 1.0
NOTE: Variation in water levels shall be taken into account by using design levels based on a return period
of 1000 years for the ULS or 100 years for the SLS.
6.5 Rail ballast and track loads (Gb)

Rail ballast and track shall be considered as superimposed dead loads. The design loads for
the ULS and SLS shall be obtained by applying the appropriate load factor (gb ) given in
Table 6.5 to the nominal ballast and track loads.
For bridges where it is possible to fill with ballast to a much greater depth than normally
specified, the maximum amount of ballast possible on the bridge shall also be determined
and the nominal amount of ballast shall be taken as not less than 0.7 times that maximum
amount.

AS 5100.2:2017 18
TABLE 6.5
LOAD FACTORS FOR RAIL BALLAST AND TRACK LOADS ( gb)
ULSs where Gbs

Type of structure Type of load SLSs
Ballast and track 1.7 0.7 1.3
All structures
Transom track 1.4 0.9 1.2
7 ROAD TRAFFIC (Q)

7.1 General
Road traffic load is the load resulting from the passage of vehicles, either singly or in
groups, or pedestrians. The magnitude, direction and positioning of loads in this Standard
produce effects in structures that approximate the effects of vehicles or groups of vehicles.
The load models are not intended to be the same as actual vehicles.
All road bridges shall be designed to resist the following:
(a) The traffic loads specified in this Standard, which approximate the effects induced by
moving traffic, stationary queues of traffic and pedestrian traffic.
(b) The most adverse effects induced by the following loading elements, combinations of
these elements and their corresponding load factors:

(i) W80 wheel load.
(ii) A160 axle load.
(iii) M1600 moving traffic load.
(iv) M1600 moving tri-axle group load.
(v) S1600 stationary traffic load.
(vi) HLP320 or HLP400, if specified by the relevant authority.
(vii) Dynamic load allowance ().
(viii) Number and position of traffic lanes.
(ix) Accompanying lane factors (ALF).
(x) Centrifugal forces (Fc).
(xi) Braking forces (FBS, FBM).
(xii) Fatigue load.
(xiii) Pedestrian load.
7.2 SM1600 loads
7.2.1 General
The abbreviation SM1600 represents the design loads W80, A160, M1600, M1600 tri-axle
group and S1600 traffic design loads.
NOTE:Appendix C tabulates values of bending moment and shear force due to SM1600 loading.
7.2.2 W80 wheel load
The W80 wheel load models an individual heavy wheel load.
The W80 wheel load shall consist of an 80 kN load uniformly distributed over a contact
area of 400 mm  250 mm. It shall be applied anywhere on the roadway surface and to all
structural elements for which the critical load is a single wheel load.

19 AS 5100.2:2017
7.2.3 A160 axle load

The A160 axle load models an individual heavy axle.
The A160 axle load shall be positioned laterally within a 3.2 m standard design lane, as
shown in Figure 7.2.3.
16 0 k N
ELE VATIO N
0.4
3 . 2 m st an d ar d
2.0 design lane
0. 25
PL AN
DIMENSIONS IN METRES
FIGURE 7.2.3 A160 AXLE LOAD
7.2.4 M1600 moving traffic load

The M1600 moving traffic load models the loads applied by a moving stream of traffic.
The M1600 load shall be positioned laterally within a 3.2 m standard design lane as shown
in Figure 7.2.4.
The moving traffic load shall consist of a uniformly distributed load together with the axle
group loads as shown in Figure 7.2.4. The uniformly distributed component of the M1600
moving traffic load shall be continuous under the axle group loads and shall be considered
as uniformly distributed over the width of a 3.2 m standard design lane.
The uniformly distributed component of the M1600 moving traffic load shall be continuous
or discontinuous and of any length as may be necessary to produce the most adverse effects.
Likewise, the axle group loads position and variable spacing shall be determined such as to
produce the most adverse effects.
Where a single tri-axle group from the M1600 moving traffic load (including the UDL
component) is considered, the dynamic load allowance ( ) shall be as given in Table 7.7.2.
The UDL component shall be continuous or discontinuous and of any length as may be
necessary to produce the most adverse effects.

AS 5100.2:2017 20
360 kN 360 kN 360 kN 360 kN

6 k N /m
ELE VATIO N
1. 25 1. 25 3 .75 1. 25 1. 25 Varies 6. 25 min. 1. 25 1. 25 5.0 1. 25 1. 25 0.6
0. 2 2.0
0.4 3 . 2 m st an d ar d
0.6
design lane
PL AN
FIGURE 7.2.4 M1600 MOVING TRAFFIC LOAD
7.2.5 S1600 stationary traffic load

The S1600 stationary traffic load models the loads applied by a stationary queue of traffic.
The S1600 stationary traffic load shall consist of a uniformly distributed load together with
axle group loads as shown in Figure 7.2.5. The uniformly distributed component of the
S1600 stationary traffic load shall be continuous under the axle group loads and shall be
considered as uniformly distributed over the width of a 3.2 m standard design lane. The
S1600 stationary load shall be positioned laterally within a 3.2 m standard design lane as
shown in Figure 7.2.5.
The uniformly distributed component of the S1600 stationary traffic load shall be
continuous or discontinuous and of any length as may be necessary to produce the most
adverse effects. Likewise, the axle group load position and variable spacing shall be
determined such as to produce the most adverse effects.
24 0 k N 24 0 k N 24 0 k N 24 0 k N
24 k N /m
ELE VATIO N
1. 25 1. 25 3 .75 1. 25 1. 25 Var ies 6. 25 min. 1. 25 1. 25 5.0 1. 25 1. 25 0.6
0. 2 2.0
0.4 3 . 2 m st an d ar d 0.6
design lane
PL AN
FIGURE 7.2.5 S1600 STATIONARY TRAFFIC LOAD
7.3 Heavy load platform

The heavy load platform design load HLP 320 or HLP 400, or an alternative platform
design load, may be specified by the relevant authority. Details of HLP 320 and HLP 400
are given in Figure 7.3.

21 AS 5100.2:2017
The HLP 320 and HLP 400 heavy load platform shall be positioned within two standard
design lanes. The heavy load platform shall be positioned up to 1.0 m laterally from the
centre of two standard design lanes. The two standard design lanes shall be positioned
laterally to create the worst effect unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority.
For bridges with three or more standard design lanes, the unobstructed standard design
lanes shall be loaded with half of either M1600 moving traffic load or the S1600 stationary
traffic load, to create the worst effect, unless the relevant authority specifies otherwise.
Accompanying lane factor for S1600 and M1600 is not applicable to this Clause.
16 a x l e s, s pac e d at 1.8 m c e ntre s
20 0 k N H LP 3 20
Tot al l oad p er a x l e
25 0 k N H LP 4 0 0
ELE VATIO N VIE W

500 500
14 0 0 14 0 0
3 6 0 0 for H LP 3 20
4 5 0 0 for H LP 4 0 0
EN D VIE W OF AN H LP A XLE
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETRES
FIGURE 7.3 LATERAL SPACING OF DUAL WHEELS ALONG AN AXLE FOR HLP
LOADS
7.4 Rail traffic

Where road bridges are to carry rail traffic, the operating authority for the utility shall be
consulted to determine the appropriate design loads and load factors.
7.5 Standard design lanes
The A160, M1600 and S1600 loadings shall be assumed to occupy one standard design lane
of 3.2 m width. The number of standard design lanes shall be as follows:
b
n = (rounded down to next integer) . . . 7.5
3 .2
where
n = number of standard design lanes

AS 5100.2:2017 22
b = width between external barriers ignoring internal kerbs, median barriers and
medians
The full width between external barriers on the bridge shall be designed for road traffic to
allow for future changes to lane markings, unless otherwise specified by the relevant
authority.
These standard design lanes shall be positioned laterally on the bridge to produce the most
adverse effects.
7.6 Accompanying lane factors
If more than one lane is loaded, the A160, M1600, S1600, M1600 tri-axle load or light rail
loading applied to the additional lanes shall be multiplied by the accompanying lane factors
given in Table 7.6.
The number of standard design lanes loaded and the load patterning (standard design lane
numbering) shall be selected to produce the most adverse effects.
For bridges that support vehicle and pedestrian, cyclist path or maintenance traffic, the
accompanying lane factors shall be applied to both the vehicle and pedestrian, cyclist path
or maintenance traffic. The pedestrian, cyclist path or maintenance load shall be considered
as one standard design lane.
For bridges supporting both road and light rail traffic, each light rail track shall be
considered as one standard design lane.
TABLE 7.6
ACCOMPANYING LANE FACTORS
Standard design lane number (n) Accompanying lane factor (ALF i )
1 lane loaded 1.0
2 lanes loaded 1.0 for first lane; and
0.8 for second lane
3 or more lanes loaded 1.0 for first lane;
0.8 for second lane; and
0.4 for third and subsequent lanes
NOTES:
1 First lane—the loaded lane giving the largest effect.
2 Second lane—the loaded lane giving the second largest effect.
3 Third lane—the loaded lane giving the third largest effect.
7.7 Dynamic load allowance

7.7.1 General
The dynamic load allowance ( ) set out in this Clause specifies an increase in the traffic
load resulting from the interaction of moving vehicles and the bridge structure. It shall be
described in terms of the static equivalent of the dynamic and vibratory effects. For design
purposes,  shall be specified as a proportion of the traffic load and shall be applied as
specified in Clause 7.7.2. The dynamic load allowance applies to both the ULS and SLS.
The dynamic load allowance models the dynamic effects of vehicles moving over bridges
with typical road profile irregularities.
7.7.2 Magnitude
The design action is equal to (1 + )  the load factor  the action under consideration.
The value of  for the appropriate loading shall be as given in Table 7.7.2.
For deck joints, the values for  specified in AS 5100.4 shall be used.

23 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 7.7.2
DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (  )
Loading Dynamic load allowance ( )
W80 wheel load 0.4
A160 axle load 0.4
M1600 tri-axle group (see Note 1) 0.35
M1600 (see Note 1) 0.30
S1600 (see Note 1) 0.0
Heavy load platform (see Note 2) 0.1
Centrifugal force, braking force or 0.0
pedestrian load
NOTES:
1 Including the UDL component of the traffic load.
2 A heavy load platform travels at a maximum speed of 10 km/h. A
higher dynamic load allowance (  ) may apply where this speed is
exceeded.
7.7.3 Application
The dynamic load allowance ( ) shall be applied to all parts of the structure extending
down to the ground level.

For parts of the structure below the ground level, the dynamic load allowance to be applied
to each part shall be—
(a) the ground level value for a cover depth of zero;
(b) zero for a cover depth of 2 m or more; or
(c) a linear interpolation between depths of zero and 2 m.
Consideration shall be made of the depth of possible scour when determining ground level.
For buried structures such as pipes, culverts and soil-steel structures, the dynamic load
allowance to be applied to the entire structure shall be—
(i) the ground level value for a cover depth of zero;
(ii) 0.1 for a cover depth of 2 m or more for loads excluding S1600. For S1600 loads, the
dynamic load allowance is zero; or
(iii) a linear interpolation between depths of zero and 2 m.
7.7.4 Dynamic load reversal
Consideration shall be given to the reversal of the dynamic response to traffic load.
(Vibrations may continue and slowly decay after passing of traffic.) In particular, the
minimum reaction on bearings shall take into consideration any reduction that may occur as
a result of dynamic effects.
7.8 Horizontal forces
7.8.1 Centrifugal forces
For bridges on horizontal curves, allowance shall be made for the centrifugal effects of
traffic load on all parts of the structure. The bridge shall be designed to resist the most
adverse co-existing effects induced by the M1600 moving traffic load and the centrifugal
force (Fc), in kilonewtons.

AS 5100.2:2017 24
The centrifugal force (F c) shall be assumed to act at deck level and shall be applied in
accordance with the distribution of load for the M1600 moving traffic load. The centrifugal
force (Fc) shall be calculated as follows:
V2
Fc = Wc . . . 7.8.1(1)
rg
 (0.35 + )Wc . . . 7.8.1(2)

where
V = design traffic speed, in metres per second
r = radius of curve, in metres
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )
Wc = load due to multiple standard design lanes of the M1600 moving traffic load
for the length under consideration, in kilonewtons
No dynamic load allowance shall be considered.
Accompanying lane factors shall be applied, i.e.—
n
=  ALF  M1600
i 1
i i . . . 7.8.1(3)
where
ALFi = accompanying lane factor (see Table 7.6)
 = super elevation of the road, expressed as a ratio (e.g. 4% superelevation is
expressed as 0.04 and adverse super elevation is negative)
7.8.2 Braking forces
Braking effects of traffic shall be considered as a longitudinal force. Braking forces shall be
applied in either direction. The restraint system shall be designed to resist the most adverse
co-existing effects induced by the braking force and the M1600 traffic load. The braking
force shall be applied in accordance with the distribution of the M1600 traffic load.
The braking force shall be assumed to act at the road surface.
The number and lateral position of the standard design lanes on the bridge shall be selected
to produce the most adverse effects.
The most adverse effects from the following scenarios shall be considered:
(a) Single standard design lane The braking force (FBS) applied in a single standard
design lane shall be calculated as follows:
FBS = 0.45WBS . . . 7.8.2(1)
200 kN < FBS < 720 kN
where
WBS = load due to a single lane of the M1600 moving traffic load for the
length under consideration, in kilonewtons, up to a maximum of
1600 kN
No dynamic load allowance shall be included.
FBS shall be applied to any lane of a multi-lane bridge to produce the most adverse
effects.

25 AS 5100.2:2017
(b) Multiple standard design lanes The total braking force (FBM) applied in multiple
standard design lanes shall be calculated as follows:
FBM = 0.15WBM . . . 7.8.2(2)
200 kN < FBM < 1200 kN
where
WBM = load due to multiple standard design lanes of the M1600 moving
traffic load for the length under consideration, in kilonewtons, up to a
maximum of 8000 kN
No dynamic load allowance shall be included.
Accompanying lane factors shall be applied, that is—
n
=  ALF  M1600
i 1
i i . . . 7.8.2(3)
where
ALFi = accompanying lane factor for ith lane where ‘i’ equals 2
or more (see Table 7.6)
The number of standard design lanes to be included shall be limited to those likely to carry
traffic in a single direction, unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority.
When assessing the effects of longitudinal forces on bridge bearings and substructures, the
friction or shear displacement characteristics of expansion bearings and the stiffness of the
substructure shall be taken into account.
7.9 Fatigue load effects
The fatigue design traffic load effects shall be determined from 70% of the effects of a
single A160 axle or 70% of a single M1600 moving traffic load, without UDL, whichever is
more severe. In both cases, a load factor of 1.0 shall be used and the load effects shall be
increased by the dynamic load allowance ( ).
The single A160 axle load or M1600 moving traffic load, without UDL, shall be placed
within any design traffic lane to maximize the fatigue effects for the component under
consideration.
Unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority, the number of fatigue stress cycles to
be used for the calculation of the fatigue capacity of the structural element under
consideration shall be as follows:
(a) For the fatigue design load of 0.70  (A160 axle load)  (1 + ):
(current number of heavy vehicles per lane per day)  4  104  (route factor).
(b) For the fatigue design load of 0.70  (M1600 moving traffic load without UDL) 
(1 + ):
(current number of heavy vehicles per lane per day)  2  104(L0.5 )  (route factor).
where L is the effective span, in metres, and is defined as follows:
(i) For positive bending moments, L is the actual span in which the bending moment is
being considered.
(ii) For negative moment over interior supports, L is the average of the adjacent spans.
(iii) For end shear, L is the actual span.
(iv) For reactions, L is the sum of the adjacent spans.
(v) For cross-girders, L is twice the longitudinal spacing of the cross-girders.
AS 5100.2:2017 26
Unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority, the route factor shall be—
(A) for principal interstate freeways and highways .......................................................1.0;
(B) for urban freeways .................................................................................................0.7;
(C) for other rural routes ....................................................................................... 0.5; and
(D) for urban roads other than freeways ....................................................................... 0.3.
On interstate and other rural routes where there are two or more lanes in one direction, the
number of heavy vehicles per lane per day shall be the total of the heavy vehicles travelling
in that direction. On urban routes where there are two or more lanes in one direction, the
number of heavy vehicles per lane per day shall be 65% of the total number of heavy
vehicles in that direction.
The fatigue design traffic load effects and relevant stress cycles shall be applied to each
design lane independently.
A fatigue stress cycle shall be taken to be the maximum peak to peak stress from the
passage of the relevant fatigue design load.
Heavy vehicles shall be as defined by the Austroads Guide to Traffic Management, Part 3:
Traffic Studies and Analysis, Table A8, i.e., Classes 3 to 12.
The current number of heavy vehicles shall be based on the year the bridge is to be put into
service.
This Clause does not apply to fatigue design of roadway deck joints.
7.10 Load factors
For ultimate, serviceability and fatigue limit state design loads, the load factors for design
road traffic loads shall be as given in Table 7.10(A).
The load factor to be applied in calculating the design centrifugal and braking forces,
excluding HLP loads, shall be as given in Table 7.10(B). The HLP load factors shall be
specified by the relevant authority.
Each of the design horizontal forces due to road traffic load shall be applied separately but
in combination with the coexisting M1600 traffic load and such load cases or any
combination thereof shall be considered as a single vehicular traffic load specified in
Clause 23.1.4.

27 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 7.10(A)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN ROAD TRAFFIC LOADS (  Q)
Limit state
Loading
Ultimate Serviceability Fatigue
W80 wheel 1.8 1.0 0.0
A160 axle 1.8 1.0 1.0 (see Note 1)
M1600 1.8 1.0 1.0 (see Notes 1 and 2)
S1600 1.8 1.0 0.0
Heavy load platform (HLP) 1.5 1.0 0.0
Half of SM1600 traffic load in
unobstructed lanes when applied 1.8 1.0 0.0
in conjunction with HLP loading
NOTES:
1 70% of traffic load.
2 Excludes uniformly distributed load.
TABLE 7.10(B)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN
CENTRIFUGAL AND BRAKING FORCES ( Q)

Limit state
Force
Ultimate Serviceability
Centrifugal force 1.8 1.0
Braking force 1.8 1.0
7.11 Deflection of superstructure

The deflection limits of a road bridge under traffic for the SLS shall be appropriate to the
structure and its intended use, the nature of the loading and the elements supported by it.
Notwithstanding this requirement, the deflection for the SLS under traffic load plus
dynamic load allowance shall be not greater than 1/600 of the span or 1/300 of the
cantilever projection, as applicable.
The traffic load to be used for calculating deflection shall be one M1600 moving traffic
load, without UDL, including dynamic load allowance, placed longitudinally in each design
lane to produce the maximum deflection, taking into account the accompanying lane
factors.
NOTE: In calculating the deflection, the following assumptions may be made:
(a) The deflection of the bridge may be averaged across all beams.
(b) The design cross-section of the bridge may include continuous portions of permanent road
furniture contributing to stiffness, provided adequate connection is included to ensure
composite action with the bridge deck.
In addition, road traffic bridges shall be designed so that—
(a) deflections do not infringe on clearance diagrams;
(b) hog deflection does not exceed 1/300 of the span; and
(c) no sag deflection occurs under permanent loads.

AS 5100.2:2017 28
7.12 Distribution of road traffic loads through fill

For all types of roadway pavements and fill above buried structures, the distribution of
SM1600 design loads, with the factors and allowances applied in accordance with this
Standard, shall be as specified below, unless calculated otherwise by an analytical
modelling procedure approved by the relevant authority. This requirement shall apply to all
types of roadway pavements.
SM1600 design wheel loads shall be distributed through the fill cover over the structure,
from the imprint of the rectangular wheel contact area at the road surface to a rectangular
distribution area on the surface of the structure, proportioned in accordance with the wheel
contact area dimensions.
The length of the sides of the distribution rectangle shall be determined as follows:
(a) For depths of fill cover from 0 to 200 mm—sides of distribution rectangle = sides of
wheel contact rectangle + 0.5 h, where h is the depth of fill cover in millimetres.
(b) For depths of fill cover greater than 200 mm—sides of distribution rectangle = sides
of wheel contact rectangles + 100 mm + 1.2  (h – 200).
Where distribution areas from several wheel loads overlap, the total load may be considered
to be evenly distributed on the surface over the total area of distribution.
The uniformly distributed component of the SM1600 design load shall be applied with no
longitudinal distribution. Transverse distribution shall be as for wheel loads.
The total width of transverse distribution shall not exceed the total width of the structure
supporting the fill.

29 AS 5100.2:2017
a b
Re c t ang ular wheel c o nt ac t Re c t ang ular d i str i butio n
area at t h e road sur fac e area o n t h e sur fac e of
h t h e str u c ture
ℓ t = b + 10 0 + [ 1. 2 x ( h - 20 0 )] ℓ i = a + 10 0 + [ 1. 2 x ( h - 20 0 )]
D ire c t i o n of tr ave l
(a) For d e pt h s of fill greater t han 20 0
a
Re c t ang ular wheel c o nt ac t
area at t h e road sur fac e
O ver l a p of
d i s tr i b u t i o n area
ℓi
ℓt
Tot al l oad d i str i bute d D ire c t i o n of tr ave l

eve nly over area ( ℓ t x ℓ i )
(b) O ver l a p p in g l oad d i str i but i o n area s

LEGEND:
a, b = lengths of the sides of the wheel contact area
ℓ i , ℓ t = lengths of the sides of the distribution area on the surface of the structure
h = depth of fill (depth from road surface to surface of the structure)
FIGURE 7.12 WHEEL LOADS THROUGH FILL
8 PEDESTRIAN, CYCLIST PATH AND MAINTENANCE TRAFFIC (Q)

8.1 Pedestrian and cyclist path loads
Pedestrian, cyclist path or combined (that is, shared path) bridges, ramps and stairs,
independent or part of a road and/or rail traffic bridges that provide public access shall be
designed for the following, unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority:
(a) The load per square metre of loaded area shall be as shown in Figure 8.1. The loaded
area shall be the area related to the structural element under consideration.
(b) Where the relevant authority specifies that the bridge be designed for crowd loading,
such as for special events, a minimum design load of 5 kPa shall be used.

AS 5100.2:2017 30
(c) Where it is possible for a light vehicle not exceeding 4.5 t to access the pedestrian or
cyclist path bridge, the bridge shall be designed to carry a concentrated load of at
least 20 kN on an area of 200 mm  200 mm, with no dynamic load allowance.
(d) Stairs treads and landings shall be designed for the more severe of the following live
loads:
(i) Uniformly distributed load of 5.0 kPa.
or
(ii) Point load of 4.5 kN.
or
(iii) Line load of 2.2 kN/m.
(e) Where it is required for maintenance, inspection or emergency vehicles to access the
bridge, the loading shall be specified by the relevant authority.
NOTES:
1 For barrier loading, see Clause 12.5.
2 The dynamic load allowance () is 0.0 (see Table 7.7.2).
For p e d e str i an an d cyc li st

pat h br i d g e s in d e p e n d e nt
of t h e road or r ailway
br i d g e su p er str u c ture
5
4
LOAD INTENSIT Y, kPa
2
For p e d e str i an an d
c yc li s t p at h s at t ac h e d
1 to t h e road or r ailway
br i d g e su p er str u c ture
0 10 85 10 0
LOADED ARE A , m 2
FIGURE 8.1 PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLIST PATH LOADS
8.2 Maintenance load on service walkways not intended for public use
For rail bridges fitted with a service walkway or service platform, the minimum load shall
be 5 kPa, unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority.
For all other structures fitted with a service walkway or service platform, loads shall be
determined in accordance with AS 1657, unless otherwise specified by the relevant
authority.
8.3 Load factors
For ULS and SLS design loads, the load factors for design pedestrian, cyclist path and
maintenance loads shall be as given in Table 8.3.

31 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 8.3
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN PEDESTRIAN, CYCLIST PATH
AND MAINTENANCE TRAFFIC LOADS ( Q)
Limit state
Loading
Pedestrian, cyclist path and
1.5 1.0
maintenance load
8.4 Deflection
For pedestrian and cyclist path bridges, the deflection under the SLS traffic load shall be
not greater than 1/600 of the span or 1/300 of the cantilever projection, as applicable.
The traffic load to be used for calculating deflection shall be in accordance with Clause 8.1.
In addition, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges shall be designed so that—
(a) deflections under all SLS load cases do not infringe on clearance diagrams;
(b) deflections under permanent effects do not permit ponding of water on the bridge;
(c) where a hog deflection under permanent effects applies, it does not exceed 1/300 of
the span; and
(d) no sag deflection occurs under permanent loads.
9 RAIL TRAFFIC (Q)

9.1 General
Rail bridges shall be designed for the loads specified in this Clause (9), unless otherwise
specified by the rail authority. Bridges carrying cane rail traffic and/or other special
applications shall be designed for loads specified by the relevant authority.
9.2 300LA design rail traffic load
The 300LA load consists of a number of simulated axle groups with four axles, each having
a load of 300 kN, and axle spacings of 1.7 m, 1.1 m and 1.7 m. To simulate coupled
locomotives, a 360 kN axle load shall be added 2 m in front of the first simulated axle
group, as shown in Figure 9.2(A). The spacing between the centres of each simulated axle
group shall vary between 12 m and 20 m to give maximum effect in the member under
consideration, as shown in Figure 9.2(B).
NOTE: Appendix C tabulates values of bending moment and shear force due to 300LA loading.
The position of the loads and the number of axle groups shall be selected to give maximum
load effects in the member under consideration.

AS 5100.2:2017 32
SIM U L ATED COUPLER SIM U L ATED

A XLE GROUP LO CO M OTIVE
300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 360 kN
1.7 1.1 1.7 2.0
FIGURE 9.2(A) 300LA RAIL TRAFFIC LOADS—AXLE LOADS
SIM U L ATED SIM U L ATED

A XLE GROUP LO CO M OTIVE
12 to 20 12 to 20 12 to 20 12 to 20
( Var i e s) ( Var i e s) ( Var i e s) ( Var i e s)
Re peat num b er
of a x l e g r o u p s a s
n e c e s s ar y
FIGURE 9.2(B) 300LA RAIL TRAFFIC LOADS—AXLE GROUP SPACINGS
9.3 Light rail traffic design load

The light rail traffic design load shall be based on 150LA, derived by multiplying the
300LA rail traffic loads specified in Clause 9.2 by a factor of 0.5, with nine (9) axles.
The nine axles shall comprise the simulated locomotive axle plus two groups of four
trailing axles.
For bridges where queuing of light rail vehicles is possible, additional trailing axle groups
may be included, as specified by the relevant authority
9.4 Multiple track factor for rail bridges
When loading a number of tracks simultaneously, the multiple track factors given in
Table 9.4 shall be used, as appropriate.
The number of tracks loaded and the load patterning shall be selected to produce the most
adverse effects in the member under consideration.

33 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 9.4
MULTIPLE TRACK FACTORS
Number of tracks loaded Multiple track factor
1 1.00
2 1.00 for both tracks
3 1.00 for two tracks and 0.85 for the third track
1.00 for two tracks, 0.85 for the third track and 0.70
4
for the fourth track
1.00 for two tracks, 0.85 for the third track, 0.70 for
5 or more
the fourth track and 0.60 for the remaining tracks
9.5 Dynamic load allowance

9.5.1 General
The dynamic load allowance (α) for rail traffic load effects shall be a proportion of the
static rail traffic load, and shall be calculated by the methods specified in this Clause. It
shall have the same value for all structural material types. The value of α shall depend on
the characteristic length (Lα).
The dynamic load allowance shall apply to both the ULS and SLS.
The design action is equal to (1 + α)  the load factor  the action under consideration.
In cases where a member acts in two different modes, e.g. as a deck support and also as part
of the main girder, the dynamic load allowance shall be calculated separately for the
structural actions in each mode, and the actions summed.
9.5.2 Characteristic length (Lα)
For main girders and components of rail bridge superstructures, the characteristic length
(Lα) for each component shall be dependent on the structural geometry. The values of Lα for
superstructure elements shall be as given in Table 9.5.2.
For abutments, Lα shall be the length of the supported span.
For piers, Lα shall be the sum of the lengths of the loaded adjacent spans.
For bearings, Lα shall be per Table 9.5.2 for the member support.

AS 5100.2:2017 34
TABLE 9.5.2
CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH (L )
Case Characteristic length (L )
Bridge members, types of bridge
No. m
Floor members
1 Stringers Cross-girder spacing +3.0
2 End stringers Cross-girder spacing
3 Cantilevered stringers 0.5
4 Cross-girders, including cantilevered cross-
girders, loaded by simply supported stringers and Twice the cross-girder spacing +3.0
continuous deck elements
5 End cross-girders, including cantilevered end
4.0
cross-girders
6 Deck slabs between supports Span of the main girders or twice the span of the
deck slab, whichever is less
7 Cantilevered deck slabs Span of the main girders or twice the distance
between each support, whichever is less
8 Suspension bars or supports loaded by cross- The values to be used shall correspond to those
girders only applying to the cross-girder, as given in Cases 4
and 5
Main girders
9 Simply supported main girders Span of main girders
10 Continuous main girders over n spans where— for—
L m = 1/n (L 1 + L 2 ……+L n ) n = 2 3 4 5
x = 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
L  = xL m , but  L max.
11 Cantilever portions of cantilever bridges Length of the cantilevered portion plus the span
of any suspended girder supported by the
cantilever
12 Suspended girders of suspended span bridges Span of the suspended girder
13 Arches Half span
14 Buried structures (e.g. pipes, culverts, buried Half span
arches)
15 Plate web girders at bottom of welded stiffeners 0.5
16 Truss members:
(a) Top and bottom chords Three times the length from adjacent panel points
(b) Verticals Three times the length between chords
(c) Diagonals not intersected by members Three times the horizontal or vertical projection,
complying with this Standard whichever is the shorter
(d) Diagonals intersected by members Six times the horizontal or vertical projection of
complying with this Standard the overall length, whichever is the shorter
17 Lattice girder members:
(a) Top and bottom flanges and webs As for main girders
(b) Lattice members Six times the horizontal or vertical projection of
the overall length from web to web, whichever is
the shorter
(continued)

35 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 9.5.2 (continued)
Case Characteristic length (L )

Bridge members, types of bridge
No. m
18 Bracing members:
(a) Horizontal or vertical members parallel to Three times the member length
or perpendicular to the track
(b) Diagonal members with respect to Item (a), Three times the projected length horizontally or
if not intersected by members complying vertically, parallel to or perpendicular to the
with this Standard track, whichever is the shorter
(c) Diagonal members, with respect to Six times the projected overall length
Item (a), if intersected by members horizontally or vertically, parallel to or
complying with this Standard perpendicular to the track, whichever is the
shorter
LEGEND:
n = number of continuous main girder spans
L1, L2, Ln = span lengths of a continuous structure, in metres
x = coefficient (Case 10)
Lm = average span length (Case 10)
L max. = largest of the spans L 1 , L 2 , L n , in metres
L = characteristic length
9.5.3 Dynamic load allowance for bending effects

The value of the dynamic load allowance (α) for bending moment for ballasted deck spans,
open deck spans or spans with direct rail fixation spans shall be calculated as follows:
  2.16  
 =  0.2   0.5  0.27   0.67 
 . . . 9.5.3
  Lα  0.20  
where
L = characteristic length in metres
The value of  for steam locomotives shall be increased by 20%.
Transoms for open deck bridges and local effects for direct fixed tracks shall be designed
with a dynamic load allowance of 1.0.
Where a transition approach to a bridge abutment is not provided, α shall be increased by
not less than 50% of the calculated dynamic load allowance unless otherwise approved by
the relevant authority.
9.5.4 Application
For all parts of the structure extending down to the ground level, the dynamic load
allowance (α) shall be as specified in Clause 9.5.3.
For all parts of the structure below ground, culverts and soil steel structures below the
ground level, α shall be linearly transitioned from the ground level value to zero (0) at a
cover depth of 2 m. For structures in embankments, the ground level shall be taken as the
underside of the ballast.
The dynamic load allowance established for the appropriate cover depth shall apply to the
entire structure. The depth of the cover shall be measured from the underside of the ballast.
9.5.5 Dynamic load allowance for other load effects
The dynamic load allowance (α) for shear, torsion and reactions shall be taken as 0.67 of
the value for bending moment.
Where the application of the dynamic load allowance leads to greater safety or stability, e.g.
against overturning, α shall be taken as zero (0).

AS 5100.2:2017 36
Where deflections are to be calculated for serviceability loads, including dynamic load
allowance, 0.67 of the dynamic load allowance () shall be used.
Where a transition approach to a bridge abutment is not provided, α shall be increased by
9.5.6 Dynamic load reversal
Consideration shall be given to the reversal of the dynamic response to live load.
(Vibrations may continue and slowly decay after passing of traffic.) In particular, the
minimum reaction on bearings shall allow for the reduction, which may occur from the
results of the dynamic effects.
9.6 Distribution of rail traffic load
9.6.1 General
The distribution of rail traffic load to the supporting members shall be calculated using a
rigorous analysis in accordance with the appropriate clauses of the relevant material Part of
the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series.
In the absence of a rigorous analysis, rail traffic loads shall be deemed to be distributed as
set out in Clauses 9.6.2 to 9.6.5, as appropriate.
9.6.2 Open deck steel rail bridges
Timber bridge transoms shall be designed on the assumption that the maximum wheel load
on each rail shall be distributed equally to all transoms or fractions thereof within a length
of 1.2 m, but shall be not greater than three transoms.
For the design of beams, the rail traffic load shall be distributed and shall be applied via the
transoms as above. In such cases, additional longitudinal distribution of such loads shall not
be assumed.
9.6.3 Ballasted deck steel rail bridges
Provided that sleepers are spaced at no more than 700 mm centres, and not less than
150 mm of ballast is provided under them, the load from each axle may be uniformly
distributed longitudinally over a length of 1.1 m, and uniformly distributed laterally over a
width equal to the length of the sleeper plus the minimum distance from the bottom of
sleeper to the top of the beams. This width shall be not greater than 4.0 m, the distance
between track centres of multiple track bridges, or the width of the deck between ballast
retainers.
9.6.4 Ballasted deck concrete rail bridges
Rail traffic loads on ballasted deck concrete bridges shall be uniformly distributed
longitudinally over a length of 1.1 m, plus the depth of ballast under the sleeper, plus twice
the effective depth of slab. The total length shall be not greater than the axle spacing.
The loads shall be uniformly distributed laterally over a width equal to the length of the
sleepers plus the depth of ballast below the bottom of the sleepers, plus twice the effective
depth of the concrete slab, unless limited by the extent of the structure. This width shall not
be greater than the distance between centres of adjacent tracks on multiple track bridges.
9.6.5 Direct fixation
The distribution of rail wheel loads through directly fixed track shall be determined on the
basis of the relative stiffness of the rail, the rail fixing supports and the superstructure.

37 AS 5100.2:2017
9.7 Horizontal forces

9.7.1 Centrifugal forces
For rail bridges on horizontal curves, allowance shall be made for the centrifugal effects of
rail traffic load by applying a centrifugal force (Fc) corresponding to each axle load
horizontally through a point 2 m above the top of the rail.
The horizontal centrifugal force resulting from rail traffic loads shall be proportional to the
design rail traffic load, and for each axle, Fc (in kilonewtons) shall be calculated as follows:
V 2A
Fc  . . . 9.7.1
rg
where
V = design speed, in metres per second
A = axle load, in kilonewtons
r = radius of curve, in metres
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
The specified centrifugal force shall not be increased by the dynamic load allowance.
Centrifugal and nosing forces due to rail traffic load shall not be applied simultaneously.
9.7.2 Braking and traction forces

9.7.2.1 General
Rail bridges of all deck types shall be designed for loads arising from longitudinal braking
and traction forces in combination with their coexisting rail traffic loads. These forces shall
be applied to the top of rail and be determined using one of the following methods:
(a) The empirical method.
(b) The rational method.
The empirical method requires that occupied tracks be loaded for the full length of the
bridge. The rational method permits partial loading of tracks.
Where account is to be taken of tracks that are subject to variable and/or partial rail vehicle
loadings, the rational method shall be used as approved by the relevant rail authorities.
Braking and traction forces for a 300LA rail vehicle shall be taken to act at heights of 2.0 m
and 0.9 m respectively above top of rail. For specific rail vehicles, these heights shall be
derived from data supplied by their manufacturers if required.
Traction forces shall be assumed to be applied uniformly through the axles of driver cars or
locomotives, as applicable, whilst braking forces shall be assumed to be applied uniformly
through all axles, unless otherwise directed by the relevant rail authorities.
Dynamic load allowances shall not be applied to braking and tractions forces derived from
either of the above methods.
For bridges that carry both rail traffic and road traffic, the relevant rail and road authorities
shall be consulted.
9.7.2.2 Empirical method
For a 300LA rail vehicle, the longitudinal forces per track applied to a bridge shall be
calculated as follows:
(a) Braking forces:
BF = 200 + 15LLF . . . 9.7.2.2(1)

AS 5100.2:2017 38
where
BF = longitudinal braking force, in kilonewtons
LLF = total length of the bridge, in metres
(b) Traction forces:
TF = 200 + 25LLF for LLF  25 m . . . 9.7.2.2(2)
825 + 15 (LLF  25) for 25 m < LLF  50 m . . . 9.7.2.2(3)
1200 + 7.5 (LLF  50) for 50 m < LLF  250 m . . . 9.7.2.2(4)
2700 + 5.0 (LLF  250) for 250 m < LLF . . . 9.7.2.2(5)
where
TF = longitudinal traction force, in kilonewtons
LLF = total length of the bridge, in metres
For specific rail traffic loads, the above braking and traction forces shall be multiplied by a
factor equal to the equivalent line load intensity (in kilonewtons per metre) of the specific
rail traffic load divided by the 300LA line load intensity of 100 kN/m. For a 150LA light
rail vehicle, this factor shall be taken as 0.5.
For multiple track bridges, the above longitudinal rail forces shall be multiplied by the
appropriate multiple coexistence factors from Table 9.7.2.2 when used in combination to
produce the most adverse effect.
TABLE 9.7.2.2
BRAKING AND TRACTION FORCES MULTIPLE COEXISTENCE FACTORS
Number of rail vehicles Multiple coexistence factor
1 1.00
2 1.00 for both rail vehicles
3 1.00 for two rail vehicles and 0.5 for the third rail vehicle
4 or more 1.00 for two rail vehicles, 0.5 for the third rail vehicle and 0.25 for
the remaining rail vehicles
9.7.2.3 Rational method

The relevant rail authorities shall stipulate the bridge-specific design parameters to be used
in applying the rational method, which shall include, but not be limited to, the following
data:
(a) Rail vehicle specifications, including the following where applicable:
(i) Critical rail vehicle dimensions.
(ii) Rail vehicle tare and passenger loads.
(iii) Rail vehicle traction characteristics.
(iv) Rail vehicle braking characteristics.
(b) Minimum clear longitudinal distances between consecutive rail vehicles on the same
track.
(c) Guidelines for multiple rail vehicle combinations.
For the purposes of this Clause, a rail vehicle is defined as a single train comprising—
(i) driver cars and trailer cars for an electric passenger train; or

39 AS 5100.2:2017
(ii) locomotives and carriages for a diesel passenger train; or

(iii) locomotives and wagons for a diesel freight train; or
(iv) special rail vehicle consist, such as a heritage train.
A bridge shall be analysed using the above parameters so as to produce the most adverse
effect. Where this requires a bridge to be loaded simultaneously with a number of rail
vehicles, the forces produced by each of these rail vehicles shall be multiplied by their
respective multiple coexistence factors derived from Table 9.7.2 when combined with the
effects from the other rail vehicles that are also present on the bridge.
9.7.2.4 Distribution of forces
The distribution of the longitudinal forces derived in Clauses 9.7.2.2 and 9.7.2.3 through a
bridge structure shall be computed using a valid rail-structure interaction model approved
by the relevant rail authorities. This model shall take account of all relevant factors, such as
the following, where applicable:
(a) Bridge-specific rail vehicle design parameters.
(b) Track and bridge alignment.
(c) Continuity/jointing of rails, including rail load transfer devices.
(d) Stiffnesses of rails, turnouts, crossovers and the like.
(e) Stiffnesses of ballast and transoms.

(f) Longitudinal deformation characteristics of rail fixings.
(g) Longitudinal shear stiffnesses of bridge bearings.
(h) Longitudinal articulation of bridge superstructures.
(i) Longitudinal stiffnesses of bridge piers and abutments, including their foundations.
(j) Differential temperatures between rail and bridge,
(k) Shrinkage and creep of concrete superstructures.
(l) For the empirical method, modelling of the trackform for the extent of the bridge
deck only. For the rational method, modelling of the trackform and the appropriate
rail vehicle loadings for 100 m minimum beyond each bridge abutment.
9.7.3 Nosing loads
Rail bridges that are intended to carry 300LA rail traffic loads shall be designed to resist a
lateral nosing load of 100 kN applied at top of rail level in either direction and at any point
along the structure.
For light rail, the nosing load shall be the value for 300LA loading multiplied by a factor of
0.5. For rail loads other than 300LA, this load shall be adjusted by the ratio of the
maximum axle load in the specified design traffic load to the 300 kN load. Nosing loads—
(a) shall not be increased by the dynamic load allowance; and
(b) shall not be reduced at low speeds.
NOTE: Nosing loads are independent from the speed.
Centrifugal and nosing forces due to rail traffic load shall not be applied simultaneously.
9.7.4 Loads on ballast kerbs
For ballasted rail bridges with kerbs required to retain the ballast and the effects of
transverse horizontal loads from rail traffic, the loads shall include ballast pressure and the
effects of centrifugal force and nosing load.

AS 5100.2:2017 40
The horizontal load from an individual axle shall be distributed longitudinally along the
face of the kerb over a length of 1 m plus twice the distance from facing end of sleeper to
the inner face of the kerb. The load shall be applied at the top of sleeper level.
9.8 Fatigue load
9.8.1 Fatigue design traffic load
The fatigue design traffic load for rail bridges shall be the design rail traffic load and half
of the design dynamic load allowance. The distance between the centres of the axle groups
(Lv) shall be varied between 12 m and 20 m to produce the maximum fatigue design stress
range ( f * ) (see Clause 9.8.2).
9.8.2 Fatigue design stress range ( f * )
The fatigue design stress range ( f * ) in any element of a bridge structure, shall be derived
from the passage of the fatigue design traffic load over the bridge. It shall be the algebraic
difference between the maximum and minimum stresses caused by that load.
NOTE: Stresses and stress ranges caused by other load effects need not be included.
9.8.3 Effective number of stress cycles (n)
The effective number of stress cycles (n) of the fatigue design stress range ( f * ) to be
considered in the design of the structure shall be calculated as follows:
n = CTnT . . . 9.8.3
where
CT = base number of load cycles for the track category, as given in Table 9.8.4
nT = number of equivalent stress cycles of amplitude f * per train, which depends
on Lf and Lv, as given in Table 9.8.3
Lf = span of main girders, trusses or stringers; or
cross-girder spacing for cross-girders
Lv = distance between the centres of axle groups (i.e. the length of the
vehicle)
TABLE 9.8.3
VALUES OF nT
Lf nT
< 2.5 240
2.5 < L f < 9.0 60.0
3
  2 L v  Lf  
60   + 2
9.0 < L f < 25.0  Lf 
Max . 60
Min . 2
> 25.0 2.0
9.8.4 Track category for fatigue load

The base number of load cycles (C T) for fatigue load depends on the track category. It shall
be not less than the values given in Table 9.8.4 unless otherwise approved by the relevant
authority.

41 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 9.8.4
VALUES OF CT
Track category CT
Heavy haul freight 6  10 5
All passenger and 1  10 5
light rail lines
Main line freight 1  10 5
Branch line freight 1  10 4
9.8.5 Multiple track bridges

For elements of multiple track rail bridges that are subject to loads from more than one
track, the fatigue loads, both the fatigue design traffic load specified in Clause 9.8.1 and the
fatigue design stress range specified in Clause 9.8.2, shall be determined from the full
fatigue design traffic load on one track, and a load on the other track(s) of 80% of their full
fatigue design traffic load with no dynamic load allowance.
NOTE: The fatigue calculations for multiple track bridges may also be carried out by estimating
the number of load events in the life of the element in which two or more trains will be loading
the element under consideration at any one time. If the effect of the load from multiple tracks
results in a stress range more severe than that due to a single track, a cumulative damage
calculation for the cases of single-track and multiple-track loads should be performed.
9.9 Load factors

For ULS, SLS and fatigue limit state design loads, the load factors for the design rail traffic
load shall be as given in Table 9.9(A).
The load factors to be applied in calculating centrifugal, nosing and longitudinal forces
shall be as given in Table 9.9(B).
Each of the design horizontal forces due to rail load shall be applied simultaneously with
the vertical rail load and such load cases shall be considered a single load, as specified in
Clause 23.1.4.
Centrifugal forces and nosing loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
TABLE 9.9(A)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN RAIL TRAFFIC LOAD ( Q)
Limit state
Load
300LA rail traffic load 1.6 1.0 1.0
TABLE 9.9(B)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN RAIL HORIZONTAL LOADS
Limit state
Traffic load
Centrifugal forces 1.6 1.0 N/A
Nosing and kerb forces 1.6 1.0 N/A
Longitudinal braking and traction 1.6 1.0 N/A
forces

AS 5100.2:2017 42
9.10 Deflection limits

The deflection limits of a rail bridge under traffic for SLS shall be appropriate to the
structure and its intended use, the nature of the loading and the elements supported by it.
Notwithstanding this requirement, the deflection of rail bridges for SLS under traffic load
plus dynamic load allowance shall be not greater than 1/640 of the span and 1/320 of the
cantilever projection.
NOTE: In order not to detract from their appearance, bridges should be designed so that their hog
does not exceed 1/300 of the span and they do not sag under permanent loads.
Rail bridges shall not deflect so that they uncouple rail traffic carriages or wagons nor they
infringe clearance diagrams.
Rail bridge superstructures with open deck or directly fixed track and span lengths greater
than 20 m shall be cambered. The camber shall be determined such that the rail track shall
be at its theoretical level under the effects of the permanently applied loads; for example,
dead load, superimposed dead load, long-term prestressing, shrinkage and creep effects
where applicable, and half of the design rail traffic loads, excluding dynamic load
allowance.
10 MINIMUM RESTRAINT LOAD

To ensure that the superstructure has sufficient lateral restraint to resist lateral forces not
otherwise accounted for in the design, a positive lateral restraint system between the
superstructure and the substructure shall be provided at piers and abutments.
For continuous superstructures, lateral restraints may be omitted at some piers, provided
each continuous section of the superstructure is adequately restrained.
The restraint system for each continuous section of the superstructure shall be capable of
resisting an ultimate design horizontal force normal to the bridge centre-line of 500 kN or
5% of the superstructure dead load at that support, whichever is greater. Supports providing
this lateral restraint shall also be designed to resist this design force. A load factor 1.0 shall
be used. The 500 kN horizontal force may, subject to authority approval, be reduced to
200 kN or 5% of the superstructure dead load for pedestrian bridges crossing low flood
velocity creeks or gullies.
Restraints shall have sufficient lateral clearance to allow thermal movements, especially on
wide and curved superstructures.
If the transverse load requirement specified in other parts of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series is
greater than the requirements of this Clause, the restraints shall be deemed to satisfy the
requirements of this Clause.
NOTE: Friction is not considered a positive restraint.
Except for bridges crossing low flood velocity creeks or gullies, and where there is uplift at
a bearing or support point under a combination of 500 kN acting upwards on the
superstructure and the ultimate minimum permanent vertical load, a positive vertical
restraint shall be provided to resist the uplift force.
11 COLLISION LOADS
11.1 General
Collision protection shall be considered in accordance with AS 5100.1. Collision loads shall
be considered at the ULS with a load factor of 1.0. The collision loads shall be as specified
in Clauses 11.2 to 11.6 and load combinations in accordance with Clause 23, where
applicable.

43 AS 5100.2:2017
Where an alternative load path is to be provided for road bridges in accordance with
AS 5100.1 Clause 15.3.3, the superstructure shall be designed with sufficient redundancy to
be capable of supporting the dead load plus a minimum 20% of the design traffic load
(gG + gsGgs + 0.2QQ) at the ULS with one or more piers or columns removed. The
number of supports to be removed and the traffic load for the redundancy action shall be
determined by a risk analysis approved by all relevant authorities.
11.2 Collision load from road traffic
For the purpose of this Clause, support elements are piers, columns, abutments and walls
that provide vertical supports to overhead structures. It also includes support elements for
developments adjacent to or over a roadway.
The supports for a bridge or other structure as specified above, that is within the clear zone,
as defined by Austroads Guide to Road Design (Part 3), shall be designed to resist a
minimum equivalent static load of 2700 kN acting in any direction in a horizontal plane.
The load shall be applied 1.2 m above ground level. This load shall be considered at the
ULS.
A load factor of 1.0 shall be used for the ULS.
NOTE: This load does not represent a head-on collision. Head-on collision loads can be
significantly higher and are outside of the scope of this Standard.
11.3 Loads on protection beams
Where specified by the relevant authority, protection beams shall be installed to protect the
superstructure of low clearance bridges from impact from road vehicles. They shall be
designed for the ultimate loads given in Table 11.3, with a load factor of 1.0.
Protection beam supports shall be capable of resisting loads 25% greater than the capacity
of the protection beam itself.
TABLE 11.3
ULTIMATE LOADS ON PROTECTION BEAMS
ULS
Load
kN
1000 (towards the bridge)
Horizontal
750 (away from the bridge)
Vertical (uplift) 500
11.4 Collision load from rail traffic

11.4.1 General
This Clause applies to all structures above and within 20 m adjacent to rail tracks, such
as—
(a) rail bridges;
(b) road bridges;
(c) pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance bridges;
(d) deflection walls and crash walls;
(e) air space developments;
(f) external developments; and
(g) similar structures in underground railways.

AS 5100.2:2017 44
This Clause does not apply to—

(i) structures that only support signals, overhead wiring, lighting or communications
equipment;
(ii) gang sheds adjacent to tracks;
(iii) waiting rooms and ticket offices on platforms.
In addition to the design requirements specified herein, any other design requirements of
the relevant rail authority shall be satisfied.
The loads mentioned herein shall not be reduced when the design rail traffic load is less
than 300LA.
For light rail, all collision loads shall be the same as for 300LA loads.
11.4.2 Collision loads on support elements
11.4.2.1 General
For the purpose of this Clause, support elements are piers, columns, abutments and walls
that provide vertical supports to overhead and adjacent structures. They also include
deflection and crash walls to protect bridges and support elements for developments
adjacent to or over a rail line.
11.4.2.2 Frangible pier

The design loads for a frangible pier shall be determined from a risk assessment undertaken
in accordance with AS 5100.1 Clause 13.3.2.
11.4.2.3 Support within 10 m of track centre-line
Unless otherwise specified by the rail authority, supports located within 10 m of the centre-
line of the rail track, which do not comply with the redundancy requirements of AS 5100.1,
shall be designed to resist the following minimum collision loads, applied simultaneously:
(a) 4000 kN parallel to rails.
(b) 1500 kN normal to rails.
The loads specified in Items (a) and (b) shall be applied horizontally at 2 m above rail level
distributed over a length of 2.0 m by 0.5 m.
NOTE: These loads do not represent a head-on collision. Head-on collision loads can be
significantly higher and are outside of the scope of this Standard.
11.4.2.4 Support elements located between 10 m and 20 m from track centre-line.
Where supports are located between 10 m and 20 m from the centre-line of the rail track, a
risk analysis shall be carried out and approved by the relevant rail authority, which shall
determine the required level of protection. If the level of redundancy does not meet the
redundancy requirements of AS 5100.1, support elements shall be designed to resist a
collision load of 1500 kN, acting at any angle in the horizontal plane directed towards the
support from the adjacent track centre-line, applied at 2 m above the ground level adjacent
to the support.
NOTE: Some rail authorities permit relaxation of this loading where platforms, under certain
conditions, provide protection to the columns.

45 AS 5100.2:2017
11.4.3 Bridge and structural components within 10 m of the centre-line of the rail track
Any part of any structure specified in Clause 11.4.1, including the superstructure, within
10 m horizontally and 5 m vertically of the centre-line of the nearest rail track, shall be
designed to resist a minimum collision load of 500 kN. The collision load shall be applied
in any direction and at any height, directed towards the component from the adjacent track
centre-line, except downwards. Above 5 m and up to 10 m vertically above the rail track
level, this collision load shall vary linearly from 500 kN at 5 m to zero at 10 m. When
applied vertically upwards, the force shall be distributed over an area of one square metre,
to allow for roof crushing of the rail vehicle.
Platforms shall not be assumed to provide protection to permit reduction of this collision
load.
This collision load shall not be applied in conjunction with the loads specified in
Clause 11.4.2.
For underground rail and air space developments, these loads shall be multiplied by a factor
of three (3) and there shall be no reduction for vertical height up to 10 m. When applied
vertically upwards, this collision load shall be distributed over an area of 2 m2.
11.4.4 Through-type rail bridge superstructures
11.4.4.1 General
This Clause (11.4.4) applies to the principal structural elements of through-type
superstructures that extend vertically above the level of the rail track that they are
supporting. This includes through-girders (flanges and webs), through trusses (top chord,
verticals and diagonals) and through-arches (arch chords and hangers). These elements are
usually in close proximity to the rail line.
11.4.4.2 Collision loads within the bridge
Unless otherwise approved by the rail authority, the bridge shall be designed for collision
loads from a derailed train anywhere within the bridge.
A barrier extending not less than 2.0 m above rail, or to the top of the uppermost primary
structural element, whichever is the lower, shall be provided unless the bridge
superstructure is designed to resist the collision load defined in Clause 11.4.3 and there is
no possibility of a vehicle snagging (that is, if the primary structural elements provide a
smooth and solid impact surface).
The barrier shall be designed to resist the collision load defined in Clause 11.4.3 and shall
provide a smooth and solid impact surface such that there is no possibility of a vehicle
snagging.
Primary structural elements higher than 2.0 m above the rail tracks shall be designed for the
collision load defined in Clause 11.4.3.
Alternatively, the collision load to be resisted by the primary structural elements and/or the
barrier may be determined from a dynamic collision analysis, approved by the relevant
authority, which takes into consideration design track speed and geometry, design load with
representative rolling stock characteristics (centre of mass and distribution, stiffness of
components, etc.), bridge and barrier stiffnesses.
11.4.4.3 Protection against head-on collision with the end of the through-girder, arch or
truss
Unless otherwise approved by the rail authority, the ends of the girder, arch or truss shall be
protected against head-on collision as specified in this Clause.

AS 5100.2:2017 46
A deflection wall or barrier shall be provided in front of the end of the girder, arch or truss,
to protect it from head-on collision. This barrier may be an independent concrete wall or
integral with the approach slab, or a steel post and rail barrier and shall be designed in
accordance with Clause 11.4.4.2.
11.5 Derailment loads
11.5.1 General
Rail bridges designed to carry 300LA loads shall be designed for two separate train
derailment load cases as set out in Clauses 11.5.2 and 11.5.3. The loads shall be
proportioned if a different traffic load is specified. Derailment loads shall only be
considered for the ULS without dynamic load allowance, and shall act in combination with
long-term permanent effects.
11.5.2 Derailment load Case A
For derailment load Case A, a bridge shall be designed for the more unfavourable of the
following loads:
(a) 300LA load applied as wheel loads, separated by the track gauge, parallel to the track,
and in the most unfavourable position within a distance to track centre-line (Lg),
where Lg is equal to 1.5 times the track gauge.
(b) A single vertical point load of 200 kN, acting at the most unfavourable position on
any part of the structure.
For the loads specified in Items (a) and (b), an ultimate load factor of 1.2 shall be used.
11.5.3 Derailment load Case B
For derailment load Case B, a bridge shall be designed for an equivalent line load of
100 kN/m, over a length of up to 20 m, acting on the edge of the superstructure, using an
ultimate load factor of 1.0.
11.5.4 Derailment kerbs
Where the relevant authority requires a kerb to be provided to keep derailed bogies tracking
parallel to and in close proximity to the rails, the following provisions shall apply:
(a) The kerb height shall extend 200 mm above the height of the adjacent running rail.
Kerbs shall be located as close as practicable to the adjacent running rail.
(b) The kerb shall extend to the full length of the bridge, including approach transition
slabs, without snagging points.
(c) Kerbs shall be designed for a horizontal load of 300 kN distributed over a 1 m length,
acting at the top of the kerb, perpendicular to the centre-line of the track.
(d) An ultimate load factor of 1.0 shall be used.
11.6 Collision from waterway traffic
The harbour master, port authority or other relevant authority shall recommend the type of
vessel, weight of vessel and speed of impact on the bridge. This includes the channel and
adjacent pier locations. The upper bound loads shall consider all vessels currently operating
in the waterway or likely to operate in the waterway for the next 100 years. The minimum
velocity of impact shall be the larger of the maximum flood velocity or the maximum speed
of the vessel under power. The proposed design vessel and speed shall be reviewed and
approved by the relevant authority.

47 AS 5100.2:2017
Unless a more advanced method of analysis is adopted, or unless otherwise specified by the
relevant authority, the ultimate equivalent static vessel impact force shall be determined in
accordance with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. The resulting minimum
equivalent static ship impact force applicable to piers in navigable waterways shall be
approved by the relevant authority.
Piers in the waterway shall be designed for an equivalent static vessel impact force in the
direction of the channel centre-line. The piers shall be designed to resist a load of 50% of
the equivalent static vessel impact force applied separately in a direction perpendicular to
the channel centre-line. These forces shall be applied anywhere between 1.0 m above mean
low water spring (MLWS) and 1.0 m above mean high water spring (MHWS).
The superstructure shall be designed to resist a horizontal force equal to 20% of the
equivalent static vessel impact force applied independently of impact loads to the piers.
12 KERB AND BARRIER DESIGN LOADS AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR

ROAD TRAFFIC BRIDGES
12.1 Kerb design loads
Kerbs shall be designed to resist an ultimate design load of 15 kN/m applied laterally at the
top of the kerb.
12.2 Barriers
12.2.1 General
The design criteria, including loads and geometric requirements provided in this
Clause (12) and in AS 5100.1 shall be used for the following:
(a) Developing a prototype barrier for a crash test program to validate vehicle/barrier
interaction performance.
(b) Designing minor modifications to a barrier system that has been validated by either
crash testing or performance review to develop a geometrically and structurally
equivalent barrier. The modified barrier shall not have features that are absent in the
validated configuration (which might detract from the performance of the barrier
system).
(c) Designing a modified barrier system to ensure that the components are capable of
safely redirecting all vehicles nominated in the crash test vehicle criteria for that
barrier performance level, as specified in AS 5100.1.
In order to minimize damage to bridge decks and for safety considerations, bridge barriers
shall be designed as progressive strength systems in which barriers and then their
connections fail prior to the failure of the supporting elements.
12.2.2 Traffic barrier design loads
The ultimate design loads and load distribution lengths for low, regular and medium traffic
barrier performance levels, as defined in AS 5100.1, shall be as given in Table 12.2.2.
The ultimate design loads and load distribution lengths for special barrier performance
levels shall be the subject of specific investigations consistent with the criteria specified in
AS 5100.1, and shall be specified by the relevant authority.
NOTE: Typical design loads for special performance level barriers are given in Appendix A.
An ultimate load factor of 1.0 shall apply to the design of bridge barriers.
The following load combinations shall be considered:
(a) Transverse and longitudinal loads applied simultaneously.
(b) Vertical loads only.

AS 5100.2:2017 48
Concrete barriers are rigid barriers whilst post and rail barriers are semi-rigid. Where the
barrier height is increased due to rail electrification, anti-throw or for protection
requirements, the additional barrier height shall not be modelled in the design of the barrier
system, as it is not required for vehicle redirection. All posts on a post and rail barrier shall
have the same cross-section. All loads on rail and post-type barriers shall be applied for the
greater effect of—
(i) equal load on each rail; and
(ii) the centroid of the loads that is greater than or equals the minimum effective height in
Table 12.2.3.
NOTE: A design methodology for barriers is provided in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.
The distribution of the longitudinal load to post shall be consistent with the continuity of
rail elements.
TABLE 12.2.2
TRAFFIC BARRIER DESIGN LOAD AND CONTACT LENGTH
Vehicle contact
Ultimate Ultimate Vehicle
Ultimate length for
longitudinal or vertical contact length MASH
Barrier transverse transverse load
transverse downward for vertical test
performance outward load (L T ) and
inward load load load level

level (F T ) longitudinal load
(F L ) (F V ) (L V )
(L L )
kN kN m kN m
Low 150 50 1.1 22 5.5 TL2
Regular 300 100 1.2 100 6 TL4
Medium 600 200 2.4 300 12 TL5
NOTES:
1 The design of a barrier system using this Table shall include a detailed analysis, such as a yield line
analysis for a concrete barrier or an inelastic plastic moment analysis for a steel post and rail barrier.
2 The loads given in this Table shall be applied uniformly over the relevant specified contact lengths.
12.2.3 Effective height

The effective height of a barrier is defined as the height as measured from the reference
surface of the resultant of the lateral resistance forces of the individual components of the
barrier. Traffic barriers shall have sufficient height to ensure that the minimum effective
height as given in Table 12.2.3 is achieved.
The minimum effective height for the special performance levels shall be the subject of
specific investigation consistent with the criteria specified in AS 5100.1, and shall be
specified by the relevant authority.
NOTE: Typical minimum effective heights for special performance level barriers are given in
Appendix A.
For low performance level concrete, metal or combined concrete and metal barriers with a
vertical face, the minimum actual height shall be 700 mm unless prototype testing indicates
that a lower height system fulfils the requirements of the AASHTO Manual for Assessing
Safety Hardware (MASH).

49 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 12.2.3
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
OF TRAFFIC BARRIER
Barrier performance Minimum effective height
level mm
Low 600
Regular 900
Medium 1200
12.2.4 Connection
The yield strength of steel anchor bolts for the barrier shall be fully developed by bond,
hooks, attachment to embedded plates or any combination thereof. Other means of
connection shall be subject to approval of the relevant authority.
A load factor of 1.05 shall apply to the design of connection bolts and connection
reinforcement.
12.2.5 Continuity
Full lateral strength shall be provided throughout the barrier length.
In the case of steel railing, splices may be provided by bolted sleeve joints or full
penetration butt welds. For bending and shear, full rail continuity shall be provided in the
splice section. For tension, a minimum of 75% of the tensile strength of the theoretical
gross rail section shall be provided in the splice section.
12.3 Bridge deck
The loads transmitted to the bridge deck shall be determined from the results of load testing
or ultimate strength analysis of the barrier system using the loads given in Table 12.2.2.
The design ultimate capacity of the bridge deck shall be a minimum of 1.1 times greater
than the design ultimate capacity of the barrier connection to the deck.
NOTE: The barrier impact loads and traffic loads on the deck need not be applied simultaneously
when designing the deck.
12.4 Expansion joints and end barriers
12.4.1 Post and rail type barriers
Where the total longitudinal movement at rail level is 50 mm or less, joints providing
continuity between lengths of rails or across expansion or rotational joints shall be capable
of transmitting 75% of the tensile strength of the theoretical gross rail section. The joints
shall be capable of transmitting the full design requirement of the rail in bending at any
extension of the joint.
Where the total longitudinal movement at rail level is greater than 50 mm, joints across
expansion or rotational joints shall be capable of transmitting the full design requirement of
the rail in bending and shear at any extension up to the full design movement at the joint
plus 100 mm.
Special end posts shall be provided at each side of the joint, spaced as closely together as
required to compensate for the loss in beam action of the barrier over the joint.
Where significant movements take place in a vertical or transverse horizontal direction,
joints shall comply with this Clause. Where compliance is not possible, a discontinuity of
the barrier is permitted. The gap between the ends of the rail shall be not greater than the
calculated maximum joint gap plus 25 mm.
NOTE: It is emphasized that this discontinuity is only permitted in extreme cases.

AS 5100.2:2017 50
Some form of bridging of the ends of the rails shall be devised to prevent a vehicle that is in
contact with a deflected length of barrier directly striking the end of an undeflected length.
When a bridging piece is used, it shall be securely attached to the end of the rail on the
approach end.
12.4.2 Rigid barrier at a movement joint
Barrier panels on each side of a movement joint shall be designed in accordance with either
of the following:
(a) They shall stand alone and shall not have any shear transfer arrangements
incorporated across the joint.
or
(b) They shall be continuous across a joint with a load transfer mechanism. The
mechanism shall be proven by design or test and shall be subject to approval of the
relevant authority. The load transfer mechanism shall be corrosion resistant and
replaceable.
Where movements that produce a gap greater than 25 mm take place, a bridging plate shall
be incorporated. The bridging plate shall be securely fixed to the approach traffic end, and
shall be corrosion resistant and replaceable. Where the gap is greater than 600 mm, the
bridging plate shall be designed to transfer the traffic barrier design loads to the adjacent
end panels on each side of the joint.
12.5 Pedestrian and cyclist path barrier load

Pedestrian and cyclist path barriers shall be designed for the most extreme of the following
loads:
(a) A load of 0.75 kN/m acting on the longitudinal rail or the top of the barrier
simultaneously in a transverse and vertical direction.
(b) A load of 1.0 kPa acting in a transverse direction on the total barrier infill area,
whether comprising baluster, mesh or solid.
(c) A single load of 0.6 kN acting over an area of 0.1 m  0.1 m in a transverse direction
away from the path on the infill area, whether comprising baluster, mesh or solid,
(d) Forces from wind load, water forces and debris or earthquake.
The deflection of a pedestrian or cyclist path barrier subject to the serviceability loading (a)
to (c) above shall not exceed—
(i) for longitudinal members ............................................................................ L/800; and
(ii) for posts ............................................................................................................ h/300,
where
L = span of member between posts
h = height of the post above the base plate
In addition to the provisions above, where the relevant authority specifies that the barrier is
to restrain crowds or people under panic conditions, the barrier shall be designed for the
most extreme of the following loads:
(A) A load of 3.0 kN/m acting in a transverse direction away from the path
simultaneously with a vertical load of 0.75 kN/m acting on the top rail; or
(B) A load of 1.5 kN/m acting in a transverse direction away from the path
simultaneously with a vertical load of 0.75 kN/m on any one longitudinal member; or
(C) A load of 1.5 kPa acting in a transverse direction away from the path on the total
barrier infill area, whether comprising baluster, mesh or solid; or

51 AS 5100.2:2017
(D) A load of 1.0 kN acting over an area of 0.1 m  0.1 m in a transverse direction away
from the path on the infill area
The load effects from barrier loading shall be considered in combination with the
serviceability pedestrian loading.
The load factors to be applied in calculating the pedestrian and cyclist path barrier loading
shall be as given in Table 12.5.
TABLE 12.5
LOAD FACTOR FOR DESIGN OF PEDESTRIAN
AND CYCLIST PATH BARRIER LOAD
Limit state
Load
Pedestrian and cyclist path
1.8 1.0
barrier load
13 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR
13.1 General
Vibration shall be considered at the SLS.
NOTE: Vibration induced in bridges by traffic or pedestrians may cause alarm or public unease as
to the safety of the structure or resonance in the structure.
13.2 Road bridges
13.2.1 With walkways
This Clause (13.2) shall apply to bridges and similar structures that support platforms or
other areas intended for public use.
The vibration of a road bridge shall be investigated as a SLS if the structure is fitted with a
walkway intended for public use. The serviceability design load of 0.7  (M1600 moving
traffic load without UDL), including dynamic load allowance, shall be positioned along the
spans and within any design traffic lane to produce the maximum static deflection of the
walkway. The deflection at the centre of the walkway shall be not greater than that shown
in Figure 13.2.1, unless an investigation complying with Clause 13.2.3 is undertaken.

AS 5100.2:2017
120
 Standards Australia
110
10 0
90
80
70
60
52
50
Unac c e pt a
able
ble
40
30
Ac c e pt a b l e
20
STATIC DEFLECTIO N AT CENTRE OF WALK WAY, m m

10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
FIRST M O DE FLE XUR AL FREQ UEN CY, Hz
FIGURE 13.2.1 STATIC DEFLECTION LIMITS FOR ROAD BRIDGES WITH WALKWAYS
www.standards.org.au
53 AS 5100.2:2017
13.2.2 Without walkways

Where the deflection of a road bridge without a public walkway complies with the limits
specified in Clause 7.11, the vibration behaviour of the bridge shall be deemed to be
satisfied.
13.2.3 Detailed dynamic analysis
Where the deflection limits specified in Clause 7.11 and Clause 13.2.1 are exceeded, the
vibration behaviour of the bridge shall be assessed by a rational method of analysis, using
acceptance criteria appropriate to the structure and its intended use, as approved by the
relevant authority.
13.3 Rail bridges
Where required by the relevant rail authority, vibration behaviour shall be assessed by a
rational method of analysis using acceptance criteria appropriate to the structure and its
intended use, as approved by the relevant authority.
13.4 Pedestrian and cyclist path bridges
13.4.1 General
For pedestrian bridges with resonant frequencies for vertical vibration less than 5 Hz, the
vibration of the superstructure shall be investigated as a SLS. Superstructures shall be
proportioned such that, with one pedestrian traversing the structure, the maximum vertical
acceleration shall be not greater than 0.25f00.78 m/s 2, where f0 is the fundamental frequency
of vibration. The design pedestrian load shall have a weight of 700 N and be assumed to
cross the structure at an average walking speed, in the range of 1.75 to 2.5 footfalls per
second.
This Clause (13.4) shall also apply to bridges and similar structures that support access
routes to platforms or other areas intended for public use.
NOTE: For determining the maximum vertical acceleration, see Clause 13.4.2.
Where the fundamental frequency of horizontal vibration is less than 1.5 Hz, special
consideration shall be given to the possibility of excitation by pedestrians of lateral
movements of unacceptable magnitude.
NOTE: Bridges with low mass and damping, and expected to be used by crowds of people, are
particularly susceptible to such vibrations. Specialist literature should be referred to.
13.4.2 Maximum vertical acceleration
In the absence of a more advanced analysis, and for simply supported bridges only, the
maximum vertical acceleration (a), in m/s2, may be taken as:
a = 42f2y (m/s 2)
y = static displacement due to design pedestrian load of 700 N, in metres
 = dynamic response factor (see Figure 13.4.2)

AS 5100.2:2017 54
16.0
δ = 0.0 3
14.0
δ = 0.0 4
12.0
δ = 0.0 5
DYNAMIC RESPO NSE FACTOR , Ψ
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
SPAN, m
NOTE: Values of  for different types of construction are given in Table 13.4.2.
FIGURE 13.4.2 DYNAMIC RESPONSE FACTOR ( )
TABLE 13.4.2
LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT OF DECAY OF VIBRATION ( )
Bridge superstructure 
Steel with asphalt or epoxy surfacing 0.03
Composite steel/concrete 0.04
13.5 Special structures

This Standard does not provide acceptance criteria for the dynamic behaviour of bridges
with spans in excess of 100 m, or suspension and cable-stayed bridges. The dynamic
behaviour of such structures under the action of traffic, wind or other loadings shall be the
subject of special investigations.
14 EARTH PRESSURE FROM TRAFFIC LOADS

14.1 General
The load factors on earth pressure from traffic loads shall be determined in accordance with
AS 5100.3.

55 AS 5100.2:2017
The surcharge shall not be increased by dynamic load allowance for the calculation of
horizontal loads.
14.2 Surcharge loads from road traffic
Where highway traffic loads can approach within a distance equal to the effective height of
the wall from the back face of the structure, an equivalent load caused by an additional
height of fill, which diminishes over the height of the wall, as shown in Figure 14.2, shall
be assumed for the purpose of calculating design earth pressure. This load shall be assumed
to act above the finished grade and over the entire length of the retaining structure. The
effect of foundations or other loads placed in or on the backfill, within a distance equal to
the effective height of the wall, shall also be included.
The surcharge shall be applied irrespective of whether or not there is provision for an
approach slab in the bridge design.
Sur c har g e l oad in g : e q ui val e nt

ad d i t i o n a l h e i g ht of f i l l (m)
0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
2
4
D e pt h
b e l ow
to p of
wall (m) 6
10
FIGURE 14.2 EQUIVALENT LOAD DUE TO ROAD TRAFFIC SURCHARGE
14.3 Surcharge loads from rail traffic

Where sleepers supporting rail traffic load are located within a distance from the back face
of a retaining wall or abutment equal to the effective height of the retaining structure, an
additional surcharge load equal to the rail traffic load shall be applied as a uniform load at
the level of the underside of the sleepers as shown in Figure 14.3. An equivalent load
caused by an additional height of fill shall be applied, or an alternative method of allowing
for surcharge shall be used.
In determining the distribution of rail traffic loads at the underside of sleepers, it is assumed
that the total load for a given length of train shall be uniformly distributed over the area
defined by the length of sleepers and the length of loaded track. The loaded track shall
extend 0.55 m beyond the end axles of the length of train. The length of train shall be
selected to produce the worst design effects. The resulting distributed loads shall be
considered in the design as discrete areas of surcharge.
These areas of surcharge shall be distributed with increasing depth below the underside of
sleepers. The width of the distribution shall be increased in each direction at a slope of
1 horizontally to 2 vertically to determine the maximum vertical earth pressures at depth as
a result of surcharge, as given in Table 14.3. In the transverse direction, the distribution
width shall not exceed 4.5 m.
AS 5100.2:2017 56
When adjacent rail traffic load distributions overlap, the total load shall be considered to be
uniformly distributed over the area defined by the outside limits of the individual rail load
distributions at that depth. The total width of the distribution so determined shall not exceed
the total width of the structure supporting the fill and, if the centroid of the load is not
coincident with the loaded area, the load distribution shall be taken to vary linearly to
satisfy statics.
When determining lateral earth pressures on retaining walls and abutments, the width of the
distribution shall be increased in each direction as specified above, and the vertical pressure
calculated from that distribution shall be applied to any part of the retaining wall or
abutment that is located within the zone of a 45° projection from the underside of the
sleepers.
d/2 d/2 d/2 d/2
Ret aining wall d/2 Ret aining wall d/2

2. 25 ma x. or
to ret aining wall
2 . 25 m a x .
C o m b i n e d area Le n g t h
of sur c har g e of tr ac k
if < 4. 5 c o n s i d er
ereed
Le n g t h of Le n g t h of
t r ac k c o n s i d er e d t r ac k c o n s i d er e d
2 . 25 m a x .
d/2
LEGEN D:
d = d e pt h b e l ow t h e un d er s i d e of s l e e p er s
d/2 d/2
CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3

(At un d er s i d e (At a d e pt h d b e l ow (At a d e pt h d b e l ow
of s l e e p er s) u n d er s i d e of s l e e p er s) u n d er s i d e of s l e e p er s
t wo tr ac ks l oad e d)
FIGURE 14.3 SURCHARGE LOAD DISTRIBUTION FOR RAIL TRAFFIC

57 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 14.3
VALUES OF UNFACTORED VERTICAL PRESSURE vs. DEPTH BELOW 2.5 m
LONG SLEEPER (300LA TRAIN LOAD)
Distance from centreline of track (x), m Depth
below
x = 0.0 sleeper
x = 7.0 x = 6.0 x = 5.0 x = 4.0 x = 3.0 x = 2.25 x = 1.5 x = 1.25 abutment (d)
approach m
131 131 0.00
No vertical surcharge 92 97 103 0.30
x 70 77 83 0.60
63 69 73 0.80
x = 2. 25
Pre s sure 54 58 63 64 1.00
distribution
1 48 53 57 58 1.20
Line of 1 1
d 2 44 50 54 53 1.40
influence
41 48 51 49 1.60
39 39 45 49 45 1.80
36 36 43 46 42 2.00
35 35 42 45 40 2.20
4. 5 m
35 35 42 45 39 2.40
34 34 41 44 39 2.60
33 33 33 40 43 39 2.80
33 33 33 39 42 38 3.00
32 32 32 39 41 38 3.20
32 32 32 38 41 37 3.40
31 31 31 37 40 37 3.60
30 30 30 30 36 39 36 3.80
30 30 30 30 36 38 36 4.00
29 29 29 29 34 37 35 4.50
28 28 28 28 28 33 35 34 5.00
26 26 26 26 26 32 34 33 5.50
25 25 25 25 25 25 31 33 33 6.00
25 25 25 25 25 25 30 32 32 6.50
24 24 24 24 24 24 28 31 31 7.00
22 22 22 22 22 22 27 29 30 8.00
21 21 21 21 21 21 26 28 29 9.00
21 21 21 20 21 21 25 27 28 10.00
NOTE: The values in the Table are based on the following assumptions:
(a) Values are for single track loading only.
(b) Load distribution based on standard gauge concrete sleeper length 2.5 m.
(c) Vertical pressure calculated assuming 1 to 2 longitudinal and transverse distribution, max width 4.5 m.
(d) Calculated pressure assumed to be applied over a 1 to 1 distribution width.
(e) x = 0 may be used for vertical pressure behind an abutment without an approach slab and no wing walls
within 1 to 1 line of influence.
(f) Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.

AS 5100.2:2017 58
15 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
15.1 General
Earthquake design shall be carried out using the force-based approach detailed in this
Clause.
NOTE: For design based on the displacement method, see Appendix B.
The provisions for earthquake design in this Clause are applicable to bridges that include
the following:
(a) Conventional superstructure and support types, such as slab, beam and slab,
box-girder and truss bridges supported on single- or multi-column piers and/or
abutments.
(b) Spans not greater than 100 m.
(c) Angular change of the direction of the longitudinal axis of the bridge between
abutments less than 90°.
(d) Skew angles less than 35°.
(e) Maximum pier height of 30 m.
(f) Maximum characteristic concrete compressive strength of 65 MPa in bridge
substructures except that for bridge piers with characteristic concrete compressive
strength higher than 65 MPa, design for earthquake load cases shall be carried out
assuming characteristic concrete compressive strength of 65 MPa for the piers.

For other bridges, or for bridges where seismic base isolation is to be implemented,
specialist advice shall be sought for the assessment of earthquake effects.
The effects of excessive settlement of approach embankments and the increased earth
pressure on abutments shall be considered in the design for earthquake effects.
The possibility of soil liquefaction shall be investigated where saturated sandy and silty
soils within 10 m of the ground surface have a standard penetration test (SPT) value of 10
or less.
The earthquake effects calculated in accordance with this Clause shall be considered as
design effects at the ULS for member strengths, overall stability of both the structure and
its components, and horizontal movements.
15.2 Force-based principles
15.2.1 Analysis principles
The earthquake forces shall be calculated from the design action coefficient, which is the
design seismic acceleration expressed as a fraction of gravitational acceleration. The design
action coefficient depends on the bridge earthquake design category and design
performance level, the probability factor, the hazard factor, the site subsoil class, and the
fundamental natural period and design ductility of the structure.
The bridge shall be subdivided longitudinally into bridge frames between expansion joints
and abutments. For longitudinal earthquake response, each bridge frame shall be considered
separately (stand-alone analysis) and the results shall be compared with a further analysis
where all joints are considered to be fully closed. For transverse response, each bridge
frame shall be considered separately, with the mass and stiffness of adjacent bridge frames
modelled at the movement joint where the fundamental natural period of the adjacent bridge
frame differs by more than 25% from that of the bridge frame under consideration.

59 AS 5100.2:2017
Where analysis of vertical earthquake response is required by Clause 15.4, a span-by-span

static analysis may be used, provided the span under consideration is modelled together
with adjacent continuous spans, if any, at either end of the span. End support conditions at
the far end of the adjacent span shall be considered fixed if continuous over the support or
pinned as appropriate (e.g. if the end of the adjacent span is simply supported at an
abutment).
The fundamental natural period of vibration of each bridge frame in the longitudinal
direction (i.e. span direction), the transverse direction and (where required) the vertical
direction shall be determined using acceptable methods of structural analysis.
The design actions shall be determined from the earthquake forces using acceptable
methods of structural analysis.
Reinforced concrete members shall be modelled using the effective cracked-section
stiffness. Prestressed concrete members shall be modelled using the gross-section stiffness.
The longitudinal and transverse stiffness of piers shall include the influence of foundation
and bearing flexibility, where appropriate.
15.2.2 Seismic weight distribution
The seismic weight is the mass multiplied by gravitational acceleration.
As a minimum representation of the seismic weight distribution, the tributary superstructure
weight (including weight of dead load and weight of superimposed dead load), pier
headstock weight and tributary weight of pier columns shall be combined as a single weight
acting in the plane of the pier, and at the resultant height of the combined weights. In this
context, the tributary weight of the pier columns may be taken as 33% of the total pier
column weight, positioned at the top of the pier column.
For bridges with tall piers of significant weight, particularly those in the height range of
20 m to 30 m, the influence of pier inertia on the earthquake response of the pier responding
as a vertical beam shall be considered. The pier weight distribution shall be represented by
at least four weights along the pier height.
Where analysis of vertical earthquake response is required by Clause 15.4, or for the
analysis of horizontal earthquake response for bridges with spans longer than 40 m with
significant transverse flexibility of superstructure, the superstructure weight of the span
under consideration and of the adjacent spans, if any, shall be distributed to not less than
four locations along the span.
Where the superstructure is supported on bearings whose flexibility in the direction
considered is such that superstructure displacements are expected to exceed pier headstock
displacements by at least 200%, pier headstock weight and pier weight may be ignored.
15.3 Force-based design procedure
Design shall be undertaken for horizontal earthquake forces in both the longitudinal
direction (i.e. span direction) and the transverse direction of the bridge. Design shall be
undertaken for vertical earthquake forces where required by Clause 15.4. The longitudinal,
transverse and (where required) vertical earthquake forces shall be assumed to act
non-concurrently and shall be considered as separate load cases. A summary of the
procedure is as follows:
(a) Determine the bridge earthquake design category and design performance level
(Clauses 15.4 and 15.5).
(b) Determine the probability factor and the hazard factor (Clause 15.6).
(c) Determine the site subsoil class and hence the acceleration spectral shape factor
(Clauses 15.7 and 15.8).

AS 5100.2:2017 60
(d) Calculate the design action coefficient for earthquake response, based on the
probability factor and hazard factor, the acceleration spectral shape factor, the
fundamental natural period and the design ductility factor (Clause 15.9).
(e) Calculate the earthquake forces and their distribution based on either static analysis
(Clause 15.10) or dynamic analysis (Clause 15.11).
(f) Determine the required design strength of bridge members (Clause 15.14), determine
the abutment forces (Clause 15.15) and provide structural detailing for earthquake
effects (Clause 15.16).
15.4 Bridge earthquake design categories (BEDC) and analysis requirements
15.4.1 BEDC classification
Bridges and associated structures, such as approach retaining walls, shall be classified by
the relevant authority or, if not classified by the relevant authority, they shall be classified
as follows:
(a) BEDC-4 Bridges and associated structures that are essential to post-earthquake
recovery, as specified by the relevant authority, and major bridges whose operation is
essential to economic viability at state or national levels.
(b) BEDC-3 Bridges that are designed to carry high volumes of road, rail or pedestrian
traffic, or bridges over other high traffic volume roadways, railways or buildings.
(c) BEDC-2 Minor bridges of two or more spans, and not covered by BEDC-3 or
BEDC-4.
(d) BEDC-1 Minor single span bridges carrying infrequent traffic, and not covered by
BEDC-2, 3, or 4.
In situations where a bridge spans a road and/or rail of a higher category, the higher
category shall be adopted for the bridge design.
15.4.2 Requirements for BEDC-1
Bridge structures in BEDC-1 need not be analysed for earthquake forces. The minimum
lateral restraint provisions of Clause 10 of this Standard shall apply. The minimum bearing
seat width measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier shall be 0.3 m.
For bridge structures in BEDC-2, the effects of earthquake actions shall be determined
using either static analysis in accordance with Clause 15.10 or dynamic analysis in
accordance with Clause 15.11.
For all bridges in BEDC-2, vertical earthquake effects need not be considered. Abutment
forces shall be determined using the procedure in Clause 15.15. The detailing of structural
members, restraining devices, bearings and deck joints shall be in accordance with
Clause 15.16.
Where there is a clear dominant mode of response in a particular direction, horizontal or
vertical, the effects of earthquake actions shall be determined using either static analysis in
accordance with Clause 15.10, or dynamic analysis in accordance with Clause 15.11.
Where two or more modes each contribute at least 10% to response displacements or forces
in a particular direction, the effects of earthquake actions shall be determined using a
dynamic analysis in accordance with Clause 15.11.

61 AS 5100.2:2017
For all bridge structures in BEDC-3, the effects of both horizontal and vertical earthquake
actions, and the P- effects shall be considered. Abutment forces shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 15.15. The detailing of structural members, restraining devices,
bearings and deck joints shall be in accordance with Clause 15.16.
Where there is a clear dominant mode of response in a particular direction, horizontal or
vertical, the effects of earthquake actions shall be determined using either static analysis in
accordance with Clause 15.10, or dynamic analysis in accordance with Clause 15.11.
Where two or more modes each contribute at least 10% to response displacements or forces
in a particular direction, the effects of earthquake actions shall be determined using a
dynamic analysis in accordance with Clause 15.11.
actions, and the P- effects shall be considered. Abutment forces shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 15.15. The detailing of structural members, restraining devices,
bearings and deck joints shall be in accordance with Clause 15.16.
15.5 Design performance level
The strength and serviceability design of bridges shall be calculated based on either the
damage control performance level or the service (immediate use) performance level.
After the occurrence of the design earthquake, a bridge designed for the damage control
performance level shall retain its structural integrity. Parts of the bridge susceptible to
damage by their contribution to energy dissipation during the design earthquake shall be
designed in such a manner that the structure can sustain the actions resulting from use by
emergency traffic, and that inspection/repairs can be performed.
After the occurrence of the design earthquake, bridges designed for the service (immediate
use) performance level shall be capable of being used immediately by vehicles and plant for
disaster recovery operations and evacuation of the populace. There shall be no need to
reduce ordinary traffic over the bridge, or to carry out immediate repairs.
Unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority, bridges shall be designed for the
damage control performance level under the design earthquake.
Where specified by the relevant authority, BEDC-4 bridges shall be designed for the service
(immediate use) performance level under the design earthquake.
15.6 Probability factor (k p) and design seismic hazard factor (Z)
Unless otherwise specified by the relevant authority, bridges shall be designed for an annual
probability of exceedance in accordance with Table 15.6.
The probability factor (kp) shall be determined from the annual probability of exceedance in
accordance with AS 1170.4.
Unless determined by a site-specific seismology study approved by the relevant authority,
the design seismic hazard factor (Z) shall be determined in accordance with AS 1170.4, but
shall be not less than 0.08.

AS 5100.2:2017 62
TABLE 15.6
ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE
BEDC Annual probability of exceedance (P)
4 1/2000
3 1/1000
2 1/500
1 Not applicable
15.7 Site subsoil class

The site subsoil class shall be determined in accordance with AS 1170.4—2007. For bridges
with pile-supported foundations, the site subsoil class shall be based on the upper layers of
the soil profile.
15.8 Acceleration spectral shape factor [Ch(T)]
The period-dependent acceleration spectral shape factor Ch(T) shall be as given in Table 6.4
of AS 1170.4.
15.9 Seismic acceleration for earthquake response
15.9.1 Seismic acceleration for elastic horizontal earthquake response
The design action coefficient for elastic horizontal earthquake response [C(Tf)] shall be
determined using the following equation:
C Tf   kp ZCh Tf  . . .15.9.1
where
Tf = fundamental natural period of vibration of the bridge frame in the direction
considered (longitudinal or transverse)
kp probability factor, given in Clause 15.6
Z design seismic hazard factor, given in Clause 15.6
Ch(Tf) = acceleration spectral shape factor at fundamental natural period of
vibration of the bridge frame in the direction considered (longitudinal or
transverse) (see Clause 15.8)
15.9.2 Seismic acceleration for ductile horizontal earthquake response
The value of design action coefficient Cd(Tf) for ductile response shall be calculated by
dividing the design action coefficient for elastic horizontal earthquake response [C(Tf)] by
the design ductility factor () in accordance with the following equation:
C Tf  kp ZCh Tf 
Cd Tf    . . . 15.9.2
 
where
C(Tf) = design action coefficient for elastic horizontal earthquake response, given
in Clause 15.9.1
 = design ductility factor
The design ductility factor ( ) is dependent on the particular configuration details of the
bridge, the seismic detailing, and the axial load in concrete substructure components, as
given in Table 15.9.2.

63 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 15.9.2
DESIGN DUCTILITY FACTOR
Material Design ductility factor ( )
Service
Damage
Bridge configuration detail (immediate
control
Pier Superstructure use)
performance
performance
level
level
Concrete Any Superstructure on elastomeric bearings 1.5 1.0
without translational movement restraint in
the direction considered
Concrete Any Superstructure on fixed pot or spherical
bearings or elastomeric bearings with
translational movement restraint in the
direction considered at piers on:
- stiff foundations (i.e. with negligible 4.0 2.0
translational and rotational movements)
- flexible foundations with significant 3.0 1.5
contribution to the displacement at pier
top (i.e. piles in 10 m or more of soft
soil)
Concrete Concrete Piers integral with superstructure, and 4.0 2.0

superstructure on bearings at abutments
Concrete Concrete Abutments integral with superstructure 2.0 1.25
Concrete Any Concrete pier/piles without stiff pile caps 2.0 1.25
Concrete Any Hollow reinforced concrete piers 2.0 1.25
Concrete Any Wall-type (blade wall) piers (see Note 9) 2.0 1.25
Steel Any Steel piers 2.0 1.25
Prestressed Any Prestressed concrete piers with:
concrete
- bonded strands 2.0 1.25
- external or un-bonded strands 1.0 1.0
NOTES:
1 Where more than one of the bridge configuration details in the table applies, the lowest design ductility
factor shall be adopted.
2 Different values for the design ductility factor may apply in transverse and longitudinal directions.
3 For the purpose of seismic design wall-type piers have a width-to-thickness ratio of 4 or greater.
4 The design ductility factor for vertical response shall be taken as 1.0 for both damage control and service
performance levels.
5 For concrete piers with N *  0.2ϕN uo a ductility factor of 3.0 for the damage control performance level and
1.5 for the service (immediate use) performance level may be adopted for horizontal response, where N * , ϕ
and N uo are as defined in AS 5100.5.
6 For concrete piers with N *  0.2ϕN uo and with full seismic detailing in accordance with AS 5100.5, a
ductility factor of 4.0 for the damage control performance level and 2.0 for the service (immediate use)
performance level may be adopted for horizontal response, where N * , ϕ and N uo are as defined in
AS 5100.5.
7 For concrete piers with N * > 0.2ϕN uo and with full seismic detailing in accordance with AS 5100.5, a
ductility factor of 3.0 for the damage control performance level and 2.0 for the service (immediate use)
performance level may be adopted for horizontal response, where N * , ϕ and N uo are as defined in
AS 5100.5.
8 The application of Notes 5, 6 and 7 are subject to the approval of the relevant authority.
9 For concrete wall-type (blade wall) piers, the design ductility factor specified in this Table applies only in
the transverse direction (that is, parallel to the long direction of the wall). In the longitudinal direction the
appropriate pier design ductility factor applies.

AS 5100.2:2017 64
15.9.3 Seismic acceleration for elastic vertical earthquake response

The design action coefficient for elastic vertical earthquake response (upwards and
downwards) shall be taken equal to two-thirds of the design action coefficient for elastic
horizontal response given by Clause 15.9.1.
15.10 Earthquake forces determined from static analysis
15.10.1 Bridge frame horizontal earthquake force
The bridge frame horizontal earthquake force (FF) in the longitudinal or transverse direction
shall be determined from the following equation:
n
FF = Cd Tf  Wi . . . 15.10.1
i 1
where
Wi = one of the n individual weights representing the bridge frame, determined
in accordance with Clause 15.2.2
Tf = fundamental natural period of the bridge in the direction considered
Cd(Tf) = value of the design action coefficient for ductile response, determined in
accordance with Clause 15.9.2
15.10.2 Bridge frame vertical earthquake force
The bridge frame vertical earthquake force (FF) shall be determined from Equation 15.10.1
using the design action coefficient for elastic vertical earthquake response [Cd( Tf)]
determined in accordance with Clause 15.9.3.
15.10.3 Distribution of the bridge frame earthquake force
The bridge frame earthquake force ( FF) shall be distributed to the n bridge frame weight
locations (Wi) using the following equation:
Wii
FF  n
Fi = . . . 15.10.3
W 
i 1
i i
where
Fi = bridge frame earthquake force at bridge frame weight location Wi
i = value of normalized fundamental displacement mode shape at the location
of weight Wi
Wi = one of the n individual weights representing the bridge frame, determined
in accordance with Clause 15.2.2
15.11 Earthquake forces determined from dynamic analysis
Where required or used, dynamic analysis shall be carried out in accordance with
AS 1170.4, except as noted in this Clause.
The dynamic analysis procedure shall be either a modal-response-spectrum analysis or a
time-history analysis.
Both elastic and inelastic time-history analysis approaches may be used as alternatives to
modal-response-spectrum analysis. When inelastic time-history analysis is adopted,
hysteretic rules shall be appropriate for the materials and sections modelled.
Response values from time-history analysis shall be based on the average of results from
not less than five appropriate spectrum-compatible accelerograms representing the site
seismicity.

65 AS 5100.2:2017
Regardless of which dynamic analysis method is adopted, member stiffness and weight
distribution shall comply with Clause 15.2.1 and Clause 15.2.2 respectively.
15.12 Seismic displacements
The displacements of the bridge frame shall be calculated using the design action
coefficient for elastic horizontal or vertical earthquake response (as appropriate) determined
in accordance with Clause 15.9.1 or 15.9.3 respectively.
15.13 P-Δ moments
Moments resulting from the weight supported by a pier acting through seismic
displacements (P-Δ moments) shall be calculated for bridges in BEDC-3 and BEDC-4. The
seismic displacements shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 15.12.
P-Δ moments shall not exceed 30% of the pier-base moment demand for the relevant
earthquake load case combination.
For concrete piers, the earthquake design moment shall be increased by 50% of the
calculated P-Δ moment where the P-Δ moment exceeds 10% of the pier-base moment
demand for the relevant earthquake load case combination.
For steel piers, the earthquake design moment shall be increased by 100% of the calculated
P-Δ moment when the P-Δ moment exceeds 5% of the pier-base moment demand for the
relevant earthquake load case combination.
15.14 Required strength of bridge members

The ultimate strength of bridge members, calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5,
AS/NZS 5100.6 or AS 5100.9, as appropriate, shall be not less than the actions resulting
from the ULS load combinations in Clause 23.3.
15.15 Design abutment forces
Unless subject to special study, the abutment forces determined from the static or dynamic
analysis shall be multiplied by the design ductility factor () to obtain the design abutment
forces.
15.16 Structural detailing requirements for earthquake moments
15.16.1 General
Detailing requirements for structural members under earthquake moments shall be as
specified in AS 5100.5.
Particular attention shall be given to the prevention of dislodgement of the superstructure
from its support system (see Clause 15.16.2).
Particular attention shall be given to the provision of viable, continuous and direct load
paths from the level of the bridge deck to the foundation system.
15.16.2 Deck joints and bearings
Deck joints are not required to accommodate the horizontal movements due to the design
seismic action. The detailing of deck joints expected to be damaged due to the design
seismic action shall allow for a predictable mode of damage and an anticipated method of
repair. The consequent distribution and magnitude of earthquake forces in the bridge shall
be fully evaluated and considered in the design of all structural elements.
Fixed bearings shall be designed for earthquake actions. Where these actions are outside the
range of conventional bearings, measures shall be provided to prevent dislodgment of the
superstructure from the support structure. Such other measures shall be designed to
withstand the design earthquake forces, or the minimum lateral restraint force specified in
Clause 10, whichever is the greater. The influence of such measures on the distribution and
magnitude of earthquake forces in the bridge shall be fully evaluated and considered in the

AS 5100.2:2017 66
design of all structural elements. Vertical restraint devices shall be provided at all supports
where the vertical design earthquake force opposes and is greater than 50% of the static
reaction under permanent effects. The vertical restraint device shall be designed to resist an
uplift force of not less than 10% of the vertical reaction at the support due to permanent
effects. Vertical design earthquake forces (when applicable) shall be considered in the
design of horizontal restraints that rely on any component of friction.
Movement bearings are not required to accommodate the horizontal movements due to the
design seismic action. The detailing of bearings expected to be damaged due to the design
seismic action shall allow for a predictable mode of damage and an anticipated method of
repair. The consequent distribution and magnitude of earthquake forces in the bridge shall
be fully evaluated and considered in the design of all structural elements.
At expansion ends of the superstructure (including movement joints at an abutment, pier or
internal hinge) the superstructure shall overlap the substructure by a sufficient distance to
prevent loss of support to the superstructure due to the design seismic action. Sufficient
overlap length (as shown in Figure 15.16.2) shall be provided to accommodate the relative
longitudinal seismic displacement. The minimum overlap length measured normal to the
face of an abutment or pier (Lbs) shall satisfy the following:
Lbs = 1.25∆L + 0.0004Ld + 0.007 hd + 0.005 B  0.3 . . . 15.16.2
where
∆L = longitudinal seismic displacement at the abutment, in metres

Ld = length of the superstructure to the next expansion joint, in metres
hd = average height of piers supporting the superstructure length Ld, in metres
B length of the bearing seat transverse to the bridge longitudinal axis, in
metres
L bs
L bs
L bs L bs
A but m e nt Pi er Inter nal hin g e
FIGURE 15.16.2 OVERLAP LENGTH L bs
15.16.3 Pile to pile cap ductile connections

For bridge structures of BEDC levels 2, 3 or 4, the connection between each pile and its
pile cap shall be designed to resist tensile force levels predicted by the analysis, but not less
than 10% of the pile ultimate axial compression force (N*).

67 AS 5100.2:2017
16 FORCES RESULTING FROM WATER FLOW

16.1 General
Bridges that cross a river, stream or any other body of water shall be designed to resist the
effects of water flow and wave action, as applicable. The design shall include an assessment
of how the water forces may vary in an adverse manner under the influence of debris, log
impact, scour and buoyancy of the structure.
Tidal and wave actions shall be considered on bridges across large bodies of water,
estuaries and open sea.
NOTE: Wave action on bridges is not covered in this Standard. Refer to specialist literature.
16.2 Water flow velocity
Water flow forces for each limit state are dependent on a water flow velocity (V) applicable
to the structural element under consideration. For the equations in this Clause (16), the
particular choice of V shall depend on hydraulic considerations as follows:
(a) For substructures, V shall be the velocity of flow for the critical average recurrence
interval (ARI) through the bridge opening averaged over the depth of flow and over
the relevant bridge span.
(b) For superstructures and debris loading, V shall be the approach surface velocity for
the critical ARI just upstream of the bridge.
NOTE: For wide flood plains, the watercourse may require guide banks.
(c) For log and vessel impact, the relevant approach velocity shall be at the level of
impact being considered; and for surface impact, this shall be taken as 1.4 times the
average velocity.
(d) The adverse structural effect of local scour shall be taken into consideration in the
design at each limit state.
Where widespread, various amounts of bed scour shall be considered.
NOTE: The beneficial effect of bed scour in reducing velocity should generally be neglected
except where widespread mobile alluvium is evident and velocities can be relied upon to
occur for the flood event under consideration.
16.3 Limit states
16.3.1 ULSs
The ULSs defined in AS 5100.1 Clause 6.3 shall be satisfied for all floods up to and
including the 2000 year ARI flood. A load factor of 1.3 shall be used.
16.3.2 SLSs
The SLSs defined in AS 5100.1 Clause 6.3 shall be satisfied for all floods up to and
including the SLS flood defined in AS 5100.1 Table 11.1. A load factor of 1.0 shall be
used.
16.4 Forces on piers due to water flow
16.4.1 Drag forces on piers
In bridge structures subjected to water flow effects, the fluid forces on the piers are
dependent on the pier shape, pier configuration, the water velocity and the direction of the
water flow.
The design drag forces (Fd) parallel to the plane containing the pier shall be calculated as
follows:
Fd = 0.5 CdV2Ad . . .16.4.1

AS 5100.2:2017 68
where
Cd = drag coefficient, depending on pier shape (see below)
Ad = wetted area of the pier normal to the water flow, equal to the thickness of the
pier normal to the direction of the water flow multiplied by the height of the
water flow.
Consideration shall be given to variations of the direction of the water flow.
In the absence of more exact estimates, the value of Cd shall be assumed as follows:
Cd = 0.7 (semi-circular pier nosing)
= 1.4 (square end pier nosing)
= 0.8 (90° or sharper wedge, nosing with an angle of 90° or less)
NOTE: For a diagrammatic view of typical pier end configurations, see Figure 16.4.1.
Water fl ow
d ire c t i o n
(a) S e m i - c ir c u l ar p i er n o s i n g
Water fl ow
d ire c t i o n
(b) S q u ar e e n d p i er n o s i n g
Water fl ow
d ire c t i o n
(c) 9 0 ° or s har p er we d g e n o s in g
(w it h an g l e 9 0 ° or l e s s)
FIGURE 16.4.1 TYPICAL PIER END CONFIGURATIONS
16.4.2 Side forces on piers

The design side forces ( FL), perpendicular to the plane containing the pier, as shown in
Figure 16.4.2, shall be calculated as follows:
FL = 0.5 CsV2AL . . .16.4.2

69 AS 5100.2:2017
where
Cs = side force coefficient (which depends on the angle between the water flow
direction and the plane containing the pier)
AL = wetted area of the pier, equal to the width of the pier parallel to the direction
of the water flow multiplied by the height of the water flow
In the absence of more exact estimates, the value of Cs shall be assumed as follows:
Cs = 0.9 for θw  30°
= 1.0 for θw > 30°
where θw is the angle between the direction of the water flow and the transverse centre-line
of the pier.
Fd
Fd
FL
FL
D ire c t i o n of D ire c t i o n of
water fl ow water fl ow
θw
θw
Centre - line Centre - line

of p i er of p i er
PL AN ISO M E TRIC VIE W

LEGEND:
F d = design drag force
F L = design side force
FIGURE 16.4.2 DRAG AND SIDE FORCES ON PIERS
16.5 Forces on superstructures due to water flow

16.5.1 General
A superstructure that is partially or fully submerged in a flood is subjected to—
(a) a drag force normal to its longitudinal axis;
(b) a vertical lift force (positive upwards); and
(c) a moment about the girder soffit level (clockwise positive with the water flow from
left to right).
The loads specified in Items (a), (b) and (c) shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 16.5.2, 16.5.3 and 16.5.4, as appropriate.

AS 5100.2:2017 70
16.5.2 Drag force on superstructures

The design drag force (Fd) on superstructures shall be calculated as follows:
Fd = 0.5 CdV2As . . .16.5.2(1)
where
Cd = drag coefficient
As = net wetted area of the superstructure, including any railings or barriers,
The value of Cd for superstructures shall be obtained from Figure 16.5.2(A). The relative
submergence (Sr) and the proximity ratio (Pr) shall be calculated as follows:
d wgs
Sr  . . . 16.5.2(2)
d sp
y gs
Pr  . . .16.5.2(3)
d ss
where
dwgs = vertical distance from the girder soffit to the flood water surface upstream of
the bridge [see Figure 16.5.2(B)]
dsp = wetted depth of the superstructure (including any railings or barriers)

projected on a plane normal to the water flow [see Figure 16.5.2(B)]
ygs = average vertical distance from the girder soffit to the bed assuming no scour
at the span under consideration [see Figure 16.5.2(B)]
dss = wetted depth of the solid superstructure (excluding any railings but including
solid barriers) projected on a plane normal to the water flow [see
Figure 16.5.2(B)]
4.0
3.8
3 .6
DR AG COEFFICIENT ( C d )
3 .4 P r = 1. 5
3.2
3 .0
2.8
2.6 P r = 2. 5
2.4
2. 2 Pr = 3.5
2.0
1.8 Pr ≥ 8
1.6
1.4 Lin ear inter p o l at i o n of inter m e d i ate
1. 2 valu e s i s p er m iitt te d
1.0
0. 5 1.0 1. 5 2 .0 2. 5 3 .0 3.5 4.0
REL ATIVE SU B M ERGEN CE, ( S R )
FIGURE 16.5.2(A) SUPERSTRUCTURE C d

71 AS 5100.2:2017
Ca se 1: Fully su b m er g e d Fl o o d l eve l
d wgs
d wgs
dsp dss = dsp
dss
ygs water fl ow ygs water fl ow
B e d l eve l
Ca se 2: Par t i ally su b m er g e d
Fl o o d l eve l
dss = dsp = d wgs dss = dsp = d wgs

ygs water fl ow ygs water fl ow
B e d l eve l
FIGURE 16.5.2(B) SUPERSTRUCTURE DRAG FORCE DIMENSIONS
16.5.3 Lift force on superstructures

The design lift force (FL) on a superstructure shall be calculated as follows:
FL = 0.5 CLV2AL . . . 16.5.3
where
CL = lift coefficient
AL = plan deck area of the superstructure
The value of CL shall be obtained from Figure 16.5.3. An upward and downward lift force
shall be calculated at each Sr.
The upward and downward lift force shall be combined with the moment as described in
Clause 16.5.4 to determine the maximum uplift forces and downward forces acting on
various elements of the bridge.

AS 5100.2:2017 72
1.0
0.8
LIF T COEFFICIENT ( C L )
0.6
0.4
0. 2
0.0
- 0. 2
- 0.4
- 0.6
- 0.8
-1.0
-1. 2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
-2.0
-2. 2
0. 5 1.0 1. 5 2.0 2. 5 3 .0 3.5 4.0
REL ATIVE SU B M ERGEN CE ( S r )
FIGURE 16.5.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE C L
16.5.4 Moment on a superstructure

The drag and lift forces generate a moment about the longitudinal axis of the superstructure.
The design superstructure moment due to water flow (Mg) at the soffit level at the centre-
line of the superstructure shall be calculated as follows:
Mg = 0.5 CmV2Asdsp . . . 16.5.4

where
Cm = moment coefficient
The value of Cm shall be obtained from Figure 16.5.4.
6.0
5. 5
M O M ENT COEFFICIENT ( C m )
P r = 1. 5
5.0
Pr = 3.5
4. 5
4.0
3.5
P r ≥ 6. 5
3 .0
2.5
2.0
1. 5
1.0 Lin ear inter p o l at i o n of inter m e d i ate
valu e s i s p er m i t te d
0. 5
0.0
0. 5 1.0 1. 5 2.0 2. 5 3 .0 3.5 4.0
REL ATIVE SU B M ERGEN CE ( S r )
FIGURE 16.5.4 SUPERSTRUCTURE C m

73 AS 5100.2:2017
16.5.5 Loads on superstructures with superelevation

The loads on a superstructure with a positive superelevation (upstream face raised) of up to
4% shall be calculated in accordance with Clauses 16.5.2 to 16.5.4. The loads on a
superstructure with a negative superelevation of up to 4% shall be calculated in accordance
with Clauses 16.5.2 to 16.5.4, but with the following adjustments to the coefficients:
(a) The value of Cd shall be increased by 5%.
(b) The magnitude of CL shall be increased by 20%.
(c) The value of Cm shall be the same as for a level superstructure.
If the superelevation is greater than 4%, the upward lift force shall be calculated as for wall
type piers in accordance with Clause 16.4.2, except that AL shall be taken as the plan deck
A1 area and CL shall be taken as 0.9.
For superelevation outside this range, study of specialist literature or physical model testing
shall be undertaken.
16.6 Forces due to debris
16.6.1 Depth of debris mat
The depth of a debris mat varies depending on factors such as catchment vegetation,
available water flow depth and superstructure span. In the absence of more accurate
estimates, the minimum depth of debris mat for design shall be 1.2 m and the maximum
depth shall be 3 m, or as specified by the relevant authority.

16.6.2 Debris acting on piers
A debris load acting on piers shall be considered for bridges where the flood level is below
the superstructure. The length of a debris mat shall be taken as one-half the sum of the
adjacent spans or 20 m, whichever is the lesser. The debris load shall be applied at mid-
height of the debris mat, assuming the top of the debris mat is at the flood level.
16.6.3 Debris acting on superstructures
A debris load acting on superstructures shall be considered for bridges where the flood level
is above a level of 600 mm below the soffit level. The length of the debris mat shall be the
projected length of the superstructure. The debris load shall be applied at mid-height of the
submerged superstructure, including any railing or barriers, where appropriate.
16.6.4 Calculation of debris load
The ultimate and serviceability design drag forces (Fd) due to debris shall be calculated
using the following equation:
Fd = 0.5 CdV2Adeb . . . 16.6.4
where
Cd = obtained from Figure 16.6.4(A), for debris acting on piers
= obtained from Figure 16.6.4(B), for debris acting on superstructures
Adeb = projected area of debris
NOTE: The depth of debris varies depending on the catchment vegetation.
Lateral water flow forces shall not act concurrently on parts of the bridge subject to debris
loading. Lift forces and moments due to water flow or debris loading shall be considered
where the superstructure is completely or partially submerged.

AS 5100.2:2017 74
3 .6
3 .4
DR AG COEFFICIENT ( C d )
3.2
3 .0
2.8
2.6
2.4 V = ve lo cit y of water flow (m /s)
2. 2 y = average flow depth (m)
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1. 2
1.0
0 40 80 120 16 0 20 0 24 0 28 0 3 20 3 6 0 4 0 0
20 60 10 0 14 0 18 0 2 20 26 0 3 0 0 3 4 0 3 8 0
V 2y
FIGURE 16.6.4(A) PIER DEBRIS Cd
6.0
5.6 F = V/√(gy)
where:
5. 2
V = ve l o c it y of water fl ow (m /s)
DR AG COEFFICIENT ( C D )
4.8 y = aver ag e fl ow d e pt h (m)

4.4 g = ac c e l er at i o n d u e to gr av it y (m /s 2)
4.0
3 .6
Linear interpolation of intermediate
3.2 F = 0. 2 valu e i s p er m iitt te d
2.8
2.4 F = 0.3
2.0 F = 0.4
1.6 F = 0. 5
1. 2
F = 0.6
0.8
0.4
0. 5 1.0 1. 5 2 .0 2. 5 3 .0 3 . 5 4.0 4. 5 5.0 5. 5 6.0 6. 5 7.0 7. 5 8 .0 8. 5 9.0 9. 5 10.010. 5
PROXIMIT Y R ATIO ( P r )
FIGURE 16.6.4(B) SUPERSTRUCTURE DEBRIS C d
16.7 Forces due to moving objects

16.7.1 General
The forces due to moving objects and debris shall not be applied concurrently. Moving
object impact forces shall be applied with such other water flow forces as appropriate.

75 AS 5100.2:2017
16.7.2 Log impact

Where floating logs are possible, the ultimate and serviceability design forces exerted by
such logs directly hitting piers or superstructure shall be calculated on the assumptions that
a log with a minimum mass of 2 t will be stopped within a distance of 300 mm for timber
piers, 150 mm for hollow concrete piers, and 75 mm for solid concrete piers. If fender piles
or sheathing, to absorb the energy of the blow, are placed upstream from the pier, the
stopping distance shall be increased. The design forces shall be calculated using the water
flow velocity at the surface of water flow at the flood level relevant for the SLS, or for
ULS, as appropriate.
16.7.3 Large item impact
In urban areas, the effects of impact and buoyancy from large floating items such as
pontoons, pleasure craft, shipping containers, and the like, shall be considered. The type
and size of large items considered shall be subject to approval of the relevant authority.
The forces due to log impact or large item impact shall not be applied concurrently.
16.8 Effects due to buoyancy and lift
In assessing the effects of buoyancy and lift on bridge structures, consideration shall be
given to the following:
(a) The effects of buoyancy and lift on substructure, including piling, and superstructure
dead loads. Buoyancy shall be applied concurrently with other water flow forces.
(b) The provision of effective bleed holes, which dissipate air trapped between high
water level and the underside of the deck slab, and reduce the effect of buoyancy for
beam and slab or box girder bridges.
(c) Provision of drainage from internal cells.
A positive tie-down system shall be provided for the superstructure if uplift occurs at any
support or bearing, taking account of dead loads, buoyancy, water flow forces and debris
loading.
The tie-down shall be designed for an ultimate force equal to:
 WF  FLu*  M Lu
*
/ Z   Buoyancy   g G . . . 16.8
where
WF = ultimate load factor for forces resulting from water flow, see Clause 16.3.1
g = ultimate load factor for dead load that reduces safety, given in Table 6.2
G = dead load reaction on the support
Z = bearing layout modulus
*
FLu = ultimate design lift force
*
M Lu = ultimate moment due to water flow and/or debris loading, as applicable
The bearings shall be adequately restrained in position during submergence of the
superstructure.

AS 5100.2:2017 76
17 WIND LOADS
17.1 General
This Clause (17) specifies design wind loads for conventional bridge structures. For wind-
sensitive structures, such as suspension or long-span cable-stayed bridges, which may be
subject to wind-excited oscillations, special investigations into the dynamic behaviour of
the structure shall be carried out. Wind loads on lighting, traffic signal and traffic sign
structures shall be in accordance with Clause 24. Wind loads on noise barriers shall be in
accordance with Clause 25.
The effect of wind on road traffic need not be considered
17.2 Design wind speed
17.2.1 General
The design wind speed shall be derived from the appropriate regional basic design wind
speeds, after adjustment for—
(a) average return interval;
(b) geographical location;
(c) terrain category;
(d) shielding; and
(e) height above ground.

The average return interval (ARI) shall be as specified in Clause 17.2.2. The values and
factors for Items (b) to (e) shall be obtained from AS/NZS 1170.2.
17.2.2 Average return interval
The design wind speed for the average return interval (ARI) shall be as specified in
AS/NZS 1170.2 for that return interval.
The average return interval (ARI) to be adopted shall be as follows:
(a) For ULSs ................................................................................................... 2000 years.
(b) For SLSs ......................................................................................................... 20 years
(for wind in conjunction with permanent effects only).
17.3 Transverse wind load
17.3.1 Calculation of transverse wind load
The transverse wind load shall be taken as acting horizontally at the centroids of the
appropriate areas, and shall be calculated using the following equations:
(a) Ultimate design transverse wind load ( Wt* ):
Wt*  0.0006 Vu2 At Cd . . . 17.3(1)

(b) Serviceability design transverse wind load (Wt):
Wt  0.0006 Vs2 At Cd . . . 17.3(2)
where
Vu = design wind speed for ULSs
Vs = design wind speed for SLSs
At = area of the structure for calculation of wind load
Cd = drag coefficient

77 AS 5100.2:2017
17.3.2 Area of structure for calculation of transverse wind load (At)

The area of the structure or element under consideration shall be the solid area in normal
projected elevation, subject to the following:
(a) Superstructures with solid barriers The area of the superstructure shall include the
area of the solid windward barrier. (The effect of the leeward barrier need not be
considered.)
(b) Superstructures with open barriers The total load shall be the sum of the loads for
the superstructure, the windward barrier and the leeward barrier considered
separately. Where there are more than two barriers or safety fences, irrespective of
the width of the superstructure, only those two elements having the greatest
unshielded effect shall be considered.
(c) Piers Shielding shall not be considered.
17.3.3 Drag coefficient (Cd )
The drag coefficient (Cd ) shall be determined as follows:
(a) Drag coefficient for all superstructures with solid elevation For superstructures with
or without traffic load, Cd shall be as shown in Figure 17.3.3,
where
b = overall width of the bridge between outer faces of barriers
d = depth of superstructure, including solid barrier, if applicable

(b) Aerodynamic shape factor for truss girder superstructures The wind force on truss
girder superstructures shall be calculated by considering each component
individually, using the aerodynamic shape factor specified in AS/NZS 1170.2.
(c) Drag coefficients for beams during erection The drag coefficient for beams and
girders during erection shall be calculated for individual beams as shown in
Figure 17.3.3. Shielding shall not be considered for individual beams.
Shielding may be allowed for when two or more beams are connected, provided the
ratio of the clear distance between beams to the beam depth is not greater than 7.
Where the ratio of the clear distance between connected beams to the beam depth is
greater than 7, the drag coefficient for the combination shall be taken as 1.5 times the
value for an individual beam.
(d) Aerodynamic shape factor for barrier railings, barriers and
substructures Aerodynamic shape factors shall be obtained from AS/NZS 1170.2.

AS 5100.2:2017 78
2.8
Minimum c o ef fi c i ent
DR AG COEFFICIENT C d
2.4 for d e c ks su p p or te d
by I se c t i o n s,
2.0 m ore t han 4 b eam s
or b ox- g ir d er s
1.6
1. 2
0.8
0.4
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
R ATIO b/d
NOTES:
1 The values given assume a vertical elevation and a horizontal wind.
2 Where the windward face is inclined to the vertical, the drag coefficient (C d ) may be reduced by 0.5% per
degree of inclination from the vertical, subject to a maximum reduction of 30%.
3 Where the windward face consists of a vertical and a sloping part or two sloping parts inclined at different
angles, the wind load shall be derived as follows:
(a) The drag coefficient (C d ) shall be calculated using the total depth of the structure.
(b) For each non-vertical face, the basic drag coefficient (C d ) calculated above shall be reduced by 0.5%
per degree of inclination from the vertical, subject to a maximum reduction of 30%.
(c) The total wind load shall be calculated by applying the appropriate drag coefficients to the relevant
areas.
4 Where a superstructure is superelevated, C d shall be increased by 3% per degree of inclination to the
horizontal, but not by more than 25%.
5 Where a superstructure is subject to wind inclined at not more than 5 to the horizontal, C d shall be
increased by 15%. Where the angle of inclination exceeds 5, the drag coefficient shall be derived from
tests.
6 Where a superstructure is superelevated and subject to inclined wind, Cd shall be the subject of special
investigation.
FIGURE 17.3.3 DRAG COEFFICIENT (C d) FOR SUPERSTRUCTURES

WITH SOLID ELEVATION
17.4 Longitudinal wind load

For piers, truss bridges and other superstructure forms that present a significant surface area
to wind loads parallel to the longitudinal centre-line of the structure, a longitudinal wind
load shall be considered. The ultimate and serviceability design longitudinal wind loads
shall be calculated in a manner similar to those for transverse wind loads.
NOTE: Longitudinal wind loads on the superstructure may also be significant during the
construction stage of some bridge types that are not affected by these loads during service.
17.5 Vertical wind load
An upward or downward vertical wind load, acting at the centroid of the appropriate area,
shall be calculated using the following equations:
(a) Ultimate design vertical wind load ( Wv* ):
Wv*  0.0006 Vu2 Ap CL . . . 17.5(1)
(b) Serviceability design vertical wind load ( Wv ):
Wv  0.0006 Vs2 Ap CL . . . 17.5(2)

where

79 AS 5100.2:2017
Vu = design wind speed for ULSs

Vs = design wind speed for SLSs
Ap = bridge area in plan
CL = lift coefficient
= 0.75
Equations 17.5(1) and 17.5(2) may be used for an angle of inclination of the wind to the
structure is less than 5°. For inclinations greater than 5, the lift coefficient shall be
investigated by testing.
17.6 Wind load on rail traffic
The effect of wind load on rail traffic shall be included in both ULS and SLS load
combinations and shall be considered to act with the design rail traffic load.
The area to be considered in the calculation of the wind load on rail traffic shall be the solid
area in normal projected elevation of the train area where it protrudes beyond the projected
elevation of the bridge structure. For the calculation of the projected area, a train shall be
assumed to be carrying double stacked containers 7.0 m in height taken from the top of
rails. The point of application shall be taken as 3.5 m above the top of the rails. For lines
where there is no provision for double stacked container traffic to operate, the height of the
highest wagon or carriage shall be used with the application of the wind force at mid height.
In no case shall the train height be less than 4.0 m.

The drag factor to be used in calculating the force for wind on the bridge shall be obtained
from Clause 17.3.3(a), with the depth of superstructure d taken as the projected overall
depth of the train and bridge superstructure, and the width b as specified in
Clause 17.3.3(a).
17.7 Combination of wind loads
The vertical wind load shall be considered to act concurrently with the other wind loads so
as to produce the most adverse effect. The critical combination shall be treated as a single
transient effect.
18 THERMAL EFFECTS
18.1 General
Daily and seasonal fluctuations in air temperature and solar radiation cause both variations
in average bridge temperature and differential temperature gradients across structural
members.
Variation in average bridge temperature shall be used as a basis for—
(a) assessment of bearing and deck joint movement requirements; and
(b) evaluation of design loads or load effects resulting from the restraint of associated
expansion or contraction by either the form of the structure, e.g. as in portal frames
and arches, or by the support and bearing stiffnesses.
Differential temperatures within bridge superstructures result in load effects within the
section. In the case of statically indeterminate or restrained structural forms, these
differential temperatures also cause both longitudinal and transverse parasitic load effects,
which shall be taken into account in the design.

AS 5100.2:2017 80
18.2 Variation in average bridge temperature

Extremes of shade air temperature appropriate to the structure location shall be derived
from Table 18.2(A).
Consideration shall be given to particular site characteristics (e.g. frost pockets and
sheltered low-lying areas) where the minimum shade air temperature may be substantially
lower; and in urban and coastal areas where the minimum values may be higher than the
values given in Table 18.2(A).
For major or special structures, extreme shade air temperatures for the actual site shall be
determined. For minor structures, consideration shall be given to increase displacements
determined for the range of average bridge temperatures to allow for limited supervision
and control of setting bearings and deck joints.
For concrete superstructures (Types 1 and 2 shown in Figure 18.3), the minimum and
maximum average bridge temperatures shall be derived from the minimum and maximum
shade air temperatures by reference to Table 18.2(B). Average temperature values indicated
relate to bridge cross-sections with a depth of up to 2 m. Where sections are greater than
2 m in depth, reference shall be made to specialist literature to determine the heat sink
effect.
For superstructures consisting of a concrete deck on steel girders (Type 3 shown in
Figure 18.3), the range of average bridge temperatures given in Table 18.2(B) shall be
extended by reducing the minimum average temperature by 5°C and increasing the
maximum average by 10°C.

For superstructures consisting of a steel deck on steel girders, such as pedestrian bridges,
the range of average bridge temperatures given in Table 18.2(B) shall be extended by
reducing the minimum average temperature by 10°C and increasing the maximum average
by 20°C.
TABLE 18.2(A)
EXTREMES OF SHADE AIR TEMPERATURES
Shade air temperature
°C
Height above
Location sea level Region I Region II Region III
m North of 22.5°S South of 22.5°S Tasmania
Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1000 46 0 45 5 37 5
Inland
>1000 36 5 36 10 32 10
1000 44 4 44 1 35 1
Coastal
>1000 34 1 34 6 30 6
NOTE: Coastal locations are locations that are less than 20 km from the coast.

81 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 18.2(B)
AVERAGE BRIDGE TEMPERATURES
Min.
Shade air temp Average bridge temp
°C °C
8 2
2 4
4 8
10 12
Max.
50 54
46 50
42 46
38 43
34 40
30 37
NOTE: Linear interpolation of intermediate values is
permitted.
18.3 Differential temperature

The effects of vertical differential temperature gradients through a bridge superstructure
shall be derived for both positive temperature differential conditions, where solar radiation
has caused a gain in top surface temperatures, and negative temperature differentials, where
re-radiation of heat from the section results in relatively low top surface temperatures.
Design-effective vertical temperature gradients, appropriate to various regions and
superstructure types, shall be as shown in Figure 18.3.
NOTE: These design temperature gradients have been derived for cases where decks are
unsurfaced or where surfacing will be limited to 50 mm of bituminous concrete. For substantially
greater thicknesses of surfacing, some reduction in design temperature gradients may be
warranted.
For those parts of rail bridge decks covered by ballast greater than 100 mm thick, the
differential temperature distribution shall be as given in Figure 18.3, provided the
maximum temperature of the temperature profiles given apply at the top of the ballast, with
a corresponding reduced temperature applying at the top of the bridge deck.
The effects of transverse differential temperature gradients across the superstructure shall
also be considered for some structures, such as very wide bridges. The effects of vertical
and transverse differential temperatures shall be considered separately.

AS 5100.2:2017 82
Bridge type Typical cross-section Effective temperature gradient

1 Concrete De c k c o n c rete sur fac e
beam and
slab, and slab De c k c o n c rete
sur fac e 0.4T T
deck T (°C)
300 5
y
D
T( y) = T ( 1 - 120y 0 )
S of fi t
D
y 20 0
S of fi t D S of fi t 5 - s of fit w it hin 8 m
of g r o u n d
y (m m) 0 - over water
2 Concrete box (T+ 3)

girders and M a x. d = 3 0 0 0.4T T
Super T- T(°C)
girders d
300
y
T(y) = T + 3 - 0.0 5y
D D Te m p er ature profil e
ac ro s s d e c k s l a b s
M a x. d = 3 0 0
over c l o se d b ox
20 0 c e ll s (s had e d area)
5 or 0
y 5
D
(a s for
Ty p e 1)
T( y) = T ( 1 - 120y 0 )
y(m m)
FIGURE 18.3 (in part) DESIGN EFFECTIVE VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

83 AS 5100.2:2017
Bridge type Typical cross-section Effective temperature gradient

3 Concrete (T+5) (T+ 8)
slab on steel t
M a x. d = 3 0 0 (0.4T - 3)
trough, steel t T(°C)
box or steel I d
girders
300
y max. T(y) = T + 3 - 0.0 5y
D (s had e d area)
t D
5
y
T( y) = (T+ 5) 1 - ( 120 0
)
y
D Te m p er ature
y(m m) d e p e n d e nt o n
d e c k t hi c k n e s s (t)
LEGEND:
positive differential temperature gradients
negative differential temperature gradients
D = total depth of superstructure
d = thickness of the slab over a box cell (shown hatched)
T = temperature
t = thickness of the deck
y = variable distance taken in determining temperature change at T ( y )
NOTES:
1 Regional values for T:
Region T Regional category
1 20°C Continental-inland of Great Dividing Range or further than 200 km from coast (typical
Canberra, Alice Springs)
2 18°C Coastal temperature—No further than 200 km from coast (typical Perth, Adelaide.
Melbourne, Sydney)
3 14°C Coastal sub-tropical, monsoonal (typical Brisbane, Darwin)
2 The temperature gradient given for deck slabs forming closed box cells should only apply for slab
thicknesses, including any internal fillets, of D less than 300 mm. Therefore, any deck slab, or part
thereof, over a box cell with a thickness greater than 300 mm, should be subject to the general effective
vertical temperature gradient shown.
FIGURE 18.3 (in part) DESIGN EFFECTIVE VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS
18.4 Limit states

Thermal effects shall be considered where they adversely affect a structure, as follows:
(a) For ULSs The thermal effects that are applicable to the structure, as determined
from the relevant material Part of this Standard shall be considered.
The ultimate design effects shall be determined using a load factor of 1.25.
(b) For SLSs All thermal effects shall be considered.
The serviceability design effects shall be determined using a load factor of 1.0.
The effects of vertical and transverse differential temperatures shall be considered
separately.

AS 5100.2:2017 84
19 SHRINKAGE, CREEP AND PRESTRESS EFFECTS

19.1 Shrinkage and creep effects
Consideration shall be given to the effects of shrinkage and creep in concrete structures.
The characteristics of different types and different ages of concrete shall be considered.
Shrinkage and creep strains shall be calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5.
The design effects shall be calculated using the nominal dead loads of the structure.
A load factor of 1.2 for ULSs, and 1.0 for SLSs shall be used.
Shrinkage and creep effects shall be included in serviceability design checks for stresses,
cracking and deflection.
Where shrinkage and creep affect the strength, stability or displacement limits of a structure
or its components, these effects shall be taken into consideration.
NOTE: For shrinkage and creep effects in timber structures, refer to AS 5100.9.
19.2 Prestress effects (PS)
The secondary effects of prestress induced in restrained components and indeterminate
structures shall be considered in the design of prestressed concrete structures.
Where applicable, the prestressing effect shall be included with a load factor of 1.0 in all
load combinations for both ultimate and serviceability design, except for the ULS case of
dead load (G) plus prestress effect (PS) at transfer, where the more severe of the following
combinations shall be used:

1.15G + 1.15PS and . . . 19.2(1)
0.9G + 1.15PS . . . 19.2(2)
20 DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT OF SUPPORTS

20.1 Differential settlement effects
Where differential settlement of the supports, specially in continuous span configurations,
affects the structure in whole or in part, the effects shall be taken into consideration.
Differential settlement shall be calculated assuming permanent loads only acting, and using
the nominal dead loads of the structure, except that for rail bridges, the additional
settlement due to traffic load, including the dynamic load allowance, shall be included.
The differential settlement or rotation shall take account of the relief afforded by creep and
soil-structure interaction.
Design differential settlement effects shall be included in the SLSs for the structure,
including bearings and deck joints using a load factor of 1.0. For rail bridges, spans shall be
proportioned such that there is no net uplift at bearings.
Consideration shall be given to whether differential settlement effects need to be included
in the ULSs loads for the structure, using a load factor of 1.5.
Where possible, all structures shall be designed to be ductile.
20.2 Mining subsidence effects
Bridge structures in areas underlain by known mineral deposits shall be designed to cater
for anticipated mining subsidence effects. Mining subsidence effects may include—
(a) a vertical displacement;
(b) change in the slope of the ground; or
(c) the development of surface strains.

85 AS 5100.2:2017
Mining subsidence effects shall be included in the SLS checks of the superstructure,
bearings, deck joints and substructure using a load factor of 1.0.
The foundations shall be designed for mining subsidence effects at ULSs. For sites where
accurate records and information are available a load factor of 1.5 shall be used.
For all other sites, a load factor of 2.0 shall be used.
21 FORCES FROM BEARINGS

Bridges shall be designed for the forces arising from the friction of sliding and rolling
bearings, and the load-displacement characteristics of elastomeric bearings.
The forces due to friction on bearings shall be calculated considering permanent loads only
acting.
Characteristic values of the coefficient of friction, under normal operating conditions of
bearings, shall be as specified in AS 5100.4.
For ULSs, the design friction force shall be calculated using the characteristic coefficient of
friction and the nominal dead loads of the structure.
For SLSs, the average design friction forces, calculated using the characteristic coefficient
of friction and the nominal dead loads of the structure shall be treated as a permanent
effect, acting in either direction.

A load factor of 1.0 shall be used for the SLS.
The coefficient of friction of any surface intended for sliding to accommodate movements
of a structure shall be taken as zero as one of the ULSs.
The effects of a seized bearing in conjunction with permanent loads and thermal movements
shall be considered.
22 CONSTRUCTION FORCES AND EFFECTS

22.1 General
The permanent forces and effects introduced during construction shall be considered in the
design. Allowance shall also be made for the weight of any falsework or plant that may be
carried by the structure, resulting from the anticipated method or sequence of construction.
Forces arising during construction and the stability and serviceability of the component
parts shall be considered in the design.
Where the design is dependent on a particular method of construction, the structure shall be
capable of safely sustaining all construction loads, and these constraints, inherent in the
design, shall be clearly detailed in the drawings and specifications.
The ability of bridge-supporting members to withstand the effects of flood and wind forces
occurring during construction shall also be considered.
Time-related relaxation of construction effects shall be considered where appropriate.
The load factors to be applied in calculating the construction dead loads shall be as given in
Table 22.1.

AS 5100.2:2017 86
TABLE 22.1
LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION DEAD LOADS ( g )
ULSs where dead load

Type of
Type of construction Reduces Increases SLSs
material
safety safety
(a) All, except for Items (b), (c) and (d) Steel 1.1 0.9 1.0
Concrete 1.2 0.85 1.0
(b) Balanced cantilever structures All 1.1 1.0 1.0
At a section subjected to approximately equal
favourable and unfavourable dead loads
(c) Anchor cantilever structures All 1.2 1.0 1.0
At a section subjected to unequal favourable
and unfavourable dead loads
(d) Launched structures All 1.2 0.85 1.0
NOTES:
1 For large segmental cantilever and launched construction, where appropriate control and monitoring are
exercised over dimensions, the relevant authority may approve a reduction of  g to not less than 1.1 for
ULSs, for the case where the dead load reduces safety.
2 The load factors shall be applied at a section where the member is subject to approximately equal
favourable and unfavourable dead loads. This may occur during the construction phase of a structure built
by the balanced cantilevering method. Where the completed structure is changed from the balanced
cantilever state (e.g. into a continuous structure after closure), the load factors for non-balanced cantilever
structures shall apply.
22.2 Minimum construction design loads

22.2.1 All bridges
The minimum construction design loads and load factors shall be in accordance with
Table 22.2.1 except for the launching phase of an incrementally launched prestressed
concrete bridge.

87 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE 22.2.1
MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS FOR ALL
BRIDGES (EXCEPT FOR THE LAUNCHING PHASE OF AN INCREMENTALLY
LAUNCHED PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGE)
Loading Value Ultimate load factor
Dead load As per Clause 6 See Table 22.1
Construction live load 0.5 kPa on all deck surfaces
(minimum). The designer may 1.8
specify a higher value.
Small span components such as
formwork over Super T voids shall be
designed for a minimum of 5 kPa
(representing over-thickness in
concrete while placing).
Differential temperature 90% of Clause 18.3 values 1.1
Wind load The return interval for the design
wind during construction shall be
1.0
determined by the following
equation:
R = 100N
where R is the return period and N is

the duration of construction in years.
The minimum value of N is 2 years
(see Note 1).
Differential settlement and
construction tolerance allowances As specified in design (see Note 2). 1.0
between bearing levels
NOTES:
1 During construction, various elements of the bridge may be more susceptible to wind loads than when
the bridge is completed.
2 Differential settlement shall be monitored and controlled during construction.
22.2.2 Launching phase of an incrementally launched prestressed concrete bridges

The minimum construction design loads and load factors for the launching phase of an
incrementally launched prestressed concrete bridge shall be in accordance with
Table 22.2.2.
The criteria for other types of bridge construction shall be subject to approval of the
appropriate relevant authority.

AS 5100.2:2017 88
TABLE 22.2.2
MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION DESIGN LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS FOR THE
LAUNCHING PHASE OF AN INCREMENTALLY LAUNCHED PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE BRIDGE
Loading Value Ultimate load factor
Dead load As per Clause 6 See Table 22.1
Launching live load 0.5 kPa on all deck surfaces
1.8
(minimum)
Differential temperature As per Clause 18.3 0.9
Wind load See Clause 17 (see Note 1) 0.7
Differential settlement and
construction tolerance allowances As specified in design (see Note 2) 1.0
between bearing levels
NOTES:
1 Launching should not be carried out in strong wind (wind speed greater than 15 m/s).
2 Differential settlement shall be monitored and controlled during construction.
22.3 Temporary structures

Temporary structures shall be designed in accordance with the relevant Standards and shall
comply with relevant legislation and regulations.
23 LOAD COMBINATIONS
23.1 Classification of loads and load effects
23.1.1 General
Loads and load effects are divided into permanent effects (Clause 23.1.2), thermal effects
(Clause 23.1.3), and transient effects (Clause 23.1.4).
23.1.2 Permanent effects (PE)
Permanent effects shall include the following:
(a) Structure dead load.
(b) Additional permanent loads (superimposed dead load and rail ballast and track load).
(c) Soil and groundwater loads.
(d) Water flow forces and buoyancy corresponding to mean water level.
(e) Shrinkage and creep effects (zero effects and full effects).
(f) Prestress effects (before and after losses) (see Clause 19.2).
(g) Differential movement of supports.
(h) Forces from bearings.
23.1.3 Thermal effects
Thermal effects shall include the following:
(a) Effects due to variation in average bridge temperature.
(b) Differential temperature effects.
The effects due to variation in average bridge temperature and due to differential
temperature shall be combined to form the thermal effects load case.

89 AS 5100.2:2017
23.1.4 Transient effects

Transient effects shall include the following:
(a) Road and/or rail traffic loads, including dynamic effects.
(b) Pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance traffic loads.
(c) Minimum restraint load.
(d) Collision loads.
(e) Road traffic barrier design loads.
(f) Earth pressure from traffic loads.
(g) Earthquake effects.
(h) Water flow forces including forces due to moving objects and buoyancy.
(i) Wind loads.
(j) Fire effects.
23.2 Minimum strength and stability
To ensure that the bridge satisfies minimum strength and stability criteria, the ultimate load
combination of dead load + superimposed dead load + rail ballast and track load + soil and
groundwater load shall be considered with load factors of—
(a) 1.0 for groundwater; and

(b) 1.35 for effects that reduce safety and 0.9 for effects that increase safety for dead
load, superimposed dead load, rail ballast and track load, and soil load.
23.3 ULS load combinations
Structures shall be designed for the worst permanent effects (PE) added to any of the
thermal and transient effects as applicable.
NOTE: Table D3, Appendix D, summarizes the load factors for load combinations.
The ULS load combinations to be considered for ultimate analysis shall include the
following:
(a) Minimum strength and stability (Clause 23.2).
(b) PE + road/rail traffic loads.
(c) PE + pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance traffic loads.
(d) PE + minimum restraint load.
(e) PE + collision load.
(f) PE + road traffic barrier load.
(g) PE + earth pressure from traffic load.
(h) PE + earthquake effects.
(i) PE + water flow forces.
(j) PE + wind load.
(k) PE + thermal effects
(l) PE + fire effects.
For PE + road/rail traffic loads [Item (b)] and for PE + wind load [Item (j)], the thermal
effects shall be included in these combinations with a load factor of 1.0 if they produce a
more severe loading.

AS 5100.2:2017 90
For PE + road/rail traffic loads [Item (b)], the wind load shall be included in the
combination using a design wind speed of 35 m/s in all locations.
For PE + collision load [Item (e)], the road/rail traffic loads shall be included in the
combination with a load factor of 1.0 if they produce a more severe loading.
For PE + water flow forces [Item (i)] and for PE + thermal effects [Item (k)], the road/rail
traffic loads shall be included in these combinations with a load factor of 1.0 if they
produce a more severe loading, unless it can be demonstrated that the structure will be
closed to traffic under ultimate conditions.
23.4 SLS load combinations
At SLSs, more than one thermal effect and transient load can co-exist at any time. The basic
combination to be considered for SLSs shall be as follows:
PE  (serviceability design load for one transient load or thermal effect)
 k (serviceability design load for one or more other transient load or thermal effect)
where
k = 0.7 for one additional effect
= 0.5 for two additional effects
The load factors to be applied to the SLS design loads shall be in accordance with the
relevant clauses of this Standard.
24 ROAD SIGNS AND LIGHTING STRUCTURES

24.1 General
This Clause (24) sets out the requirements for the design of cantilever and portal sign
structures and high-mast light poles.
24.2 ULS design
The ULS design wind speed shall be determined as follows:
(a) For structures defined in AS 5100.1 Clause 21.1, which present a risk of collapsing
onto the road traffic lanes, the design wind speed shall be as specified in
AS/NZS 1170.2 for a 1000 year average recurrence interval.
(b) For structures defined in AS 5100.1 Clause 21.1, which do not present a risk of
collapsing onto the road traffic lanes, the design wind speed shall be as specified in
AS/NZS 1170.2 for a 200 year average recurrence interval.
The design wind pressure shall be as specified for hoardings in AS/NZS 1170.2, based on
the wind speeds specified above.
24.3 SLS design
24.3.1 SLS design wind speed
The SLS design wind speed shall be as specified in AS/NZS 1170.2 for a 20-year average
recurrence interval.
24.3.2 Portal sign structures
Portal sign structures shall be designed, fabricated and erected so that for the completed
sign structure (including signs), the maximum deviation of the transverse member(s) under
the action of self-weight only shall comply with the following tolerances:
(a) Downwards deviation from a straight line between the columns ............................... 0.
(b) Upwards deviation from a straight line between the columns ....................... span/200.

91 AS 5100.2:2017
24.3.3 Cantilever sign structures

Cantilever sign structures shall meet the following requirements:
(a) The completed structure shall comprise a vertical column with a cantilever arm that is
horizontal, subject to compliance with the minimum clearance requirements of the
relevant authority and as required by the design (this geometry is termed the required
profile). For cantilever sign structures, an assessment of the creep deflection due to
foundation rotation shall be made. The required profile shall be adjusted to include
the following presets:
(i) Vertical members Away from carriageway—Assessed creep but not less than
25 mm at the top of the vertical member.
(ii) Horizontal members Upwards—Assessed creep but not less than 25 mm at the
tip of the cantilever arm.
The required profile shall be defined on the drawings for all cantilever sign
structures.
(b) Cantilever sign structures shall be designed, fabricated and erected so that for the
completed sign structure (including signs) under the action of self-weight only, the
maximum deviation from the required profile shall comply with the following
tolerances:
(i) Vertical members:
(A) Towards carriageway ............................................................................ 0.

(B) Away from carriageway .................................................................. H/200
(where H is the height from the base to the intersection of the uppermost
principal horizontal members).
(ii) Horizontal members:
(A) Downwards deviation ............................................................................ 0.
(B) Upwards deviation .......................................................................... L/200
(where L is the length from the intersection of the principal members to
the tip of the cantilever arm).
(c) Cantilever sign structures shall be designed, fabricated and erected so that for the
completed sign structure (including signs) under the action of serviceability wind
loading only, the maximum horizontal deflection at the centre of the sign shall not
exceed 1/125 of the combined length of the post and arm.
NOTE: Cantilever sign structures experience deflections due to the self-weight of the cantilever-
arm and the sign-face and wind loading together with possible long-term creep deflection as a
result of foundation movement. Unless compensatory action is taken, these deflections may be
excessive leading to an undesirable appearance of the structure. In extreme cases, the structure
may become unserviceable.
24.4 Fatigue limit state design
Fatigue limit state design shall be in accordance with the AASHTO publication Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals.
All aspects of the fatigue design shall be based on the AASHTO publication, including drag
coefficients, fatigue importance factors, fatigue stress categories and constant-amplitude
fatigue limits. Sign structures or high-mast light poles that could fall onto marked traffic
lanes shall be treated in accordance with AASHTO requirements for Fatigue Category I.

AS 5100.2:2017 92
For installation sites where detailed yearly mean wind speed data is available from the
Bureau of Meteorology, that site value of the yearly mean wind speed shall be used in the
fatigue calculations for natural wind gusts in, accordance with AASHTO publication
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic
Signals.
The potential for a resonant response of the cantilever arm of cantilever sign structures to
vortex shedding originating from the column shall be assessed, including designs in which
steel box-sections are used for the principal members.
24.5 Service live load on walkways
In structures fitted with walkways or service platforms, or both, the design load shall be as
specified in Clause 8.2.
25 NOISE BARRIERS AND PROTECTION SCREENS

25.1 General
Noise barriers and protection screens may be fixed to a structure or be stand alone. Where a
noise barrier or protection screen is used as a pedestrian barrier, it shall be designed for the
loading specified in Clause 12.5 or Clause 25.3, whichever gives the most severe effect.
25.2 Design life
The design life for noise barriers and protection screens shall be 50 years or as approved by
the relevant authority. Anchorages shall be designed for a design life of 100 years on
bridges and 50 years for other applications.
25.3 Wind load on noise barriers and protection screens
25.3.1 General
Wind pressures on noise barriers shall be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2
and subject to the requirements of this Clause.
25.3.2 Average recurrence interval (ARI)
The average recurrence interval (ARI) to be used for the calculation of the ULS wind forces
for design shall be as follows, subject to approval of the relevant authority:
(a) 200 years for noise barriers and protection screens that are located on road or rail
authority property and cannot fall onto or slide down a slope onto other property,
roadway, walkway or onto traffic areas.
(b) 1000 years for noise barriers that can fall onto railways and onto roadways.
(c) 500 years for all other noise barriers.
25.3.3 Change in terrain category
Any foreseeable change in terrain category shall be taken into consideration in accordance
with AS/NZS 1170.2.
25.3.4 Shielding multiplier (Ms)
The shielding multiplier (Ms) specified in AS/NZS 1170.2 shall be taken as 1.0.
25.3.5 Topographic multiplier
AS/NZS 1170.2 accounts for sites in relation to the topographic features of hills, ridges and
escarpments.
Where the topography along a length of noise barriers varies, each situation shall be
assessed taking into account its location relative to the prevailing topographic feature.

93 AS 5100.2:2017
Road embankments shall be treated as hills or escarpments. A road embankment shall be

treated as an escarpment provided it meets the requirements for an escarpment and,
additionally, the top width of the embankment is not less than the greater of—
(a) 5 times the upwind height of the embankment; and
(b) 5 times the height of the upwind noise barrier.
25.3.6 Net pressure for hoardings and freestanding walls
The pressure coefficient shall be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2.
Noise barriers on bridges shall be treated as hoardings. Other noise barriers shall be treated
as freestanding walls.
Where gates and gaps occur in the noise barrier, the barrier adjacent to the gap or gate shall
be treated as a free end.
25.3.7 Free ends
Special consideration shall be given to the design of free ends.
25.3.8 Serviceability design
The horizontal deflection of the panel under serviceability wind shall be limited to:
span of panel
60
25.4 Robustness design loads

25.4.1 Protection screens
A protection screen shall be designed to withstand an ULS load of 2 kN applied over an
area of 50 mm  50 mm on the screen, at any point, which produces the most adverse effect
or as specified by the relevant authority.
25.4.2 Noise barriers
Unless approved otherwise by the relevant authority, noise barriers shall be capable of
withstanding the impact of a 4 kg steel ball dropped from a height of 3 m when the panel is
supported horizontally above the ground.
The test panel shall be set up such that its ends are supported with a similar edge distance to
that used in service. The test panel shall be set up for the worst case of span and width to be
used in service.
The impact shall cause only superficial scratches and marks on the panel. A depth
deformation of 4 mm within a circle of 20 mm diameter shall be deemed acceptable. Glass
panels shall not crack or shatter.
26 FIRE EFFECTS
Where the relevant authority specifies that a bridge shall be designed for the effects of fire,
time-temperature curves for the fire shall be—
(a) as specified by the relevant authority;
(b) interpolated from test data from fire tests that replicate the chosen fire conditions;
(c) determined by fire models and engineering judgement where appropriate test data
does not exist;
(d) taken from AS 1530.4 for cellulose materials; or
(e) as prescribed in Table 26.

AS 5100.2:2017 94
TABLE 26
DESIGN TIME-TEMPERATURE CURVES FOR FIRE
Structural elements
Traffic type Duration
Hydrocarbon fire curve
minutes
Road RWS/HCinc
Rail RABT-ZTV 120
Bus RABT-ZTV

95 AS 5100.2:2017
APPENDIX A
DESIGN LOADS FOR SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS
(Informative)
A1 SCOPE
This Appendix provides typical ultimate design loads and load distribution lengths and
effective heights for special performance level barriers.
A2 DESIGN LOADS FOR SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS

For special performance level barriers, the loads and distribution lengths given in Table A2
may be used.
For other special performance level barriers, the specification of the relevant authority
applies.
TABLE A2
DESIGN LOAD FOR SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS
Ultimate Ultimate Vehicle contact Ultimate Vehicle

transverse longitudinal length for transverse vertical contact length
Barrier performance outward or transverse load (L T ) and downward for vertical
level load inward load longitudinal load load load
(F T ) (F L ) (L L ) (F V ) (L V )
kN kN m kN m
Test level 6 (36 t
750 250 2.4 375 12.0
articulated tanker)
Greater than test
level 6 (44 t articulated 1200 400 2.5 600 15.0
van)
A3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHTS
The minimum effective heights given in Table A3 may be adopted for the special
performance level barriers unless the relevant authority specifies that other values are
appropriate.
TABLE A3
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
OF TRAFFIC BARRIER
Minimum effective
Barrier performance level height
mm
Special
1500
( TL6–44 t articulated T44 van)
Special
1800
(TL6–36 t articulated tanker)
To be specified by the
Special—Other
relevant authority

AS 5100.2:2017 96
APPENDIX B
DISPLACEMENT-BASED EARTHQUAKE DESIGN
(Informative)
B1 GENERAL
The informative provisions for earthquake design in this Appendix are applicable to bridges
that include the following:
(a) Conventional superstructure and support types, such as slab, beam and slab, box-
girder and truss bridges supported on single- or multi-column piers and/or abutments.
(b) Spans not greater than 100 m.
(c) Angular change of the direction of the longitudinal axis of the bridge between
abutments less than 90°.
(d) Skew angles less than 35°.
(e) Maximum pier height of 40 m.
(f) Maximum characteristic concrete compressive strength of 65 MPa in bridge
substructures, except that for bridge piers with characteristic concrete compressive
strength higher than 65 MPa, design for earthquake load cases has to be carried out
assuming characteristic concrete compressive strength of 65 MPa for the piers, and
using the confinement details for high strength concrete in accordance with
AS 5100.5.
For other bridges, or for bridges where seismic base isolation is to be implemented,
specialist advice has to be sought for the assessment of earthquake effects.
The effects of excessive settlement of approach embankments and the increased earth
pressure on abutments has to be considered in the design for earthquake effects.
The possibility of soil liquefaction has to be investigated where saturated sandy and silty
soils within 10 m of the ground surface have a standard penetration test (SPT) value of 10
or less.
The earthquake effects calculated in accordance with this Appendix are to be considered as
design effects at the ULS for member strengths, overall stability of both the structure and
its components, and horizontal movements.
As an alternative to the displacement-based design procedure set out in this Appendix, for a
specific structure that is first mode dominant a displacement-based design may be
undertaken using a non-linear static pushover analysis, subject to approval of the relevant
authority. When undertaking such an analysis the seismic demand has to be based on a
response spectrum defined by 1.5kpZCh (T).
B2 DISPLACEMENT-BASED PRINCIPLES
B2.1 Analysis principles
Design actions in the displacement-based design method are expressed in terms of the
seismic displacement demand, which depends on the bridge earthquake design category and
design performance level, the probability factor, the hazard factor, the site subsoil class,
and the fundamental natural period and damping of the structure. Bridge piers have to be
designed to have a horizontal displacement capacity (see Paragraph B10) that equals or
exceeds the seismic displacement demand under the design earthquake (see Paragraph B9).

97 AS 5100.2:2017
The bridge has to be subdivided longitudinally into bridge frames between expansion joints
and abutments. For longitudinal earthquake response, each bridge frame has to be
considered separately (stand-alone analysis) and the results compared with a further
analysis where all joints are considered to be fully closed. For transverse response, each
bridge frame has to be considered separately, with the mass and stiffness of adjacent bridge
frames modelled at the movement joint where the fundamental natural period of the
adjacent bridge frame differs by more than 25% from that of the bridge frame under
consideration.
Where Paragraph B4 stipulates analysis of vertical earthquake response, a span-by-span
static analysis may be used, provided the span under consideration is modelled together
with adjacent continuous spans, if any, at either end of the span. End support conditions at
the far end of the adjacent span are to be considered fixed if continuous over the support, or
pinned as appropriate (e.g. if the end of the adjacent span is simply supported at an
abutment).
The fundamental natural period of vibration of each bridge frame in the longitudinal
direction (i.e. span direction), the transverse direction and (where required) the vertical
direction have to be determined using acceptable methods of structural analysis, or from the
appropriate equations in this Appendix.
Reinforced concrete superstructure members have to be modelled using the effective
cracked-section stiffness. Prestressed concrete superstructure members have to be modelled
using the gross-section stiffness. The longitudinal and transverse stiffness of piers are to
include the influence of foundation and bearing flexibility, where appropriate. Elastically
responding piers (i.e. within the yield displacement capacity) are to be modelled using the
effective cracked-section stiffness. Piers designed for a ductile response are to be modelled
using effective cracked-section stiffness divided by d , where d is the displacement
ductility defined in Paragraph B12.10.
Bridge members need to have sufficient flexural and shear strength (capacity) to avoid
unintended plastic hinges and brittle (shear) failure, as described in Paragraph B15. The
earthquake action effects (e.g. moment and shear forces) are to be determined from
horizontal forces associated with the seismic displacement demand. Acceptable methods of
structural analysis will need to be used.
When a bridge is designed for earthquake effects using displacement-based design
principles, and the seismic displacement demand of any part of the bridge exceeds the yield
displacement capacity of that part, then the bridge has to be designed for a ductile response
(Paragraph B12). Designing for a ductile response is referred to as ductile earthquake
design. Not all bridges will require ductile earthquake design. It will be possible, using the
provisions of this Standard, to show that some bridges designed for permanent and traffic
load will respond elastically to the design level of seismicity, without the need for ductile
earthquake design.
Where ductile earthquake design is required, the following apply:
(a) A clearly defined collapse mechanism to be established.
(b) The structural members to be ductile at the potential plastic hinge locations defined in
the collapse mechanism.
(c) Structural analysis to account for the ductile behaviour of the bridge members
following yielding under the effects of the design earthquake.
(d) Properties that are affected by the ductile response, including increased damping,
reduced stiffness and increased fundamental natural period of the bridge, to be taken
into consideration.
(e) The minimum detailing criteria given in Paragraph B17 to ensure that the required
ductility at potential plastic hinges can be achieved.

AS 5100.2:2017 98
B2.2 Seismic mass distribution

As a minimum representation of the seismic mass distribution, the tributary superstructure
mass (including mass of dead load and mass of superimposed dead load), pier headstock
mass, and tributary mass of pier columns have to be combined as a single mass acting in the
plane of the pier, and at the resultant height of the combined masses. In this context, the
tributary mass of the pier columns may be taken as 33% of the total pier column mass,
positioned at the top of the pier column.
For bridges with tall piers of significant mass, particularly those in the height range of 20 m
to 30 m, the influence of pier inertia on the earthquake response of the pier responding as a
vertical beam will need to be considered. The pier mass distribution has to be represented
by at least four masses along the pier height.
Where analysis of vertical earthquake response is stipulated by Paragraph B4, or for the
analysis of horizontal earthquake response for bridges with spans longer than 40 m with
significant transverse flexibility of superstructure, the superstructure mass of the span under
consideration and of the adjacent spans, if any, have to be distributed to not less than four
locations along the span.
Where the superstructure is supported on bearings whose flexibility in the direction
considered is such that superstructure displacements are expected to exceed pier headstock
displacements by at least 200%, pier headstock mass and pier mass may be ignored.
B3 DISPLACEMENT-BASED DESIGN PROCEDURE

Design has to be undertaken for horizontal earthquake effects in both the longitudinal
direction (i.e. span direction) and the transverse direction of the bridge. Design has to be
undertaken for vertical earthquake effects where stipulated by Paragraph B4. The procedure
is summarized as follows:
(a) Determine the bridge earthquake design category and design performance level
(Paragraphs B4 and B5).
(b) Determine the probability factor and the hazard factor (Paragraph B6).
(c) Determine the site subsoil class and hence the elastic seismic displacement spectral
shape factor (Paragraphs B7 and B8).
(d) Determine the corner-period elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal
earthquake response (Paragraph B9.1) in the direction considered (longitudinal or
transverse).
(e) Determine the yield displacement capacity of each pier (Paragraph B10.1) in the
direction considered (longitudinal or transverse).
(f) For each pier, check if the pier yield displacement capacity exceeds the corner-period
elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response
(Paragraph B11.2(a) or B11.3(a) as appropriate) in the direction considered
(longitudinal or transverse). If so, the pier will remain elastic under the design
earthquake and ductile earthquake design is not required.
(g) If the check in Step (f) fails, determine the fundamental natural period of the bridge
in the direction considered (longitudinal or transverse).
(h) Determine the elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake
response at the fundamental natural period, and check if the pier yield displacement
capacity exceeds this displacement demand (see Paragraph B11.2(b) or B11.3(b) as
appropriate). If so, the pier will remain elastic under the design earthquake and
ductile earthquake design is not required.

99 AS 5100.2:2017
(i) If the yield displacement capacity is less than the elastic seismic displacement
demand for horizontal earthquake response at the fundamental natural period, plastic
hinges will be expected to form and ductile earthquake design is required. The ductile
seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response will need to be
determined (Paragraph B9.2) and ductile earthquake design will need to be carried out
to determine the earthquake forces (Paragraph B12).
(j) If the check in Step (i) identifies that plastic hinges will be expected to form, account
for the P- effect (Paragraph B14), and verify the static analysis results using
dynamic analysis if stipulated by Paragraph B4.
(k) Where stipulated by Paragraph B4, determine the elastic seismic displacement
demand for vertical earthquake response.
(l) Determine the required design strength (capacity) of bridge members
(Paragraph B15), determine the abutment forces (Paragraph B16), and provide
detailing requirement for the design ductility level (Paragraph B17).
B4 BRIDGE EARTHQUAKE DESIGN CATEGORIES (BEDC) AND ANALYSIS

REQUIREMENTS
B4.1 BEDC classification
Bridges and associated structures, such as approach retaining walls, will be classified by the
relevant authority; if not classified by the relevant authority the following classification
applies:
(a) BEDC-4 Bridges and associated structures that are essential to post-earthquake
recovery, as specified by the relevant authority, and major bridges whose operation is
essential to economic viability at state or national levels.
(b) BEDC-3 Bridges that are designed to carry high volumes of road, rail or pedestrian
traffic, or bridges over other high traffic volume roadways, railways or buildings.
(c) BEDC-2 Minor bridges of two or more spans, and not covered by BEDC-3 or
BEDC-4.
(d) BEDC-1 Minor single span bridges carrying infrequent traffic, and not covered by
BEDC-2, 3, or 4.
In situations where a bridge spans a road and/or rail of a higher category, the higher
category has to be adopted for the bridge design.
B4.2 Requirements for BEDC-1
Bridge structures in BEDC-1 need not be analysed for earthquake forces. The minimum
lateral restraint provisions of Clause 10 of this Standard will apply. The minimum bearing
seat width measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier has to be 0.3 m.
Where Paragraph B11 stipulates ductile earthquake design for bridge structures in BEDC-2,
the effects of earthquake actions have to be determined using the procedure defined in
Paragraph B12.
For all bridges in BEDC-2, vertical earthquake effects need not be considered. Abutment
forces have to be determined using the procedure in Paragraph B16. The detailing of
structural members, restraining devices, bearings and deck joints has to be in accordance
with Paragraph B17.

AS 5100.2:2017 100

Paragraph B12.
NOTE: The final design of bridge structures with significant irregularity in structural form should
be verified by dynamic analysis in accordance with either a modal-response-spectrum analysis,
using effective member stiffness and system damping at expected maximum displacement
demand, or an inelastic time-history analysis in accordance with AS 1170.4.
actions, and the P- effects have to be considered. Abutment forces have to be determined
in accordance with Paragraph B16. The detailing of structural members, restraining devices,
bearings and deck joints has to be in accordance with Paragraph B17.
Paragraph B12. In addition, the final design has to be verified by dynamic analysis in
accordance with either a modal-response-spectrum analysis, using effective member
stiffness and system damping at expected maximum seismic displacement demand, or an
inelastic time-history analysis in accordance with AS 1170.4.
actions, and the P- effects have to be considered. Abutment forces have to be determined
using the procedure in Paragraph B16. The detailing of structural members, restraining
devices, bearings and deck joints have to be in accordance with Paragraph B17.
B5 DESIGN PERFORMANCE LEVEL

The strength and serviceability design of bridges has to be calculated based on the seismic
displacement demand at either the damage control performance level or the service
(immediate use) performance level.
After the occurrence of the design earthquake, a bridge designed for the damage control
performance level should retain its structural integrity. Parts of the bridge susceptible to
damage by their contribution to energy dissipation during the design earthquake have to be
designed in such a manner that the structure can sustain the actions resulting from use by
emergency traffic, and that inspection/repairs can be performed.
After the occurrence of the design earthquake, bridges designed for the service (immediate
use) performance level should be able to be used immediately by vehicles and plant for
disaster recovery operations and evacuation of the populace. There should be no need to
reduce ordinary traffic over the bridge, or to carry out immediate repairs.
Bridges have to be designed for the damage control performance level under the design
earthquake.
BEDC-4 bridges have to be designed for the service (immediate use) performance level
under the design earthquake.
B6 PROBABILIY FACTOR (k p) AND HAZARD FACTOR (Z)

Bridges have to be designed for an annual probability of exceedance in accordance with
Table B6.
The probability factor kp has to be determined from the annual probability of exceedance in
accordance with AS 1170.4.
Unless determined by a site-specific seismology study, the hazard factor Z has to be
determined in accordance with AS 1170.4, but to be not less than 0.08.

101 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE B6
ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE
Annual probability of
BEDC
exceedance (P)
4 1/2000
3 1/1000
2 1/500
1 Not applicable
B7 SITE SUBSOIL CLASS

Determine the site subsoil class in accordance with AS 1170.4. For bridges with pile-
supported foundations, the site subsoil class has to be based on the upper layers of the soil
profile.
B8 ELASTIC SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT SPECTRAL SHAPE FACTOR [ h(T)]

The period-dependent elastic seismic displacement spectral shape factor [ h (T)] will depend
on the site subsoil class in accordance with Paragraph B7, unless determined by an
approved site-specific seismology study.
When site-specific seismology studies defining the displacement spectrum shape are not
available, the seismic displacement spectral shape factor has to be calculated using the
following equation:
gT 2
h(T) = Ch  T  . . . B8
4 2
where
g = acceleration due to gravity, in metres per second squared
T = period of vibration, in seconds, or 1.5 s, whichever is the lesser
Ch(T) = acceleration spectral shape factor as a function of period, given in
Table 6.4 of AS 1170.4—2007
The seismic displacement spectral shape factors for different subsoil classes resulting from
Equation B8 are listed in Table B8 and are plotted in Figure B8.

AS 5100.2:2017 102
TABLE B8
ELASTIC SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT SPECTRAL SHAPE FACTORS [ h(T)], mm
Period Ae Be Ce De Ee
seconds Strong rock Rock Shallow soil Deep or soft Very soft soil
soil
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 6 7 9 9 9
0.2 23 29 37 37 37
0.3 52 66 82 82 82
0.4 70 87 124 146 146
0.5 87 109 155 229 229
0.6 105 131 186 295 329
0.7 122 153 217 344 448
0.8 140 175 248 394 585
0.9 157 197 280 443 689
1 175 219 311 492 765
1.2 210 262 373 590 918
1.5 262 328 466 738 1148

1.7 262 328 466 738 1148
2 262 328 466 738 1148
2.5 262 328 466 738 1148
3 262 328 466 738 1148
120 0 Soil E e
DISPL ACEM ENT, m m
800 Soil D e
Soil C e
400 Soil B e
Soil A e
0
0 1 2 3
PERIO D, s e c o n d s
FIGURE B8 ELASTIC SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT SPECTRAL SHAPE FACTORS [Δ h(T)]

FOR DIFFERENT SUBSOIL CLASSES

103 AS 5100.2:2017
B9 SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT DEMAND FOR EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE

B9.1 Elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response
Determine elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response [Δe(T)]
using the following equation:
Δe(T) = kpZΔh(T) . . . B9.1
where
T = period of vibration
kp = probability factor, given in Paragraph B6
Z = hazard factor, given in Paragraph B6
Δh(T) elastic seismic displacement spectral shape factor at period T, given in
Paragraph B8
The elastic seismic displacement demand [Δ e(T)] calculated from Equation B9.1 represents
the elastic response of bridges in the longitudinal direction. It represents the elastic
response in the transverse direction for uniform bridges only, which are bridges for which
the transverse displacements at the top of every pier and abutment may be considered to be
equal (e.g. bridges with uniform transverse stiffness and mass). For the elastic response of
non-uniform bridges in the transverse direction, the seismic displacement demand of piers
will vary according to the transverse mode shape. Calculate the elastic seismic displacement
demand of non-uniform bridges in accordance with Paragraph B11.3.

The corner-period of the elastic seismic displacement spectral shape factor equals 1.5 s (see
Figure B8) and corresponds to the maximum elastic seismic displacement demand.
Calculate the corner-period elastic seismic displacement demand [Δe(1.5)] from
Equation B9.1 at a period of vibration of 1.5 s.
B9.2 Ductile seismic displacement demand for horizontal earthquake response
Calculate the seismic displacement demand [Δ d (T)] for ductile response by multiplying the
elastic seismic displacement demand given by Equation B9.1 by a damping modifier [R],
as follows:
Δd(T) = RΔe(T) = RkpZΔh(T) . . . B9.2(1)
where
R = damping modifier
0.5
 0.07 
=   . . . B9.2(2)
 0.02   e 
where
e = bridge frame equivalent viscous damping ratio corresponding to the design
ductility level of response, given in Paragraph B12.7
The seismic displacement demand [Δ d (T)] calculated from Equation B9.2(1) represents the
ductile response of bridges in the longitudinal direction. It represents the ductile response in
the transverse direction for uniform bridges only, which are bridges for which the
transverse displacements at the top of every pier and abutment may be considered to be
equal (e.g. bridges with uniform transverse stiffness and mass). For the ductile response of
non-uniform bridges in the transverse direction, the seismic displacement demand of piers
will vary according to the transverse mode shape. Calculate the ductile seismic
displacement demand of non-uniform bridges in accordance with Paragraph B11.3.

AS 5100.2:2017 104
B9.3 Elastic seismic displacement demand for vertical earthquake response

For periods less than or equal to 1.0 s, the elastic seismic displacement demand for vertical
earthquake response (upwards and downwards) are to be taken as equal to two thirds of the
elastic seismic displacement demand for horizontal response given by Equation B9.1. For
periods greater than 1.0 second, the elastic seismic displacement demand for vertical
earthquake response is to be taken as equal to two thirds of the horizontal value at a period
of 1.0 second.
B10 PIER DISPLACEMENT CAPACITY

B10.1 Yield displacement capacity of piers
The yield displacement capacity of a pier (δy) will depend on the yield curvature and the
end fixity conditions at the base and top. For prismatic piers, it may be expressed as
follows:
δy = C1 ϕy(H + Lsp )2 + δf + δb . . . B10.1(1)
where
C1 = coefficient dependent on the end fixity conditions, in the direction of
displacement being considered
In the absence of more detailed analysis, C1 may be taken as 1/3 for piers considered fixed
against rotation at the base and free to rotate at the top (for the direction of displacement
being considered) and C1 may be taken as 1/6 for piers considered fixed against rotation at
the base and at the top (for the direction of displacement being considered).
H = pier height between the centre of plastic hinges at the top and bottom of the
pier in double bending; or pier height from the centre of the plastic hinge to
the point of contraflexure at top or bottom of the pier in single bending, in
metres
δf = displacement capacity at superstructure resulting from foundation
deformation, in metres
δb = displacement capacity at superstructure resulting from the pier-cap bearing
deformation, in metres
Lsp = strain penetration length for reinforced concrete piers, given by
Equation B10.1(2), in metres
= 0.022 fsyedbl . . . B10.1(2)
where
fsye = expected yield strength of flexural reinforcement (see Column 2
Table B15.2), in megapascals
dbl = diameter of longitudinal reinforcement steel, in millimetres
ϕy = yield curvature, which may be approximated for piers of simple prismatic
shape by Equation B10.1(3), in 1/metre
For piers with non-prismatic or complex prismatic section shapes, the yield curvature may
be determined by finite-element analysis or other means recognizing the non-linear
behaviour of materials and the influence of cracking, where appropriate, as follows:
2.15 y
ϕy = , in 1/metre . . . B10.1(3)
Dc
where

105 AS 5100.2:2017
εy = strain at the expected yield strength of the flexural reinforcement (or

structural steel) (see Column 2 of Table B15.2)
Dc = section depth in the direction considered, in metres
B10.2 Ductile displacement capacity of piers
B10.2.1 General
The ductile displacement capacity (δd ) has to be not less than the ductile seismic
displacement demand (d ) calculated in accordance with Paragraph B9.2.
The ductile displacement capacity of a pier (d ) equals the sum of the yield displacement
capacity (δy) defined in Paragraph B10.1 and the additional inelastic displacement capacity
(δp ) corresponding to the strain limit at the design performance level (see
Paragraphs B10.2.2 and B10.2.3). The inelastic displacement capacity (δp ) depends on the
plastic hinge length, the strain limits in the plastic hinge, and the pier height, and may be
calculated using the following equation:
δp = pH . . . B10.2.1(1)
where
p = plastic rotation capacity at the plastic hinge, in radians, defined as
(ϕls  ϕy)Lp . . . B10.2.1(2)
ϕls = ductile curvature corresponding to the strain limit at the relevant design
performance level in accordance with Paragraph B10.2.2 or
Paragraph B10.2.3 as applicable, in 1/metre
ϕy = yield curvature given in Equation B10.1(3), in 1/metre
H = pier height between the centre of plastic hinges at the top and bottom of
the pier in double bending, or pier height from the centre of the plastic
hinge to the point of contraflexure at top or bottom of the pier in single
bending, in metres
Lp = plastic hinge length, in metres
= kLc + Lsp  2Lsp . . . B10.2.1(3)
Lsp = strain penetration length, defined in Equation B10.1(2), in metres
Lc = distance from the centre of the plastic hinge to the point of contraflexure
in the pier, in metres
 f 
k = 0.2 
ul
 1  0.08 . . . B10.2.1(4)

 f sy 
ful = characteristic ultimate strength of flexural reinforcement, in megapascals
fsy = characteristic yield strength of flexural reinforcement, in megapascals
B10.2.2 Strain limits for damage control performance level
The following strain limits apply:
(a) Reinforcing steel Tensile strain limit in flexural reinforcement (εsd ) in plastic hinges
may be related to the volumetric ratio of lateral (transverse) reinforcement (ρs) in
accordance with Equation B10.2.2(1). The tensile strain should not exceed 50% of the
strain at maximum stress of the flexural reinforcement (εsul), where:
εsd = 0.015 + 6(ρs  0.005)  0.5εsul . . . B10.2.2(1)
 0.01

AS 5100.2:2017 106
where
ρs = volumetric ratio of lateral (transverse) reinforcement
εsul = strain at maximum stress of flexural reinforcement
(b) Concrete compression Compressive strain limit of concrete (εcd) in plastic hinges
may be related to the volumetric ratio of lateral reinforcement (ρs), provided the
concrete compressive strain does not exceed the value given by the following
equation:
s fsy.t  sut
εcd = 0.004  1.4 . . . B10.2.2(2)
f cc
where
ρs = volumetric ratio of lateral (transverse) reinforcement
f cc = confined compressive strength of concrete, which may be taken as
1.5 f c if not calculated by rational analysis
fsy.t = characteristic yield strength of lateral reinforcement
f c = characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete at 28 days
εsut = strain at maximum stress of lateral reinforcement

(c) Structural steel Compressive and tensile strain in ductile structural steel piers to not
exceed values corresponding to the onset of buckling under cyclic reversals of
moment. In the absence of definitive design information, a value of εsd = 0.02 has to
be assumed.
(d) Hollow concrete piers The maximum concrete compressive strain for hollow
reinforced or prestressed piers to not exceed the lesser of εcd given by
Equation B10.2.2(2), or 0.006.
(e) Prestressing steel Tensile strain in prestressing steel to not exceed the limit of
proportionality strain.
B10.2.3 Strain limits for service (immediate use) performance level
The following apply:
(a) Reinforcing steel Tensile strain in reinforcing steel (εsd ) in plastic hinges to not
exceed 0.015.
(b) Concrete compressive strain Compressive strain of concrete εcd in plastic hinges to
not exceed 0.004.
(c) Structural steel strain Compressive and tensile strain in ductile structural steel piers
εsd to not exceed 0.01.
(d) Prestressing steel Tensile strain in prestressing steel to not exceed the limit of
proportionality strain.
B10.3 Displacement capacity of a bridge frame in the transverse direction
The transverse displacement capacity of a bridge pier or abutment (δi) has to be related to
the normalized fundamental mode shape and the displacement capacity of the first bridge
frame pier or abutment to reach displacement capacity (δc), using the following equation:
 i 
i = c   . . . B10.3
 c 

107 AS 5100.2:2017
where
i = value of normalized fundamental displacement mode shape at pier or
abutment i
c = value of normalized fundamental displacement mode shape at the first
bridge frame pier or abutment to reach displacement capacity
c = displacement capacity of the first bridge frame pier or abutment to reach
displacement capacity
In Equation B10.3, the displacement capacities of inelastic structural elements should be
based on the strain limits defined in Paragraph B10.2 and should include the effects of
bearing and foundation flexibility, where appropriate.
NOTE: Equation B10.3 may be also applied to calculate the seismic displacement demand of any
pier in relation to the critical pier.
B11 CRITERIA FOR EXEMPTION FROM DUCTILE EARTHQUAKE DESIGN

B11.1 General
The criteria for determining if bridge frames under longitudinal response, and bridge frames
with uniform mass and stiffness distributions under transverse response, may be exempt
from ductile earthquake design are given in Paragraph B11.2.
The criteria for determining if bridge frames with non-uniform mass and stiffness
distributions under transverse response may be exempt from ductile earthquake design are
given in Paragraph B11.3.
B11.2 Bridge frames under longitudinal response and bridge frames with uniform
mass and stiffness distributions under transverse response
The following exemptions from ductile earthquake design apply:
(a) Yield displacement capacity (y) exceeds corner-period elastic seismic displacement
demand ∆e(1.5) When the yield displacement capacity given by Equation B10.1(1)
of all piers exceeds the elastic seismic displacement demand e given by
Equation B9.1 for T = 1.5 s (the corner-period) the bridge frame may be exempt from
ductile earthquake design in that direction.
(b) Yield displacement capacity (y) exceeds the elastic seismic displacement demand for
the bridge frame fundamental natural period in the direction considered ∆e(Tf) If the
criterion defined by Paragraph B11.2(a) is not satisfied, calculate the bridge frame
fundamental natural period in the direction considered (Tf). When the yield
displacement capacity given by Equation B10.1(1) of all piers exceeds the elastic
seismic displacement demand for the bridge frame fundamental natural period in the
direction considered (Tf) given in Paragraph B9.1, the bridge frame may be exempt
from ductile earthquake design in that direction.
The fundamental natural period Tf of bridge frames in the longitudinal direction, and of
uniform bridge frames in the transverse direction, may be determined from the following
equation:
n
m i
Tf = 2 i 1
n . . . B11.2
 Ki
i 1

AS 5100.2:2017 108
where
mi = one of the n individual masses representing the bridge frame, determined in
accordance with Paragraph B2.2
Ki = individual pier longitudinal or transverse stiffness, expressed as force per
unit longitudinal or transverse displacement at the location of mass i
B11.3 Bridge frames with non-uniform mass and stiffness distributions
The following exemptions from ductile earthquake design apply:
(a) Yield displacement capacity (y) exceeds corner-period elastic seismic displacement
demand Δe(1.5) When the yield displacement capacity given by Equation B10.1(1)
of all piers exceeds the elastic seismic displacement demand (Δe) given by the
following equation for T = 1.5 s (the corner-period), the bridge frame may be exempt
from ductile earthquake design in that direction:
i
Δe = 1.1   e 1.5  . . . B11.3(1)
e
where
Δe(1.5) = corner-period elastic seismic displacement demand for pier i given
by Equation B9.1 for T = 1.5 s
i = value of fundamental displacement mode shape at pier or abutment i

e = characteristic value of normalized fundamental mode shape of the
bridge frame, given by the following equation:
n
m
i 1
i i
2
= n . . . B11.3(2)
 mii
i 1
mi = one of the n individual masses representing the bridge frame,

determined in accordance with Paragraph B2.2
(b) Yield displacement capacity (y) exceeds the elastic seismic displacement demand for
the bridge frame fundamental natural period in the direction considered ∆y(Tf) If the
criterion defined by Paragraph B11.3(a) is not satisfied, calculate the bridge frame
fundamental natural period in the direction considered (Tf). When the yield
displacement capacity given by Equation B10.1(1) of all piers exceeds the elastic
seismic displacement demand (Δe) given by the following equation for the bridge
frame fundamental natural period in the direction considered (Tf) the bridge frame
may be exempt from ductile earthquake design in that direction:
i
Δe = 1.1   e Tf  . . . B11.3(3)
e
where
Δe(Tf) = elastic seismic displacement demand given by Equation B9.1 for the
fundamental natural period in the direction considered
i = value of fundamental displacement mode shape at pier or abutment i
e = characteristic value of the fundamental mode shape of the bridge
frame, given by Equation B11.3(2)

109 AS 5100.2:2017
The fundamental natural period (Tf) of the non-uniform bridge frame in the transverse
direction may be determined from the following equation:
n
m  i Fi
Tf = 2 i 1
n . . . B11.3(4)
F i 1
i
where
Fi = design transverse force at bridge frame mass location mi proportional to
m i i
ΔFi = transverse displacement at bridge frame mass location mi due to the
application of Fi
Alternatively, for bridges in BEDC-2 the Rayleigh equation may be used to estimate the
fundamental natural period, as follows:
n
m  i
2
Fi
Tf = 2 i 1
. . . B11.3(5)
n
g  mi  Fi
i 1
where
g = acceleration due to gravity
B12 DUCTILE EARTHQUAKE DESIGN OF BRIDGE FRAMES

B12.1 Representation of a bridge frame as an equivalent single degree of freedom
structure
Where Paragraph B11 does not provide an exemption from ductile earthquake design,
determine the design horizontal earthquake force in accordance with the provisions of this
Paragraph. Abutment design horizontal forces have to be calculated in accordance with
Paragraph B16.
B12.2 Design horizontal earthquake force from displacement-based design analysis
Calculate the horizontal earthquake force for a bridge frame (FF) using the following
equation:
FF = keΔk . . . B12.2
where
Δk = characteristic horizontal seismic displacement demand of the bridge frame,
calculated in accordance with Paragraph B12.3
ke = equivalent effective stiffness of the bridge frame, calculated in accordance
with Paragraph B12.4

AS 5100.2:2017 110
B12.3 Bridge frame characteristic horizontal seismic displacement demand in the

transverse direction
Calculate the characteristic horizontal seismic displacement demand of the bridge frame in
the transverse direction (Δk ) using the following equation:
n n
Δk = m   m  
i 1
i
2
i
i 1
i i . . . B12.3
where
Δi = horizontal seismic displacement demand of bridge frame mass mi, given in
Paragraph B11.3(b)
B12.4 Equivalent bridge frame stiffness
Calculate the equivalent bridge frame stiffness (ke ) using the following equation:
4 2 me
ke = . . . B12.4
Te2
where
Te = equivalent fundamental natural period of the bridge frame, defined in

Paragraph B12.6
me = effective mass of the bridge frame defined in Paragraph B12.5
B12.5 Bridge frame effective mass
Calculate the bridge frame effective mass (me) using the following equation:
n
 mi i 
me = 
i 1 k
. . . B12.5
where
Δk = bridge frame characteristic horizontal seismic displacement demand, as
defined by Equation B12.3
Δi = horizontal seismic displacement demand of bridge frame mass mi, given in
Paragraph B11.3(b)
B12.6 Bridge frame equivalent fundamental natural period
The equivalent fundamental natural period (Te) of the bridge frame is found from the ductile
seismic displacement demand defined in Paragraph B9.2 corresponding to the calculated
bridge frame equivalent viscous damping defined in Paragraph B12.7.

111 AS 5100.2:2017
B12.7 Bridge frame equivalent viscous damping ratio

The bridge frame equivalent viscous damping ratio ( e) is related to the seismic shear force
at the top of each pier and abutment (Vi), the ductile seismic displacement demand at the
top of each pier and abutment (Δi), and the elastic viscous damping ( i) of the structural
components (including the superstructure, abutments and bearings where applicable) of the
bridge frame as given in the following equation, which is applicable to the transverse and
longitudinal directions:
n n
e =  Vi ii   Vi i 

i 1 i 1
. . . B12.7(1)
where
Vi = seismic shear force at the top of pier or abutment component i
Δi = ductile seismic displacement demand at the top of pier or abutment
component i
i = equivalent viscous damping of structural component i of the bridge frame
given in Paragraph B12.8
Damping of piers with flexible foundations and bearings may be calculated using the
following equation:
 b b   f  f   s  s
p = . . . B12.7(2)
 b  f  s
where
Δb , Δf, Δs = bearing, foundation and pier structural displacement, respectively
 b ,  f, s = bearing, foundation and pier structural damping, respectively
B12.8 Equivalent viscous damping ratio of component actions
The equations for calculating the equivalent viscous damping ratio given in this Paragraph
allow for elastic and hysteretic damping.
The following apply (where d = pier displacement ductility, as defined in
Paragraph B12.10):
(a) Reinforced concrete piers The equivalent viscous damping ratio of reinforced
concrete piers is related to the pier displacement ductility (d ), as given in the
following equation:
 d  1 
 = 0.05  0.444   . . . B12.8(1)
 d 
(b) Structural steel piers The equivalent viscous damping ratio of structural steel piers
is related to the displacement ductility (), as given in the following equation:
 d  1 
 = 0.02  0.577   . . . B12.8(2)
 d 
(c) Foundation rotation effect In lieu of more accurate determination, calculate the
equivalent viscous damping ratio associated with rotation of spread footings on dense
or medium dense sand or alluvium using the following equations:
for dense sand and alluvium:   0.365  0.115log10  . . . B12.8(3)
for medium-dense sand:   0.52  0.17 log10  . . . B12.8(4)

AS 5100.2:2017 112
where
 = foundation rotation, in radians
(d) Superstructure transverse flexural deformation When a superstructure is subjected
to horizontal deformation involving abutment reactions without significant abutment
displacement, the superstructure damping ratio may be taken as  = 0.05 for a
reinforced concrete superstructure,  = 0.03 for a prestressed concrete superstructure,
and  = 0.02 for a structural steel superstructure.
(e) Abutment deformation The equivalent viscous damping ratio associated with soil
deformation at an abutment will depend on the abutment soil material and shear
strain. Where the abutment is supported by piles, behaviour is further complicated. In
lieu of a more accurate determination, a lower bound value of  = 0.12 may be
adopted for analysis.
(f) Bearings:
(i) Elastomeric bearings In lieu of specific manufacturers data, a value of
 = 0.05 may be adopted.
(ii) Friction slider bearings In lieu of specific manufacturer’s data, the following
equation may be used to calculate the equivalent bearing structural damping:
 d  1 
 = 0.05  0.67   . . . B12.8(5)

 d 
(iii) Elastomeric bearing in conjunction with lead plug Manufacturer’s data has to
be used.
(iv) Steel damping elements Equation B12.8(2) has to be used.
(v) Friction pendulum bearings Manufacturer’s data has to be used.
(g) Pile foundations where hinges develop in piles The following equation may be used:
 d  1 
 = 0.10  0.565   . . . B12.8(6)
 d 
(h) Pile/column designs In lieu of detailed studies, the following values may be used:
(i) Column fixed to superstructure:
(A) Sand:   0.075  0.03  d  1  0.135 . . . B12.8(7)
(B) Clay:   0.12  0.03  d  1  0.18 . . . B12.8(8)

(ii) Column pinned to superstructure:
(A) Sand:   0.10  0.04  d  1  0.18 . . . B12.8(9)
(B) Clay:   0.15  0.04  d  1  0.23 . . . B12.8(10)

(i) Friction slabs A value of  = 0.25 may be used, independent of displacement level.
(j) Segmental piers connected by unbonded post-tensioning  = 0.05.
(k) Segmental piers connected by bonded post-tensioning  = 0.05, provided tendon
strain does not exceed the limit of proportionality.

113 AS 5100.2:2017
B12.9 Distribution of design horizontal force

The horizontal design force (FF) given by Equation B12.2 has to be distributed to the n
bridge frame mass locations mi using the following equation:
mi  i
Fi = FF  n . . . B12.9
m 
i 1
i i
where
i = horizontal displacement demand of bridge pier or abutment i
B12.10 Pier displacement ductility
The displacement ductility (d) depends only on the relative values of the structural
components of yield displacement and ductile displacement, as defined in the following
equation:
d = d  y . . . B12.10
where
d = ductile displacement of pier excluding the foundation and bearing

displacements (i.e. structural component only)
y = yield displacement of pier excluding the foundation and bearing
displacements (i.e. structural component only)
B13 VERTICAL EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE

Vertical seismic response actions have to be determined from the seismic displacement
demand defined in Paragraph B9.3.
B14 P-Δ EFFECTS

Moments resulting from the weight supported by a pier acting through the maximum pier
response displacements (P-Δ moments) have to be calculated for bridges in BEDC-3 and
BEDC-4. P-Δ moments have to not exceed 30% of the pier-base moment capacity
calculated in accordance with Paragraph B15.
For concrete piers, the earthquake design moment has to be increased by 50% of the
calculated P -Δ moment when the P-Δ moment exceeds 10% of the pier-base moment
demand for the relevant earthquake load case combination.
For steel piers, the earthquake design moment has to be increased by 100% of the calculated
P-Δ moment when the P-Δ moment exceeds 5% of the pier-base moment demand for the
relevant earthquake load case combination.

AS 5100.2:2017 114
B15 REQUIRED STRENGTH OF BRIDGE MEMBERS

B15.1 Required moment capacity
B15.1.1 At potential plastic hinge locations
The moment capacity at plastic hinge locations has to be determined using the expected pier
material strengths in accordance with Table B15.2 Column 2 rather than the characteristic
values. Flexural strength reduction factors need not be used for determination of the plastic
hinge moment capacity. Moment capacity has to be not less than the moment calculated
from static or dynamic analysis, including the P-Δ effects in accordance with
Paragraph B14. Earthquake moment demands resulting from horizontal and vertical
response need not be combined when comparing with earthquake moment capacity.
Earthquake moment demands in ductile members need not be combined with gravity
moment demands when determining required moment capacity of plastic hinges.
B15.1.2 At other locations
At locations other than potential plastic hinges, moments resulting from earthquake actions,
including vertical accelerations where required by Paragraph B4, have to be combined with
moments resulting from permanent loads in accordance with AS 5100.2. Capacity reduction
factors in accordance with the relevant material design codes have to be used. Characteristic
material strengths have to be used in the design of non-hinging zones except that a value of
1.3  f c has to be used for concrete piers, where f c is the characteristic 28 day
compressive strength of concrete.

Formation of unintended plastic hinges are to be avoided by capacity design in accordance
with Paragraph B15.3.
B15.2 Material properties for seismic design
In lieu of suitable test data of material strengths, use the values specified in Table B15.2 for
seismic design. Expected strengths for design of plastic hinge regions have to be based on
data in Table B15.2 Column 2; material strengths for determining maximum feasible
(overstrength) moment capacity of plastic hinges have to be based on Table B15.2
Column 3; and material strengths of non-hinging regions and capacity-protected actions in
plastic hinges have to be based on Table B15.2 Column 4.
TABLE B15.2
MATERIAL STRENGTHS TO BE USED IN SEISMIC DESIGN
1 2 3 4
Maximum feasible
Expected material Material strength
material strength for
Material strength for plastic for non-hinging
plastic hinge zone
hinge zone design level zones
capacity evaluation
Concrete (compression) f ce  1.3 f c f c  1.7 f c 1.3 f c
Flexural reinforcement f sye  1.1 f sy f sy  1.3 f sy f sy
Transverse reinforcement f sy.te  f sy.t 

f sy.t  f sy.t f sy.t
Structural steel f sye  1.1 f sy f y  1.3 fsy f sy

LEGEND:
f c = characteristic 28 day compressive strength of concrete
f sy = characteristic yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement or structural steel
f sy.t = characteristic yield strength of transverse reinforcement steel

115 AS 5100.2:2017
B15.3 Capacity design

Shear failure and the formation of unintended plastic hinges are to be avoided by ensuring
that the strength of such locations exceeds the value of the action corresponding to the
development of maximum flexural strength in the intended plastic hinges. The design shear
force of the column may be determined from equilibrium of the maximum feasible flexural
(overstrength) capacity of the section at the plastic hinge, calculated using upper-bound
(maximum feasible) material strengths in accordance with Table B15.2 Column 3.
Alternatively, the design shear force may be calculated from equilibrium at 1.4 times the
design flexural strength calculated using the expected material strengths in accordance with
Table B15.2 Column 2. The shear strength has to be based on the characteristic material
strengths of the pier except that a value of 1.3  f c has to be used for concrete piers,
together with appropriate strength reduction factors.
B16 DESIGN ABUTMENT FORCES

Determine design abutment reactions by one of the following approaches:
(a) Where Paragraph B11 provides an exemption from ductile earthquake design,
determine the abutment forces by elastic modal analysis, or by multiplying the design
abutment reaction from a single-mode analysis by 1.5.
(b) Where Paragraph B11 does not provide an exemption from ductile earthquake design,
determine the abutment forces by one of the following procedures:
(i) Forces determined by effective modal superposition under the design

seismicity, where the stiffness of ductile elements is the secant (effective)
stiffness at seismic displacement response, and the global damping used in the
analysis is the system damping determined in the displacement-based design.
(ii) Inelastic time-history analysis under the design seismicity.
B17 STRUCTURAL DETAILING REQUIREMENTS FOR EARTHQUAKE

EFFECTS
B17.1 General
Care has to be taken to ensure that detailing practices recognize the potential for ductile
response even when the bridge is designed to respond elastically to the design earthquake,
as a consequence of the possibility of the bridge being subject to excitation exceeding the
design level.
Particular attention has to be given to the prevention of dislodgement of the superstructure
from its support system (see Paragraph B17.2).
Particular attention has to be given to the provision of viable, continuous and direct load
paths from the level of the bridge deck to the foundation system.
Potential plastic hinge locations in columns have to take into account the consequence of
the possibility of the bridge being subject to excitation exceeding the design level.
B17.2 Deck joints and bearings
Deck joints are not required to accommodate the horizontal movements due to the design
seismic action. The detailing of deck joints expected to be damaged due to the design
seismic action has to allow for a predictable mode of damage and an anticipated method of
repair. The consequent distribution and magnitude of earthquake forces in the bridge have
to be fully evaluated and considered in the design of all structural elements.

AS 5100.2:2017 116
Fixed bearings have to be designed for earthquake actions. Where these actions are outside
the range of conventional bearings other measures have to be provided to prevent
dislodgment of the superstructure from the support structure. Restraining devices, and
connections in bridges expected to behave in a ductile manner have to be designed to
withstand the horizontal design earthquake forces calculated at material overstrength
(maximum feasible material strengths), but not less than the minimum lateral restraint force
specified in Clause 10. The influence of such measures on the distribution and magnitude of
earthquake forces in the bridge have to be fully evaluated and considered in the design of
all structural elements. Vertical restraint devices have to be provided at all supports where
the vertical design earthquake force opposes and is greater than 50% of the static reaction
under permanent effects. The vertical restraint device has to be designed to resist an uplift
force of not less than 10% of the vertical reaction at the support due to permanent effects.
Vertical design earthquake forces (when applicable) have to be considered in the design of
horizontal restraints that rely on any component of friction. An upper-bound estimate of the
coefficient of friction has to be assumed for determination of the maximum feasible force
transmitted by friction through material interfaces, when assessing demand on structural
elements, such as piers, for capacity-demand conditions in accordance with Paragraph B15.
Movement bearings are not required to accommodate the horizontal movements due to the
design seismic action. The detailing of bearings expected to be damaged due to the design
seismic action has to allow for a predictable mode of damage and an anticipated method of
repair. The consequent distribution and magnitude of earthquake forces in the bridge have
to be fully evaluated and considered in the design of all structural elements.

At expansion ends of the superstructure (including movement joints at an abutment, pier or
internal hinge) the superstructure has to overlap the substructure by a sufficient distance to
prevent loss of support to the superstructure due to the design seismic action. Sufficient
overlap length (see Figure B17.2) has to be provided to accommodate the relative
longitudinal seismic displacement. The minimum overlap length ( Lbs), measured normal to
the face of an abutment or pier (Lbs), has to be in accordance with the following equation:
Lbs = ∆(1.5) + 0.0004Ld + 0.007 hd + 0.005 B  0.3 m . . . B17.2
where
∆(1.5) = corner-period elastic seismic displacement demand, in metres
Ld = length of the superstructure to the next expansion joint, in metres
hd = average height of piers supporting the superstructure length Ld, in metres
B = length of the seating transverse to bridge axis, in metres
L bs
L bs
L bs L bs
A but m e nt Pi er Inter nal hin g e
FIGURE B17.2 OVERLAP LENGTH L bs

117 AS 5100.2:2017
B17.3 Pile to pile cap ductile connections

For bridge structures of BEDC levels 2, 3 or 4, the connection between each pile and its
pile cap has to be designed to resist tensile force levels predicted by the analysis, amplified
by capacity effects (see Paragraph B15.3) but not less than 10% of the pile ultimate axial
compression force N*.
B17.4 Ductile welded connections
Where the bridge is designed for reduced forces associated with ductile action, welded
connections have to be designed in accordance with capacity design principles. In lieu of a
more detailed assessment of the over-strength capacity of ductile steel members, a factor of
1.4 may be used for the design of welded connections. That is, welded connections have to
be capable of resisting force levels corresponding to 1.4 times the yield strength of the
ductile steel elements of the connection.

AS 5100.2:2017 118
APPENDIX C
SM1600 AND 300LA LOAD EFFECTS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS
(Informative)
This Appendix lists the bending moments and shear forces (Tables C1 and C2) from
SM1600 and 300LA loadings for simply supported spans of 1 to 100 m.

119 AS 5100.2:2017
TABLE C1
SM1600 LOADING FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS 1—100 m BENDING
MOMENTS (M) AND SHEAR (V) UNFACTORED WITH NO DLA
M1600 S1600 M1600 S1600
Span
Span m M V M V M V M V
m
kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN
1 (see Note) 30 125 25 90 51 14765 1245 16345 1340
2 (see Note) 65 170 50 135 52 15200 1255 16895 1355
3 (see Note) 125 220 105 175 53 15640 1265 17450 1375
4 (see Note) 220 260 190 215 54 16080 1275 18010 1390
5 (see Note) 320 285 275 240 55 16520 1285 18575 1405
6 415 305 370 260 56 16960 1290 19145 1420
7 515 330 465 290 57 17405 1300 19725 1435
8 620 360 570 320 58 17850 1310 20310 1455
9 720 395 685 355 59 18295 1315 20900 1470
10 845 435 810 390 60 18745 1325 21495 1485
11 1005 465 970 420 61 19195 1335 22100 1500
12 1195 495 1155 450 62 19645 1340 22705 1515
13 1390 515 1350 475 63 20095 1350 23320 1530
14 1585 535 1550 500 64 20550 1355 23940 1545
15 1785 555 1755 520 65 21005 1365 24565 1560
16 1985 580 1965 545 66 21465 1370 25200 1575
17 2190 605 2180 575 67 21925 1375 25840 1590

18 2395 635 2405 605 68 22385 1385 26485 1605
19 2610 665 2640 630 69 22845 1390 27135 1615
20 2860 685 2905 655 70 23310 1395 27790 1630
21 3160 710 3210 685 71 23775 1405 28450 1645
22 3460 730 3520 710 72 24240 1410 29120 1660
23 3765 755 3830 735 73 24710 1415 29795 1675
24 4070 780 4155 760 74 25180 1425 30475 1690
25 4375 810 4480 790 75 25650 1430 31160 1705
26 4685 835 4815 820 76 26120 1435 31855 1720
27 4995 865 5150 845 77 26595 1445 32555 1730
28 5305 890 5495 875 78 27070 1450 33255 1745
29 5635 915 5860 900 79 27550 1455 33970 1760
30 5990 940 6245 925 80 28025 1460 34685 1775
31 6390 960 6665 950 81 28505 1465 35405 1790
32 6795 985 7090 975 82 28990 1470 36135 1800
33 7200 1005 7520 1000 83 29470 1480 36870 1815
34 7605 1020 7960 1020 84 29955 1485 37610 1830
35 8015 1040 8405 1045 85 30440 1490 38355 1840
36 8425 1055 8855 1065 86 30930 1495 39110 1855
37 8835 1075 9310 1085 87 31420 1500 39870 1870
38 9245 1090 9775 1105 88 31910 1505 40635 1885
39 9660 1105 10245 1125 89 32400 1510 41405 1895
40 10080 1120 10720 1145 90 32895 1515 42180 1910
41 10495 1130 11200 1165 91 33390 1520 42965 1925
42 10915 1145 11690 1185 92 33890 1525 43750 1935
43 11340 1160 12180 1200 93 34385 1530 44545 1950
44 11760 1170 12680 1220 94 34885 1535 45345 1965
45 12185 1180 13185 1240 95 35385 1540 46155 1975
46 12610 1195 13700 1255 96 35890 1545 46965 1990
47 13040 1205 14215 1275 97 36395 1550 47785 2005
48 13470 1215 14740 1290 98 36900 1555 48610 2015
49 13900 1225 15270 1305 99 37405 1560 49440 2030
50 14335 1235 15805 1325 100 37915 1565 50280 2045
NOTE: M1600 triaxle loading will govern for very short spans when DLA is included.

AS 5100.2:2017 120
TABLE C2
300LA LOADING FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS 1—100 m BENDING
MOMENTS (M) AND SHEAR FORCE (V) UNFACTORED WITH NO DLA
Span M V Span M V
m kNm kN m kNm kN
1 90 360 51 33840 3060
2 180 435 52 35125 3110
3 300 510 53 36405 3160
4 480 605 54 37690 3215
5 705 665 55 38970 3265
6 975 755 56 40255 3320
7 1275 830 57 41635 3375
8 1625 925 58 43225 3425
9 2010 995 59 44815 3475
10 2400 1050 60 46405 3525
11 2790 1095 61 47995 3570
12 3180 1135 62 49580 3615
13 3570 1170 63 51170 3665
14 3960 1195 64 52760 3710
15 4350 1240 65 54350 3760
16 4740 1285 66 55940 3815
17 5130 1340 67 57530 3870
18 5520 1400 68 59120 3920

19 5910 1465 69 60720 3975
20 6300 1515 70 62385 4025
21 6750 1575 71 64175 4075
22 7255 1630 72 65990 4125
23 7860 1680 73 67855 4170
24 8470 1725 74 69740 4215
25 9145 1765 75 71625 4265
26 9815 1805 76 73510 4325
27 10490 1850 77 75395 4375
28 11165 1895 78 77280 4425
29 11840 1945 79 79165 4480
30 12515 2005 80 81050 4535
31 13190 2060 81 83035 4585
32 13870 2120 82 85225 4635
33 14630 2175 83 87415 4685
34 15620 2230 84 89605 4735
35 16610 2275 85 91795 4780
36 17600 2325 86 93985 4830
37 18585 2370 87 96175 4875
38 19575 2410 88 98365 4925
39 20565 2455 89 100555 4975
40 21555 2505 90 102745 5030
41 22545 2555 91 104935 5080
42 23535 2610 92 107125 5135
43 24525 2665 93 109320 5185
44 25515 2720 94 111585 5235
45 26525 2775 95 113965 5285
46 27595 2825 96 116380 5335
47 28795 2875 97 118840 5385
48 30005 2925 98 121330 5430
49 31275 2970 99 123815 5480
50 32560 3015 100 126300 5525

121 AS 5100.2:2017
APPENDIX D
SUMMARY OF LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS
(Informative)
This Appendix collates load factors and load combinations presented in this Standard.
Table D1 collates load factors. Load factors for construction forces and effects (Clause 22)
are not included.
Table D2 collates values of the dynamic load allowance.
Table D3 collates load combinations. Load combinations for the following cases are not
included in the Table:
(a) Fatigue limit state.
(b) Construction forces and effects (Clause 22).
(c) Permanent effects plus prestress effects at transfer (Clause 19.2).
(d) Alternative load path design of superstructures with one or more piers or columns
removed (Clause 11.1).
TABLE D1
LOAD FACTORS
Limit state
Loading
Steel 1.10 1.0
Dead load of structure that Concrete 1.20 1.0

reduces safety Concrete at transfer of prestress 1.15 N/A
Timber 1.25 1.0
Steel 0.90 1.0
Dead load of structure that Concrete 0.85 1.0

increases safety Concrete at transfer of prestress 0.90 N/A
Timber 0.80 1.0
Permanent 2.0 1.3
Superimposed dead load Removable 2.0 1.3

that reduces safety Special case permanent 1.4 1.0
Special case removable 1.4 1.0
Permanent 0.7 1.3
Superimposed dead load Removable 0.0 1.3

that increases safety Special case permanent 0.8 1.0
Special case removable 0.0 1.0
( continued )

AS 5100.2:2017 122
TABLE D1 (continued)
Limit state
Loading
Controlled fill with regular
1.25 1.0
testing of soil density
Soil and groundwater load
that reduces safety All other fills and in situ soils 1.5 1.2
Groundwater 1.0 1.0
Controlled fill with regular
0.85 1.0
testing of soil density
Soil and groundwater load
that increases safety All other fills and in situ soils 0.7 1.2
Groundwater 1.0 1.0
Rail ballast and track load Ballast and track 1.7 1.3
that reduces safety Transom track 1.4 1.2
Rail ballast and track load Ballast and track 0.7 1.3
that increases safety Transom track 0.9 1.2
W80 wheel 1.8 1.0
A160 axle 1.8 1.0
M1600 1.8 1.0

M1600 tri-axle group 1.8 1.0
S1600 1.8 1.0
Heavy load platform (HLP) 1.5 1.0
Half of SM1600 traffic load in unobstructed lanes when applied
1.8 1.0
in conjunction with HLP loading
Centrifugal force from road traffic (HLP factors shall be
1.8 1.0
determined by the relevant authority)
Braking force from road traffic (HLP factors shall be
1.8 1.0
determined by the relevant authority)
Pedestrian cyclist path and maintenance traffic loads 1.5 1.0
300LA rail traffic load 1.6 1.0
Centrifugal force from rail traffic 1.6 1.0
Nosing and kerb forces from rail traffic 1.6 1.0
Longitudinal braking and traction forces from rail traffic 1.6 1.0
Minimum restraint load 1.0 N/A
Collision load from road traffic 1.0 N/A
Loads on protection beams 1.0 N/A
Collision loads from rail traffic 1.0 N/A
Derailment load case A 1.2 N/A
Derailment load case B 1.0 N/A
Derailment load on kerbs 1.0 N/A
Road traffic barrier loads 1.0 N/A
Road traffic barrier connection loads 1.05 N/A
Road traffic barrier loads transmitted to bridge deck 1.1 N/A
Pedestrian and cyclist path barrier load 1.8 1.0
( continued )

123 AS 5100.2:2017
Limit state
Loading
Earth pressure from traffic loads Refer to AS 5100.3
Earthquake forces (for appropriate ARI) 1.0 1.0
Water flow (for appropriate ARI) 1.3 1.0
Wind loads (for appropriate ARI) 1.0 1.0
Thermal 1.25 1.0
Shrinkage and creep 1.2 1.0
Prestress secondary effects 1.0 1.0
Prestress effects at transfer 1.15 1.0
Differential settlement effects 1.5 1.0
Accurate records and information
1.5 1.0
Mining subsidence are available
Other sites 2.0 1.0
Forces from bearings 1.3 1.0
Loading Fatigue limit state
A160 axle (determined from 70% of the load) 1.0

M1600 (determined from 70% of the load without UDL) 1.0
300LA rail traffic 1.0

AS 5100.2:2017 124
TABLE D2
DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE
Loading Dynamic load allowance ( )

Road traffic loads (see Note 1)
W80 wheel 0.4
A160 axle 0.4
M1600 tri-axle group (see Note 2) 0.35
M1600 (see Note 2) 0.3
S1600 (see Note 2) 0.0
Heavy load platform load (HLP) (see Note 3) 0.1
Centrifugal force, braking force or pedestrian load 0.0
Fatigue load A160 axle 0.4
M1600 without UDL 0.3
M1600 tri-axle group without UDL 0.35
Pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance traffic loads
Pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance traffic loads 0.0
Rail traffic loads (see Note 4)

Bending effects—ballasted deck spans, open deck spans or  2.16 
spans with direct rail fixation (see Notes 5, 6) 0.2    0.27   0.67
0. 5
 Lα  0.20 
Bending effects—transoms for open deck bridges and 1.0

local effects for direct fixed tracks (see Note 6)
Shear, torsion and reaction effects 0.67 of the value for bending
effects, or 0.0 if the DLA leads to
greater safety or stability
Centrifugal, braking and traction force 0.0
Nosing load 0.0
Deflection 0.67 of the design DLA
Fatigue load Half of the design DLA (see
Note 7)
Derailment loads 0.0
NOTES:
1 For application of DLA below ground level, see Clause 7.7.3.
2 Including the UDL component of the traffic load.
3 Heavy load platform travels at a maximum speed of 10 km/h. A higher DLA (  ) may apply
where this speed is exceeding.
4 For application of DLA below ground level, see Clause 9.5.4.
5 The value of  for steam locomotives to be increased by 20%.
6 Where a transition approach to a bridge abutment is not provided, then α to be increased by
7 For multiple track bridges the dynamic load allowance for the fatigue load is 0.0.

TABLE D3
ULS LOAD COMBINATIONS (see Note 1)
Load factors
A B C D E F G H I J K
Minimum Road/rail Pedestrian Minimum Collision Road Earth Earthquake Water Wind Thermal
strength traffic cyclist path restraint traffic pressure flow
and maintenance barrier from
stability traffic traffic
Load effects—Permanent effects
Clause 6.2 Steel 1.35 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Dead load that
Concrete (see Notes 2, 3) 1.35 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
reduces safety
Timber 1.35 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
Clause 6.2 Steel 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Dead load that
Concrete (see Note 3) 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
increases
125
safety Timber 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Clause 6.3 Permanent 1.35 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Superimposed
Removable 1.35 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
dead load that
reduces safety Special case permanent 1.35 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Special case removable 1.35 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Clause 6.3 Permanent 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Superimposed
Removable 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
dead load that
increases Special case permanent 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
safety
Special case removable 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
( continued )
AS 5100.2:2017
AS 5100.2:2017
Load factors
Clause 6.4 Controlled fill with regular 1.35 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
Soil and testing of soil density
groundwater
All other fills an in situ 1.35 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
loads that
soils
reduce safety
Groundwater 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Clause 6.4 Controlled fill with regular 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Soil and testing of soil density
groundwater
All other fills an in situ 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
loads that
soils
126
increase safety
Groundwater 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Clause 6.5 Ballast and track 1.35 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7
Rail ballast
Transom track 1.35 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
and track load
that reduces
safety
Clause 6.5 Ballast and track 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Rail ballast
Transom track 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
and track load
that increases
safety
Clause 16 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 N/A (see 1.3 1.3
Water flow loads and buoyancy at mean Note 7)
water level
Clause 19.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Shrinkage and creep effects (zero effects
and full effects)
( continued )
Load factors
Clause 19.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Prestress effects (before and after losses)
(see Note 3)
Clause 20.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Differential settlement effects
Clause 20.2 Accurate records and 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Mining information available
subsidence
Other sites 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
effects
127
Clause 21 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Forces from bearings
Load effect—Thermal effects
Clause 18.2 0 and 1.0 0 and 1.25
Variation in average bridge temperature 1.0
Clause 18.3 0 and 1.0 0 and 1.25
Differential temperature 1.0
Load effect—Transient loads
Clause 7 SM1600 1.8 0 and 1.0 0 and 0 and 1.0
Road traffic 1.0
including
Half of SM1600 applied 1.8
dynamic effects
in conjunction with the
heavy load platform

Heavy load platform 1.5
AS 5100.2:2017
Centrifugal force and 1.8
braking (see Note 4)
( continued )
AS 5100.2:2017
Load factors
Clause 9 300LA 1.6 0 and 1.0 0 and 0 and 1.0
Rail traffic 1.0
including
Centrifugal force and 1.6
dynamic effects
nosing and kerb forces
Longitudinal braking and 1.6
traction forces
Clause 8 1.5 (see 1.5 0 and 1.0
Pedestrian, cyclist path and maintenance Note 6)
traffic loads
128
Clause 10 1.0
Minimum restraint load
Clause 11 Except for rail 1.0
Collision loads derailment load case A
Rail derailment load 1.2
case A
Clause 12.2 1.0
Road traffic barrier loads
Clause 12.2 1.05
Road traffic barrier anchorage loads
Clause 12.3 1.1
Road traffic barrier loads transmitted to
bridge deck cantilevers

Clause 12.5 1.8
Pedestrian and cyclist path barrier load
( continued )
Load factors
Clause 14 Refer to
Earth pressure from traffic loads AS 5100.3
Clause 15 1.0
Earthquake loads
Clause 16 1.3
Water flow forces
Clause 17 1.0 (see 1.0
Wind loads Note 8)
Clause 26 For load combinations for fire effects, refer to specialist literature
129
Fire effects
NOTES:
1 Load combinations for the following cases are not included in the Table—
(a) fatigue limit state;
(b) construction forces and effects (Clause 22);
(c) permanent effects plus prestress effects at transfer (Clause 19.2); and
(d) alternative load path design of superstructures with one or more piers or columns removed (Clause 11.1).
2 For precast construction, where appropriate control and monitoring are exercised over dimensions, the authority may allow a reduction of load factor to not less than 1.1 for
ultimate limits states for the cases where the dead load reduces safety.
3 See Clause 19.2 for the load combination at transfer of prestress.
4 Centrifugal and braking forces due to road traffic to not be applied simultaneously.
5 Centrifugal and nosing forces due to rail traffic to not be applied simultaneously.
6 Road and rail bridges with access or maintenance walkways not intended for public use are not required to be designed for the simultaneous occurrence of the road and rail live
load and the walkway live load.
AS 5100.2:2017
7 The permanent loads due to ‘Water flow loads and buoyancy at mean water level’ are not applicable to load combination (I) ‘water flow’. The transient loads due to ‘Water flow
forces’ loads shall be used instead.
8 For load combination (B) the wind load is to be included using a design wind speed of 35 m/s in all locations.
AS 5100.2:2017 130
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AS/NZS
1170 Structural design actions
1170.0 Part 0: General principles

131 AS 5100.2:2017
AMENDMENT CONTROL SHEET
AS 5100.2:2017
Amendment No. 1 (2017)
CORRECTION
SUMMARY: This Amendment applies to Clause 16.5.5.
Published on 7 August 2017.
AS 5100.2:2017
132
NOTES
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Part 2: Design loads

The following are represented on Committee BD-090:

 Australian Industry Group

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR AS 5100.2:2016.

Keeping Standards up-to-date

Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

Part 2: Design loads

First published as HB 77.2—1996.

(D) Inclusion of super-t girders in the calculation of bridge thermal effects.

appendix to which it applies. An ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and

13 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR ........................................................................................ 51

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 130

Part 2: Design loads

1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

(o) Fire effects.

5100 Bridge design

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

3.3 External developments

3.7.3 Branch line freight (BLF)

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

Ch (Tf) acceleration spectral shape factor at fundamental natural period of vibration

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

Fi design transverse force at bridge frame mass location mi proportional to

f0 fundamental frequency of vibration

f c characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete at 28 days

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

LT vehicle contact length for transverse collision load on a barrier

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

y average flow depth; or

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

i transverse displacement capacity of a bridge pier or abutment

εsd tensile strain limit in flexural reinforcement; or

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

ϕc value of normalised fundamental displacement mode shape at the first

5 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES

applicable (Clause 7.10).

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

18 Bridge earthquake design category classification (Clause 15.4.1).

6 DEAD LOADS (G)

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

Timber, softwood 7.0 (see Note 2)

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

6.2 Dead load of structure

6.3 Superimposed dead load (Gs)

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is constructed or if placement

authority for major structures and superimposed

6.5 Rail ballast and track loads (Gb)

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

ULSs where Gbs

7 ROAD TRAFFIC (Q)

these elements and their corresponding load factors:

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

7.2.3 A160 axle load

FIGURE 7.2.3 A160 AXLE LOAD

7.2.4 M1600 moving traffic load

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

360 kN 360 kN 360 kN 360 kN

FIGURE 7.2.4 M1600 MOVING TRAFFIC LOAD

7.2.5 S1600 stationary traffic load

FIGURE 7.2.5 S1600 STATIONARY TRAFFIC LOAD

7.3 Heavy load platform