Intermediate Algebra I

A. Linear Equations and Inequalities in Two Variables

a. The Rectangular Coordinate System

Throughout chapter one, we solved several types of equations including linear equations, quadratic equations,
rational equations, etc. Each of these equations had something in common. They were all examples of
equations in one variable. In this chapter, we will study equations involving two variables. A solution to an
equation involving two variables consists of a pair of numbers, an x-value and a y-value for which the equation
is true.

Each pair of values is called an ordered pair because the order does matter. We use the notation ( x, y ) to
represent an ordered pair. Notice that the x-coordinate or abscissa is first, followed by the y-coordinate or
ordinate listed second. To represent an ordered pair graphically, we use the rectangular coordinate system also
called the Cartesian coordinate system named after the French mathematician René Descartes. The plane used
in this system is called the coordinate plane or Cartesian plane. The horizontal axis (x-axis) and the vertical
axis (the y-axis) intersect at the origin O and naturally divide the Cartesian plane into 4 quadrants labeled
quadrants I, II, III and IV.

Quadrant II Quadrant I

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

b. Plotting Ordered Pairs in the Cartesian Plane

To plot the point (−2,3) , go 2 units to the left of the origin on the x-axis then move 3 units up parallel to the y-
axis. The point corresponding to the ordered pair (−2,3) is labeled in the figure below and is located in
Quadrant II.

c. Graphing Equations by Plotting Points

One way to sketch the graph of an equation is to find several ordered pairs which satisfy the equation, plot those
ordered pairs then connect the points with a smooth curve. We choose arbitrary values for one of the
coordinates then solve the equation for the other coordinate.

d. Finding the Midpoint of a Line Segment using the Midpoint Formula

Suppose we wish to find the midpoint M ( x, y ) of the line segment from A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) . To find this
midpoint, we simply “average” the x and y coordinates respectively. In other words, the x coordinate of the
x +x y + y2
midpoint is 1 2 while the y-coordinate of the midpoint is 1 .
2 2

B ( x2 , y2 )

M ( x, y )
A ( x1 , y1 )
 Midpoint Formula

The midpoint of the line segment from A ( x1 , y1 ) to B ( x2 , y2 ) is

 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 
 , .
 2 2 

e. Finding the Distance between Two Points using the Distance Formula

Recall that the Pythagorean Theorem states that the sum of the squares of the two sides of a right triangle is
equal to the square of the hypotenuse or a 2 + b 2 = c 2 .

c
b
The Pythagorean
Theorem a2 + b2 = c2
a
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the distance between any two points in a plane. To find the length
d ( A, B ) of the line segment AB, consider the point C ( x1 , y2 ) which is on the same vertical line segment as
point A and the same horizontal line segment as point B. The triangle formed by points A, B and C is a right
triangle whose hypotenuse has length d ( A, B ) . The horizontal leg of the triangle has length a = x2 − x1 while
the vertical leg of the triangle has length b = y2 − y1 .
x2 − x1 + y2 − y1 =  d ( A, B )  .
2 2 2

a2 b2 c2

 d ( A, B)
2
= x2 − x1 + y2 − y1 A ( x1 , y1 )
2 2
Use the Pythagorean Theorem.
d ( A, B)
d ( A, B) =  x2 − x1 + y2 − y1
2 2
Use the Square Root Property. b = y2 − y1
C ( x1 , y2 )
But since distance cannot be negative, exclude − x2 − x1 + y2 − y1 .
2 2 B ( x2 , y2 ) a = x2 − x1

d ( A, B) = x2 − x1 + y2 − y1
2 2
Use the positive square root only.

d ( A, B) = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
For any quantity A, A = A2 .
2

This formula is known as the distance formula.

The Distance Formula

The distance between any two points A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) is given by the formula

d ( A, B) = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
 f. Finding Slope and Intercepts of a Line

Definitions:
Slope: The ratio of the change in y to the change in x. Sometimes called the rise over the run.

y-intercept: The POINT where the line crosses the y – axis is called the y-intercept = (0, b)

x-intercept: The POINT where the line crosses the x – axis is called the y-intercept = (a, 0)

By using a table, graph each of the following on the graph paper provided.

1. y = 2x - 3

x y
 2. y = -3x + 2

x y

3. 6x + 24 = -12y

x y

4. 2x - y = 4

x y

By finding the x and y intercepts, graph each of the following.

5. y=x+2 6. 4x + 5y = 20

x intercept = ______ x intercept = ______

y intercept = ______ y intercept = ______

7. 8x – 4y = 16 8. y – 4x = 8

x intercept = ______ x intercept = ______

y intercept = ______ y intercept = ______

 g. Forms of Linear Equations in Two Variables
1.Standard Form
The standard form for linear equations in two variables is Ax+By=C. For example, 2x+3y=5 is a linear
equation in standard form. When an equation is given in this form, it's pretty easy to find both intercepts (x and
y). This form is also very useful when solving systems of two linear equations.

2.Two-Point Form
The two-point form of a line in the Cartesian plane passing through points and is given by

or equivalently,

3.Intercept Form
If a and b are non-zero X and Y intercepts of a line l, then its equation is of the form

4.Point-Slope Form
If you know the slope m of a line and the coordinates (x1, y1) of one point on the line, you can write the
equation of the line in point-slope form.

y−y1=m(x−x1)

5.Slope-Intercept Form
If you know the slope m, and y -intercept (0, b) of a line (the point where the line crosses the y -axis), you can
write the equation of the line in slope-intercept form.

y = mx + b

ex: Find an equation of the line in slope-intercept form with slope 3 and y -intercept (0, −2).

6.Parallel Lines
Two lines are parallel if they have equal slopes.

7.Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are perpendicular if the slope of the first is equal to the negative reciprocal of the second.

m1 = -1/m2

Exercises: Express your answers in Standard Form

1. Find the equation of the line passing through points P1(2,5) and P2(-2,1).
2. Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 4 and passes through the point (–1, –6).
3. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept (-2,0) and y-intercept (0,3).
4. Find the equation of the line with slope 4 and y-intercept (0, -3).
5. Find the equation of the line parallel to a line with equation 12x + 3y = 4 and passes through point (-2,
½).
6. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to a line with equation 8x + 5y = ¾ and passes through point
(-2, ½).
7. Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (–2, 4) and (1, 2).
8. Write the equation of a line in standard form in each graph. Identify the y-intercept and x-intercept.
 a. Slope: _____ b. Slope: _____ c. Slope: _____
y-intercept: _____ y-intercept: _____ y-intercept: _____
x-intercept: _____ x-intercept: _____ x-intercept: _____

h. Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

➢ The graph of an inequality in two variables is the set of points that represents all solutions to the inequality.
➢ A linear inequality divides the coordinate plane into two halves by a boundary line where one half
represents the solutions of the inequality.
➢ The boundary line is dashed for > and < and solid for ≤ and ≥.
➢ The half-plane that is a solution to the inequality is usually shaded.

Example

i. Graphing Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

To graph a linear inequality in two variables (say, x and y), first get y alone on one side. Then consider
the related equation obtained by changing the inequality sign to an equal sign. The graph of this equation is a
line.

If the inequality is strict (< or >), graph a dashed line. If the inequality is not strict (≤ and ≥), graph a
solid line.

Finally, pick one point not on the line ((0,0) is usually the easiest) and decide whether these coordinates
satisfy the inequality or not. If they do, shade the half-plane containing that point. If they don't, shade the other
half-plane.

Example: Graph the inequality y ≤ 4x−2.

This line is already in slope-intercept form, with y alone on the left side. Its slope is 4 and its y -intercept is −2.
So, it's straightforward to graph it. In this case, we make a solid line since we have a "less than or equal to"
inequality.
Now, substitute x=0, y=0 to decide whether (0,0) satisfies the inequality.

0≤?4(0) −20≤? −2

This is false. So, shade the half-plane which does not include the point (0,0).

Exercise:

Graph the following inequalities.

1. y < 3x – 4
2. y ≤ x – 5
3. y ≥ 4 – 3x
4. y > 2x + 1

B. Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities

a. Definition
A system of linear equations consists of two or more linear equations made up of two or more
variables such that all equations in the system are considered simultaneously.
To find the unique solution to a system of linear equations, we must find a numerical value for
each variable in the system that will satisfy all equations in the system at the same time. Some linear
systems may not have a solution and others may have an infinite number of solutions.

Example: 2x + y = 15 and 3x – y = 5

The solution to a system of linear equations in two variables is any ordered pair that satisfies each
equation independently. In this example, the ordered pair (4,7) is the solution to the system of linear equations.
We can verify the solution by substituting the values into each equation to see if the ordered pair satisfies both
equations. Shortly we will investigate methods of finding such a solution if it exists.
2(4) + (7) = 15 True
3(4) + (7) = 5 True

➢ A consistent system of equations has at least one solution.

➢ A consistent system is considered to be an independent system if it has a single solution, such as the
example we just explored. The two lines have different slopes and intersect at one point in the plane.
➢ A consistent system is considered to be a dependent system if the equations have the same slope and
the same y-intercepts. In other words, the lines coincide so the equations represent the same line.
➢ Another type of system of linear equations is an inconsistent system, which is one in which the
equations represent two parallel lines. The lines have the same slope and different y-intercepts. There
are no points common to both lines; hence, there is no solution to the system.

Exercise:
1. Determine whether the ordered pair (5,1) is a solution to the given system of equations.
x + 3y =8 and 2x -9 = y
2. Determine whether the ordered pair (5,1) is a solution to the given system of equations.
5x – 4y = 20 and 2x + 1 = 3y
3. Solve the following system of equations by graphing
a. 2x + y = -8 and x – y = -1
b. 2x – 5y = -25 and -4x + 5y = 35
4. Solve the following system of equations by substitution
a. -x + y = -5 and 2x – 5y = 1
b. x = y + 3 and 4 = 3x – 2y
5. Solve the following system of equations by elimination.
a. 3x + 5y = -11 and x – 2y = 11
b. 2x – 7y = 2 and 3x + y = -20

Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule is a method of solving a system of linear equations through the use of determinants.

Matrices and Determinants

To use Cramer’s Rule, some elementary knowledge of matrix algebra is required. An array of numbers, such as

6 5 a11 a12
A= 
3 4 a21 a22
is called a matrix. This is a “2 by 2” matrix. However, a matrix can be of any size, defined by m rows and n
columns (thus an “m by n” matrix). A “square matrix,” has the same number of rows as columns. To use Cramer’s
rule, the matrix must be square.

A determinant is number, calculated in the following way for a “2 by 2” matrix:

a11 a12
A = = a11 a22 - a21 a12
a21 a22

For example, letting a11 = 6, a12 = 5, a21 = 3, a22 = 4:

6 5
A= = 6 (4) - 3 (5) = 9
3 4

For “m by n” matrices of orders larger than 2 by 2, there is a general procedure that can be used to find the
determinant. This procedure is best explained as an example. Consider the determinant for a 3 by 3 matrix

a11 a12 a13

A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

The determinant A is calculated as follows:

a22 a23 a31 a23 a21 a22

A = a11 - a12 + a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

note the sign change

A = a11 (a22 a33 - a23 a32) - a12 (a21 a33 - a23 a31) + a13 (a21 a32 - a22 a31)

Sign change (like a “2 by 2” matrix)

Note: Sign changes alternate, following the order: positive, negative, positive, negative, etc.

The determinant of the 3 by 3 matrix is the sum of three products. The first step is to understand the placement of
the elements from the matrix into the determinant equation. This is done by:

1. The three products to be summed correspond to the three elements along the top
row of the matrix (this would be a11, a12, a13).

2. Now, imagine a line that goes though the top row of elements (see the model
below).

3. Beginning at a11, imagine, too, a line through the first column (Figure 1).

4. The 4 remaining elements are used to construct a new “2 by 2” matrix, and the element a11 is used to
form the first of the three parts of the calculation:
a22 a23
a11
a32 a33

5. The same process (follow steps 1-4 above) is then repeated for a12 and a13 as seen
in figures 2 and 3 respectively, i.e., the top row contains the element used to
multiply the new “2 by 2” matrix, and the column which contains the element
 from the top row is omitted.

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a21 a31

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

For an example, consider:

5 6 7
A= 2 1 4
9 6 3

Find the determinant A.

Determinant A is calculated as follows:

1 4 2 4 2 1
A = 5 - 6 + 7
6 3 9 3 9 6

 A = 5 [1 (3) - 6 (4)] - 6 [2 (3) - 9 (4) ] + 7 [2 (6) - 9 (1)]

A = 96

A Description of Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule is a method of solving a system of linear equations through the use of determinants. Cramer’s
rule is given by the equation

xi = Ai
A

where xi is the i th endogenous variable in a system of equations, A is the determinant of the original A matrix as
discussed in the previous section, and Ai is the determinant a special matrix formed as part of Cramer’s rule.

To use Cramer’s rule, two (or more) linear equations are arranged in the matrix form
A x = d. For a two equation model:

A x = d
a11 a12 x1 d1
a21 a22 x2 = d2

A is the matrix corresponding to the number of equations in a system (here, two equations), and the number of
endogenous variables in the system (here 2 variables). Remember that the matrix must be square, so the number of
equations must equal the same number of endogenous variables. Position x has one column and corresponds to the
number of endogenous variables in the system. Finally, position d contains the exogenous terms of each linear
equation.

Note: The determinant for a matrix must not equal 0 (A  0). If A = 0 then there is no solution, or there are
infinite solutions (from dividing by zero). Therefore, A  0. When A  0, then a unique solution exists.

Applying Cramer’s Rule in a 2x2 example

Using Cramer’s rule to solve for the unknowns in the following linear equations:
 2x1 + 6x2 = 22

-x1 + 5x2 = 53

Then,
A x = d

2 6 x1 22
=
-1 5 x2 53

2 6
The primary determinant A = = 2 (5) - (-1) 6 = 16
-1 5

We need to construct xi = Ai, for i=1 and for i=2.

A
The first special determinant A1 is found by replacing the first column of the primary matrix with the
constant ‘d’ column. The new special matrix A1 now appears as:

22 6
A1 =
53 5

and solved as a regular matrix determinant,

A1 = 22 (5) - 53 (6) = -208

Likewise, the same procedure is done to find the second special determinant A2,

2 22
A2 =
-1 53

A2 = 2 (53) - (-1) (22) = 128

We have now determined:

A = 16
A1 = -208
A2 = 128

Using:

xi = Ai
A

we get,
A1 -208
x1 =  A = 16 = -13 (Solution)

A2 128
x2 = A = 16 = 8 (Solution)
Applying Cramer’s Rule in a 3x3 example

Using Cramer’s Rule to solve for the unknowns in three linear equations:

5x1 - 2x2 + 3x3 = 16

2x1 + 3x2 - 5x3 = 2
4x1 - 5x2 + 6x3 = 7
Then,

5 -2 3 x1 16
2 3 -5 x2 = 2
4 -5 6 x3 7

5 -2 3
The primary determinant A= 2 3 -5 = 5(18 - 25) + 2(12 + 20) + 3(-10 - 12) = - 37
4 -5 6

The three special determinants are:

16 -2 3
A1= 2 3 -5 = 16(18 - 25) + 2(12 + 35) + 3(-10 - 21) = -111
7 -5 6

5 16 3
A2= 2 2 -5 = 5(12 + 35) - 16(12 + 20) + 3(14 - 8) = -259
4 7 6

5 -2 16
A3= 2 3 2 = 5(21 + 10) + 2(14 - 8) + 16(-10 - 12) = -185
4 -5 7

Applying Cramer’s Rule:

 A1 -111
x1 = A = -37 = 3

A2 -259
x2 = A = -37 = 7

A3 -185
x3 = A = -37 = 5

Solve Word Problems using Linear Equations in Two Variables

1. The admission fee at a small fair is $1.50 for children and $4.00 for adults. On a certain day, 2200 people
enter the fair and $5050 is collected. How many children and how many adults attended?
2. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 7. When the digits are reversed, the number is increased by
27. Find the number.
3. Calvin has $8.80 in pennies and nickels. If there are twice as many nickels as pennies, how many pennies
does Calvin have? How many nickels?
4. A total of 78 seats for a concert are sold, producing a total revenue of $483. If seats cost either $2.50 or
$10.50, how many $2.50 seats and how many $10.50 seats were sold?
5. An investor buys a total of 360 shares of two stocks. The price of one stock is $35 per share, while the price
of the other stock is $45 per share. The investor spends a total of $15000. How many shares of each stock
did the investor buy?
Two-variable inequalities word problems
1. Grace wants to buy some new clothes, but she cannot afford more than $75 before the sales tax is added.
The blouses she wants are priced $17 each and the pants she wants are priced $25 each. Which inequality
could be used to determine b, the number of blouses, and p; the number of pants Grace can afford?
2. A retailer sells two types of coffee beans. One type cost $9 per pound and the other type costs $7 per pound.
Find all the possible amounts of the two different coffee beans that can be mixed together to get a quantity
of coffee beans costing $8.50 or less.
3. Julius has a job as an appliance salesman. He earns a commission of $60 for each washing machine he sells
and $130 for each refrigerator he sells. How many washing machines and refrigerators must Julius sell in
order to make $1000 or more in commissions?
4. You are in charge of concessions at the football game. You are selling hotdogs for $2 and Hamburgers for
$3. You must make at least $300. Use x to represent the number of hotdogs and let y represent the number
of hamburgers. If you sell 50 hotdogs and 75 hamburgers, will you reach your $300?
5. You are in charge of concessions at the football game. You are selling hotdogs for $2 and Hamburgers for
$3. You must make at least $300. Use x to represent the number of hotdogs and let y represent the number
of hamburgers. Which inequality represents the situation?