Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 2011, Volumen 21, Numerus 4 DOI: 10.

2478/v10043-011-0033-z
ISSN 1648-6919

Review of the lynx situation in the Pskov oblast (Russia)

at the beginning of the 21st century

Mikhail VAISFELD1, Juliy GUBAR2, Sergei PUSHKARYOV1

1Institute
of Geography RAS, Staromonetny pereulok St. 29. 119017 Moscow, Russia.
E-mail: mvaisfeld@mail.ru, push@smtp.ru
2FGBU Сentrohotkontrol, Teterinskiy pereulok St. 18, stroenie 8. 119245 Moscow, Russia. E-mail: ugubar@mail.ru

Abstract. The paper discusses historical and contemporary aspects of lynx (Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758)
ecology and its distribution in the Pskov oblast. Numbers and density (ind./100 sq. km of hunting grounds)
of the predator in counties varied from 0 (0.0) to 13 (0.53) in 2010 and from 0 (0.0) to 22 (1.09) in 2011.
Lynx density is inversely proportional to that of the human population. The species development trend
in the oblast is given.
Key words: lynx, Pskov oblast, Russia, counties, number, density, dynamics, harvest, poaching, hun­
ting

The lynx (Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758) is a typical spe-
cies and a functional component of forest ecosystems.
In the northern part of its distribution in Eurasia, the
strip of higher lynx density embraces the southern part
of the middle taiga subzone, the whole of the southern
taiga subzone as well as sub-taiga and mixed forests
(Lynx 2003).
This cat tends to inhabit forest habitats, especially
edges of forest clearances with isolated forested sites
and glades between felled plots. The lynx is rarely
encountered within open-space forestless landscapes.
In north-taiga parts of its distribution in European Rus-
sia, the lynx prefers coniferous forests (Matyushkin et
al. 2003). In the North-West (Danilov et al. 2003), it
is more common in deciduous and mixed (22.8 and
17.3% of occurrences) than in those of spruce (11.4%)
and pine (2.8%).
At present, over 40% of the Pskov oblast is covered by
forest. Coniferous forests make up 45% of it, small-
leaved forests (birch, aspen, alder) – 34.5%. In many
counties the percentage of forested areas is higher
than in the whole oblast. In nine counties (Palkinsky,
Pytalovsky, Ostrovsky, Pushkino-Gorsky, Porkhovsky,
Bezhanitsky, Dnovsky, Novorzhevsky, Novosokol­
nichesky), forests occupy from 27 to 45% of the terri-
tory. The share of forested areas in other 15 counties is
48–70%. The percentage of forested area is a dynamic
environmental parameter. The ongoing forest felling,
successions on forest clearances and burnt-out areas,
overgrowing of abandoned agricultural lands around
depopulated villages by deciduous young growth make
forest lands highly heterogeneous.
The lynx was always a common predatory species in
the Pskov oblast. Although the oblast, as already noted,
belongs to the area of higher numbers of the species,
there are no reliable data to indicate that the lynx was
formerly abundant in the area. In the 10–13th centuries
in the Kiev Russia, the lynx as a fur-bearing animal
was a common game object. Vladimir Monomakh
(12th century) mentioned a case when a lynx jumped onto
his saddle (Rybakov 1988). Like most predatory mam-
mals (two marten species (Martes foina Erxleben, 1777
and Martes martes Linnaeus, 1758), ermine (Mustela
erminea Linnaeus, 1758), marbled polecat (Vormela
pe­regusna Gueldenstaedt, 1770), polecat (Mustela puto-
rius Linnaeus, 1758), otter (Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758),
fox (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758), wolf (Canis lupus
Linnaeus, 1758), etc.)), the lynx was harvested only for
skin, not for eating. After conversion to Christianity, eat-
ing of wolf and lynx meat (very tasty by the way) was
prohibited in Russia as these animals were considered
to be unclean (Kirikov 1979). Figures of lynx harvest
could reveal an objective picture of predator numbers
but concrete data for that time are not available.
Although historical sources of the 16–17th centuries
do not provide any concrete data on lynx numbers in
European Russia, high numbers of hoofed animals are
mentioned. For example, there were so many elks (Al-
ces alces Linnaeus, 1758) that hunters often took only
skins and filet (Litvin 1854). Information on the state
of the environment at that time is also very scanty. The
end of the 18th – the beginning of the 19th centuries was
a period of intensive timber harvesting as timber was
widely used as a construction material, a fuel source and
a raw material for various industries. However, if forest
clearances had not been turned into arable land or used
for intensive grazing, forest would have soon regene­
rated. This process is also evident nowadays in European
280
Vaisfeld M., Gubar J., Pushkaryov S.

Russia. Since the mid-18th century, historical documents present, the lynx inhabits all seven counties of the oblast
have become reliable sources of data on the distribution (Gdovsky, Pskovsky, Pechorsky, Palkinsky, Pytalovsky,
of predators including the lynx (Kirikov 1963). Krasnogorodsky, Sebezhsky) bordering on Estonia and
For a long time, the lynx was an important and desirable Latvia. Situation of the counties in the Pskov oblast is
game species throughout the area of its distribution. It presented in Figure 1.
must have been due to this factor that growth of the Lynx numbers in Russia are decreasing almost in all its
lynx population was limited. Until the 1970s in Russia, distribution area. In the North-West and Central federal
the lynx was considered to be a harmful predator and areas, a continuous decrease in lynx numbers has been
an object of all-year-round extermination, which was observed for 30 years already. However, in the Pskov
economically stimulated in some oblasts. It was only oblast, the situation is somewhat different (Mosheva &
since the mid-1970s that the predator has been reclas- Gubar' 2011). In the 1980s, lynx numbers varied be-
sified as a fur-bearing game animal, the hunting time of tween 140 (1985) and 200 (1989) animals. Since early
which was restricted approximately to the dates of skin 1990s, the number of these animals has been following
maturity. In some oblasts, the practice of license-based a downward trend. The number of lynx reached a low
hunting was established, and the predator was granted point of 80 animals in 1995. Then it bottomed out and
a special protection status. At present, in many oblasts started growing again, reaching a peak of 230 animals
within Russia (mainly along the southern line of the in 2006. However, afterwards the number of lynx started
habitat in European Russia), the lynx has been included decreasing again. At present, the lynx number in the
in regional Red data books. In the country as a whole, the oblast is on decline: there were 140 animals recorded
lynx has never been endangered to such an extent that in 2009, and 120 in 2010 (Fig. 2).
the necessity for the restoration of its numbers would Counts done in 2010 yielded the following figures for
arise, as was the case with the sable. the North-West of Russia: the Murmansk oblast – a
In compliance with the new law on hunting (Federal single occurrence; Karelia – 400; the Kaliningrad ob-
law On Hunting, 2009, article 24, part 4), the lynx was last – a single occurrence; the Leningrad oblast – 270;
included in the list of species, the harvest quota of which the Novgorod oblast – 240 individuals.
must be approved on the federal level, i.e., by the Minis-
try of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. The Lake
Chudskoye
status of the species was enhanced (it has been included Gdovsky Plussky
in the CITES list) due to the joint efforts of the FGBU
Strugo-Krasnensky
Сentrohotkontrol specialists including one of the authors
of the current paper. This list also contains the most im- Pskovsky
Pechorsky Dnovsky
portant and/or endangered species of hoofed animals and Palkinsky
Porkhovsky
Dedovichesky
the sable. The wild boar (Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758), Ostrovsky
sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck, 1838), otter, beaver Pytalovsky
Novorzhevsky
Pushkino-Gorsky Bezhanitsky
(Castor fiber Linnaeus, 1758) and, unfortunately, brown Krasnogorodsky Loknyansky
(Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758) and Asiatic black bear Opochetsky
Pustoshkinsky Velikoluksky
(Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823) were excluded from the Sebezhsky Novosokolnichesky
list of ‘federal’ game animals. Now harvest quotas for Kunyinsky
Nevelsky
these species as well as for those that are absent from the Usvyatsky
federal list are defined on the regional level. Henceforth,
data on these species are reported to the Ministry of
Natural Resources in the form of notification only. Figure 1. Names of counties of the Pskov oblast.
The lynx population in the Pskov oblast has always Number dynamics of the lynx in the Pskov oblast
been less abundant than those of other big predatory
0.2
mammals, at least in the past and the current century.
The only exception is the decrease in numbers of other
1000 ind.

predators in the 1960s caused by human-induced factors 0.1

(mainly by excessive hunting). In 1991, 900 bears (Ur-
sus arctos), 485 wolves and 160 lynxes were recorded in
0
the oblast; in 2000 – 900, 230 and 111 respectively; in
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009

2010 – 1160, 300 and 120. (The above and thereinafter

Years
presented data on numbers are derived by the authors
from numerous materials of different departments.) At Figure 2. Lynx population dynamics in Pskov oblast.
 281
The lynx in the Pskov oblast

Now this cat is mainly concentrated in the most fo­ ‘market’ reforms of the 1990s. However, this is not the
rested counties of the Pskov oblast. In 2010 13 lynx only reason. The lynx population decrease observed
were recorded in the Strugo-Krasnensky county (fo­ in recent years is also connected with a prolonged
rested area makes up 79% of the whole area), 11 in the downturn in numbers of the mountain hare (Lepus
Plussky county (74%), eight (additionally, 3–6 animals timidus Linnaeus, 1758) (Mosheva & Gubar' 2011).
inhabit the National Park) in Sebezhsky (69%), five in In the North-West of European Russia, the hare is the
Pustoshkinsky (69%) and five in Gdovsky (74%) (Mo- staple in the lynx’s diet. Experts believe that dynamics
sheva & Gubar' 2011). In counties with scanty forests,
Leningrad obl. Forest, th. ha
the number of lynx is lower. But this is observed not in
21
all cases. In the frontier Pytalovsky county (the percent- Lake
213
Chudskoye 140 83
age of forested land is 27%), there were five animals
recorded in 2010, in Krasnogorsky (51%) – four, in 169 Novgorod
162
Estonia obl.
Palkinsky (29%) and Pechorsky (41%) – two animals 114 37
56 133
in each, in Pskovsky (51%), where the density of human 39 58
population is the highest, – only one lynx was observed 66
213
(Fig. 3). Generally, lynx density correlates directly with 29 21
79 143
forest area (Figs 4, 5). 65 74
Latvia 84 Tver'
Lynx numbers and density per county for 2011 (Figs 6, 7) 63
obl.
97 104
were calculated on preliminary expert estimates derived 162
124
from 2011 winter counts (January–March 2011). 83
60
A decrease in lynx numbers in the oblast in the mid- Byelorussia
1990s is caused by socially induced poaching due to
problems in economy and agriculture as a result of Figure 5. Forest area (1000 ha) in Pskov oblast counties.

Leningrad obl. 1 Leningrad obl.

Lake 1
Lake
Chudskoye 4 Chudskoye
5 11 22 13 7
13 Novgorod 8 20
obl.
Novgorod 13
Estonia obl.
1 Estonia 1
2 1 1
2 3 5
2 11 13 0 18 22
2 Latvia 1
Latvia
4 0 3 9 1 16 7
4
4 7 8 5
2 Tver' 10 Tver'
obl. obl.
3 11 17 10
5 5 6
8
7 12
10 12
Byelorussia Byelorussia 7
3

Figure 3. Lynx numbers in Pskov oblast in 2010. Figure 6. Lynx numbers in Pskov oblast in 2011.
Leningrad obl.
Leningrad obl.
Lake Lake
Chudskoye 0.15 0.45 Chudskoye 0.67 0.54
0.42 Novgorod 0.64
Novgorod
Estonia obl. Estonia obl.
0.03 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.09
0.17 0.25 0.16
0.18 0.53 0.00 0.87
Latvia 0.09 Latvia 0.04
0.38 0.00 0.19 0.27 0.09 0.39 0.99 0.21
ind./100 sq. km ind./100 sq. km
of hunting lands 0.31 0.31 Tver' of hunting lands 0.63 0.22 Tver'
0.11 0.53
0 obl. obl.
0 1.09 0.34
0.28 0.19 0.17 0.61
0.02–0.15 0.27 0.02–0.29 0.20
0.15–0.28 0.28 0.29–0.56 0.48
0.39 0.47
0.28–0.41 0.56–0.83 Byelorussia 0.66
Byelorussia 0.28
0.41–0.54 0.83–1.10

Figure 4. Lynx density in Pskov oblast in 2010. Figure 7. Lynx density in Pskov oblast in 2011.
 282
Vaisfeld M., Gubar J., Pushkaryov S.

of lynx numbers is directly dependent on the number ever, the mating of a female cat with two males increases
of hares (Danilov et al. 2003). By the year 2010, the the size of the brood due to an increase in the number of
number of mountain hares in the oblast had decreased impregnated ovicells and their better development during
considerably: from 36800 animals in 2009 to 15500 in the embryonic period.
2010. However, the analysis of lynx and hare number It is evident that in the Pskov oblast, the model ‘prey –
dynamics does not reveal a clear correlation between predator’ does not account for the observed decrease in
them. Weak correlation is observed between the number lynx numbers. We may suppose that under the conditions
dynamics of the lynx and that of the roe deer (Capreolus of food resources shortage, the lynx is forced to increase
capreolus Linnaeus, 1758), another essential constituent its migration activity in search of food. Finally, poaching
in the predator’s diet (Fig. 8). Roe deer numbers in the as a reason for the decline in lynx numbers is growing in
Pskov oblast are growing year by year (in 2008 – 11600 importance.
animals, in 2010 – 12800). In Estonia and Latvia, the roe The major poaching type is unlicensed hunting. In such a
deer dominates the lynx’s winter diet (Valdman 2003; case, the skin of a harvested animal is not delivered to the
Andersone et al. 2003). state but sold at the so-called ‘black’ market. The current
availability of equipment, – not only weapons but, first of
60
Lynx (×10 ind.) all, means of transport with high off-road ability, especially
Number in 10s or 1000s ind.

50 Mountain hare (×1000 ind.) powerful snowmobiles, – makes the lynx extremely vulner-
Roe deer (×1000 ind.)
40 able. In open landscapes, it is defenseless against hunters.
Illegal lynx hunting exceeds the legal one several times.
30 In recent years, legal lynx hunting has not exceeded 2–4
20 animals per year (Fig. 9).
In turn, the intensity of lynx poaching might be related to
10
Years the density of human population. The correlation between
0 lynx density and rural and small town population density
1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

is negative (Fig. 10A, B).

Figure 8. Dynamics of lynx, mountain hare and roe deer
5
numbers in Pskov oblast.
4
It is worth mentioning that the lynx’s diet in some parts
Individuals

of its distribution also includes the red fox (Matveev & 3

Matveeva 2007) and most probably the raccoon dog.
A decline in lynx numbers is promoted by another inter- 2
esting process at the physiological level. A downturn in
1
predator numbers itself contributes to its further devel-
opment. According to Erofeeva and Naidenko (2006), 0
under these circumstances, the probability of insemina- 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years
tion of one female by two male lynx is reduced. How-
Figure 9. Dynamics of legal lynx hunting in Pskov oblast.

A B
Lynx density (ind./100 sqare km of
Lynx density (ind./100 sqare km

0.6 1.2
of hunting grounds) in 2010

Novos
hunting grounds) in 2011

De
0.5 2
y = 2E–05x – 0.0046x + 0.467 1.0 Novor
2
Pl 2
R = 0.1803 De y = 7E-06x - 0.0045x + 0.7142
0.4 St Ne 0.8 2
Py Gd St Us R = 0.13
Lo Kr Kr
0.3 Pust 0.6 Pl Pust Op
Be KuUs Se Ne
Novos Ku
0.2 Novor Pa 0.4 Push
Gd Pe Ve
Ve Pe
0.1 Op Dn Os 0.2 BeLo Se Py
Po Po Dn Os
Push Ps Pa Ps
0.0 0.0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190
Density of rural and small town population (ind./1000 ha) Density of rural and small town population (ind./1000 ha)

Figure 10. Correlation of lynx density (ind./100 square km of hunting grounds) with the density of rural and small town
population (ind./1000 ha) in Pskov oblast in 2010 (A) and 2011 (B). The abbreviations used stand for the names of Pskov
oblast counties (see Fig. 1).

The lynx in the Pskov oblast
According to official data, in 2010 only one lynx was
harvested, while the annual quota is 10 individuals.
However, official figures can hardly be considered ac-
curate. It is obvious that only strict control over lynx
hunting may protect the animal and prevent it from
falling into the category of an endangered species.
Although the lynx’s status as a game object was changed
(see above), neither lynx resources monitoring, nor
protection of its habitats has become more efficient. The
lynx inclusion in the Oblast Red data books resulted
in its official exclusion from state monitoring of game
resources. The fact that counts of the predator in these
oblasts have not been done since then was not taken
into consideration.
Both the present-day and the future wellbeing of the
species depend more on anthropogenic factors rather
than on natural ones. It is connected with economic
activities, human-induced transformation of ecosystems
and first of all with hunting intensity. The climate change
impact on the predator, which is undeniable, has not
been studied yet and requires a detailed study. The on-
going decrease in human, especially rural, population,
growth of abandoned arable land, pastures, hayfields,
especially in areas far-off the main roads, have a positive
effect on the lynx state.
Economic (in our case – furriery), genetic and probably
historical aspects should be taken into account when devel-
oping the policy on the lynx. In former times, the lynx was
considered to be a sacred animal. The world-known arche-
ologist and historian, academician of the Russian Academy
of Sciences B. A. Rybakov writes in his book ‘Paganism of
the Ancient Russia’: ‘The lynx’s skin is covered with big
round spots ‘pestriny’, while on amulets, the ornament of
round solar signs is mandatory; these signs could carry a
double meaning, i.e. on the one hand, they could represent
a spotted animal and, on the other, they could empower the
amulet with solar symbols’. In some Russian dialects (e.g.
in the Vyatka dialect), the lynx is called ‘a fierce animal’.
The word ‘lynx’ is not pronounced. This taboo testifies to
the holiness of the animal. The ‘fierce animal’ was men-
tioned by Vladimir Monomakh when a lynx jumped onto
his saddle. Some researchers think that the lynx cult dates
back to very early times.
We believe that the lynx as a beautiful animal also has
aesthetic value. In this context Matyushkin’s (2003), the
best Russian lynx specialist, words should be recalled:
‘This invisible cat that shows itself mostly through nice
chains of footprints carries an image of wild nature, an
attractive world of forest sounds, from which modern man
with all his technogenic environment is getting more and
more estranged. Should it occur, the loss of the lynx will be
irretrievable, first of all in the most general sense and then
from the standpoint of its practical use in any form.’
283
Acknowledgements
The current paper is based on the material of the VIIIth
Baltic Theriological Conference, 7–11 October 2011 Pa­
langa, Lithuania.
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of ecology, use and conservation. Moscow: Nauka.
[Валдман, Х. 2003. Эстония. В: Е. Н. Матюшкин,
М. А. Вайсфельд (ред.) Рысь. Региональные
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Москва: Наука.]
Lūšies situacijos Pskovo srityje (Rusija) 21
amžiaus pradžioje apžvalga
M. Vaisfeld, J. Gubar, S. Pushkaryov
Santrauka
Straipsnyje yra aptariami istoriniai ir dabartiniai lūšies
(Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758) ekologijos ir paplitimo Psko­
vo srityje aspektai. 2010 metais šio plėšrūno skaičius
ir tankumas (ind./100 km2 medžioklės plotų) srities
rajonuose svyravo nuo 0 (0,0) iki 13 (0,53), o 2011
metais nuo 0 (0,0) iki 22 (1,09). Lūšies tankumas yra
atvirkščiai proporcingas gyventojų tankumui. Pateikta
lūšies raidos Pskovo srityje tendencija.
Received: 3 November 2011
Accepted: 13 December 2011