PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER  Question of Causality

 Causality- causes of events and

DOING PHILOSOPHY phenomena, cause-and-effect rela
 Questions regarding origin of things
 Question of Reality
 Purpose- explanation of a thing’s
 Reality- state of existence of things
function or goal, reason for a thing’s
independent of human consciousness
existence
- Includes physical things and
 Ultimate cause- thing’s purpose
things that we cannot easily
 Agency- capacity of man to govern
perceive and comprehend
or control his actions
- “objective and absolute” reality
 Free will- ability to choose among
= everything has a specific nature
possible actions
or character
 Choice- important aspect of any
a. Concrete- ex. Red balloon
discussion on agency and free will
b. Abstract- ex. Many colorful
 Determinism- each event is
balloons
determined or influenced by a
 Metaphysics- questions regarding
specific set of events or factors
reality
 Destiny- predetermined course of
 Ontology- classification of existing
events leading to a specific outcome
things
 Etiology- studies causality
 Teleology- question of purpose
 Question of Certainty
 Certainty- perfect knowledge free
from error or doubt
 Question of Ethics
 Truth- central concept in the question
 Ethics- standards of right and wrong,
of certainty
define human behavior, “greater
 Knowledge- man is able to know
good”, duty, obligation and virtue
- Data that tells it is true
 Ethics and Moral Philosophy- apply
 Rationalism- theory on knowledge,
and analyze these concepts in various
pure reasoning
situations, contexts, and cultures, and
 Priori Knowledge- reasoning without
recommends guidelines that will
experience
govern the decisions and actions of
 Empiricism- theory on knowledge,
people
experience
 Posteriori Knowledge- knowledge
gained from experience
PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRIES
 Skepticism- questions the certainty
of established doctrines or truths,  Systematic Doubt
mind has limits  Skeptical attitude
- All knowledge is uncertain  Argument
 Epistemology- nature and extent of  Engage in discussion and debate on
knowledge their ideas, justify your answer
  Dialectic
 Varied and differing ideas and
perspectives are analyzed,
formulating new ideas
METHODS
 Socratic Method
 Series of question
 Axioms
 Greek: “Axioma”=”true but still
arguments to prove”
 Assumptions which are taken for
granted
 Provide a foundation and direction
 Basis of discussion and debate
 Occam’s Razor
 Problem-solving device
 Among possible explanations, one
with the least assumptions is the
most acceptable
 William of Ockham (1287-1347)
- English Franciscan friar and
theologian, influential medieval
philosopher and nominalist
- Razor= shaving away
unnecessary assumptions or
cutting apart two similar
conclusions
 Formal Logic
 Research and data
 Systematic analysis of the validity of
arguments and statements
 Use of syllogisms or logical
arguments
 Thought experiment and allegory
 Imagined scenarios
A. Avicenna’s “floating man”
- Relationship between perception and
human mind
- Avicenna: father of modern math
- “there is nothing in the mind which
was not first in the senses”
B. Ship of Theseus
- Concept of an object’s identity
- Or “Seus Paradox”
- V.M. Straka
- Whether an object that has had all of
its components replaced remains
fundamentally the same object
C. Prisoner’s Dilemma\
- Individual’s objectives and
motivations affect his willingness to
cooperate
- Merrilll Flood and Melvin Dresher
- Why 2 completely rational
individuals might not cooperate,
even if it is in best interest to do so
D. Allegory of the Cave
- Plato
- Describe his theory of forms and his
ideas on how our perception affects
knowledge
DETERMINING TRUTH
 Correspondence Theory
 Something is true if it corresponds to
reality
 Coherence Theory
 Makes sense when placed in a
certain situation and context
 Varied truths from different
perspectives
 Proposed by Francis Bradley
 Relativism- no absolute truth
- An idea or principle is only true
within a particular context
 Constructivist Theory
 Knowledge is shaped by social
forces and influenced by culture and
history
 Founded by Jerome Seymour Bruner
 Consensus Theory
 Knowledge based on agreements
 Something is true if almost everyone
agrees that it is true
 Pragmatic Theory
 Something is true if we can put it
into practice, useful in real life
 Verificationism- senses/experiences
CONSIDERATIONS IN ORDER TO
ESTABLISH SOMETHING AS TRUE
 Arguments
 Reasonable phrases
 Fallacies
 Faulty reasoning
 Facts
 Establishe truths and easily verified
 Opinion
 Subjective information or personal
ideas
 Has a tendency to be biased (depends
on the speaker)
 Bias
 Personal views
FALLACIES
 Ad Hominem- latin word, “to the
man”, “to the person”
- Attacking the person
 Appeal to Force- threat of force or
undesirable threat
 Appeal to Emotion- pity or sympathy
 Appeal to the Popular- acceptable
because a lot of people accept it
 Appeal to Tradition- acceptable
because it has been true for a long
time
 Begging the question- assuming that
the thing or idea to be proven is true,
“circular argument”
 Cause-and-effect – cause&effect rela
 Fallacy of Composition- what is true
for the part is true for the whole
 Fallacy of Division- what is true for
the whole is true for the part
BIASES
 Correspondence bias or attribution
effect- judge a person’s personality
by his or her actions
 Confirmation bias- look for and
readily accept information which fits
with one’s own beliefs or views and
to reject ideas or views against it
 Framing- focus on certain aspect and
ignoring other aspects
 Hindsight- tendency to see past
events as predictable, pattern to
historical events
 Conflict of Interest- person or group
is connected or has vested interest in
the issue being discussed
 Cultural Bias- based on one’s
cultural standards
THE HUMAN PERSON
 Man- entire human race
- Humanity, mankind, humankind
 Human- man as species (homo
sapiens sapiens or modern human
beings)
 Person- human being granted
recognition of certain rights,
protection, and responsibilities
 Biological Perspective
 man as a part of the natural world
and a product of evolution
 Modern humans- homo sapiens
sapiens, most successfully adapted
species on the planet, most
widespread and dominant species
- Closely related to apes
 Human additional traits &
capabilities:
a. Planning and intentional action\
b. Innovation and creativity
c. Communication through language
and writing
d. Technology
e. Symbolic interaction- art & religion
 Culture- man’s most significant
achievement that set apart the
evolution of humanity from other
species
 Psychological Perspective
 human behavior and thought
processes in analyzing human nature
 Mental faculties and capabilities:
 Psyche- human mind, divided into
a. conscious mind- governs awareness
b. unconscious mind- latent or
repressed (nakatago) emotions,
thoughts, desires
 Rationality – state of being
reasonable
- Ability to understand experiences
in order to solve problems or do
tasks, and engage in decision
making and judgment
 Intelligence- ability to perceive
information, store knowledge, apply
it in various situations
- IQ and EQ
 Introspection- examine one’s own
conscious thoughts, feelings, and
mental state, and the capacity for
self-reflection
 Economic Perspective
 Man’s ability to engage in productive
activities in an effort to meet his
wants and needs
 Man as a productive being, primary
role is to produce and engage in
labor
 “economic man”= “homo
economicus” – driven by rationality
and self-interest in his desire to
possess wealth
 Economic forces- greater influence
on the actions of man than society or
culture
 Theological Perspective
 Man as God’s creation
 Special relationship with creator
 Created in His image and given an
immortal spirit
 Man’s existence brought by
purposive creative act of God, and
ultimate destiny is part of a divine
plan
 Human Person
 Individual, and all the attributes snd
characteristics that set him apar from
other human beings
 Awareness of Self
 Sentience- ability to feel and
experience
- Ability to perceive the
surroundings and react to
stimulus such as pain
 The self as innate- self is an essential
part of the human being, self-
awareness is natural and innate
- Religious views- self as
synonymous to spirit or soul
 The self as emergent- awareness of
self through interaction with the
world and other human beings
 The self as integrated and
developing- self is composed of
varied elements that change over
time
 Identity- distinct personality of an
individual
- Persist through time, may change
 Personhood- recognition of a human
being as a distinct entity- a person
 The person as an “autonomous
being”- “reasoned free choice”
- Man possesses reason, capacity
for reflection, ability to engage in
decision making
 The person as a “unified individual”-
inherent capacity to function as a
person
- Human possessed the means to
achieve his or her capabilities
  The person in relation to others
- Human being becomes a person
through interactions with other
human beings
- Pope John Paul II – person is
defined by his or her actions and
experiences, achieves self-
development and fulfillment
May not be recognized as a person:
 People suffering from debilitating
conditions that impair judgment –
lack means to make decisions
 Person suffers extensive brain
damage or a comatose individual –
other people make decisions for them
 Ancient times, slaves were
considered a property
 Women were also not granted
recognition as persons during most
of the ancient period
 African slaves were considered to be
“subhuman” and were considered
equivalent only to “three-fifths of a
person”
1ST SEM FINALS
PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY
 Spirit
 Human soul, immortal and non-
corporeal essence of a man
 Major monotheistic religions- man is
the only being with soul
 Other religions, Jainism and
Hinduisn, non-living things has soul
 Embodiment
 Central concept in discussing the
nature of human soul
 Discussions on the nature of human
consciousness
 Consciousness has both physical and
non-physical nature
 Embodied cognition
 man is able to perceive and
experience reality through his
physical body/ senses
 Enactivism
 Cognition arises through interaction
between organism & its environment
 Christian doctrine:spirit is created by
God
 Spirit continues to persist in afterlife
 Spirit essential element for the
salvation of mankind
 Departed spirits will be raised from
the dead during end times and shall
receive judgment of God
NATURE OF SPIRIT
 PLATO: human mind is immortal &
persists after the death of the body
human spirit or soul 3 parts:
 Logos- mind or reason
 Thymos- emotion
 Eros- desire
 ARISTOTLE- soul as integrated into
the human body, soul is part of the
man’s essence enables him to achive
his ultimate purpose
MIND-BODY PROBLEM
 questions of how the mental or
nonphysical are able to interact with
the physical body
PHYSICALISM
 physical processes determine the
state of the mind
IDEALISM
 mental processes and thoughts are
the only reality
MONISM
 human being is composed of
elements that are neither physical nor
mental
DUALISM
 distinctiveness of the physical and
mental nature of man
AVICENNA
 argued that self-awareness and
consciousness exists even if the body
is deprived of its senses
RENE DESCARTES
 proposed that the mind and body
exist as two separate entities which
interact with one another
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
 soul is the “first actuality” of the
body
 for there to be a body, there should
be first a soul
  soul has substance but no physical or
concrete form, exists w/o body
ST. AUGUSTINE
 soul the driving force which governs
the body and defines the human
person
TRICHOTOMIC VIEW
 man is composed of the body, soul
and spirit
 soul- component which gives man
life and will
 spirit- enables man to establish
connection with God
DICHOTOMIC VIEW
 no distinction between spirit and soul
 man composed of body and spirit
PSYCHOSOMATIC UNITY
 man is of a single or unitary
constitution
 body and spirit are inseparable and
integrated
 human person is the union of the
body and soul
 man’s soul enables him to know and
love God, and grant him the dignity
of a person
 through the soul man is able to share
in God’s life, relationship with God
that defines his existence
THEOLOGY
 study of God and other religious
concepts
 concept of divine, existence of God
THEISM
 belief in the existence of a God or
several deities
 Monotheism- single God
GOD
 Supreme being which governs all
existence, and the center of faith and
devotion of a religion
 Omniscience- God is all-knowing
 Omnipotence- God is all-powerful
 Omnipresence- God is perfectly
good, just, and all-loving
 Divine Simplicity- all attributes are
integrated and embodied of Him
- Not just good, He is goodness
itself
 Eternal- timeless no beginning&end
 Revealed Theology
 study of God through the analysis of
sacred texts
 Natural Theology
 substantiate existence of God
 Ontological Argument
 Since man is a rational being, able
conceive the notion of a Supreme
being, such Supreme being exists
 Teleological Argument
 Focuses on the purpose of God
would play in the universe
 Supreme being is necessary for the
continued existence of an orderly but
complex universe
 Cosmological Argument
 Nature of existence and the universe
 Recognizes the existence of God as
an explanation of how things came to
being in a reality
 Kalam Cosmological Argument
 Everything that has a beginning
has a cause
 The universe has a beginning
 Therefore, universe has a cause
  God is the cause that brought
about the beginning of the
universe
 Moral Argument
 Man’s ethical nature is brought about
the existence of God
 God is the representation of the
“greatest good”, all standards of
goodness is based
 By William Sorley
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
 God as the “prime mover”, “first
cause of existence”, “source of
being” of reality and universe
GOTTFRIED LEIBNIZ
 Existence of God on the “principle of
sufficient reason”
 All facts and events must have an
explanation
 Existence of the universe must have
an explanation and the sufficient
explanation is the existence of God
THEISM
 Existence of God or deities
AGNOTICISM
 Metaphysical concepts such as God
inherently unknowable
ATHEISM
 Rejection or nonbelief in the
existence of God or any deity
 Redemptive Salvation
 Divine Providence- blessings,
miracles, divine inspiration, and
revelation
IMMANENCE
 God manifesting Himself as a unique
identity
 Other religions: take human form
 Christian: Jesus Christ then Holy
Spirit
TRANSCENDENCE
 God as existing outside the material
world (heaven), presence is beyond
physical laws and even human
knowledge and understanding
 Panentheistic view- God is both
beyond and within universe
 Pantheistic view- God is an all-
encompassing presence in the
universe, no distinct presence
 Pandeistic view- God was a distinct
entity but lost this state when He
transformed Himself into the
universe
 Transcendental experiences- prayer,
meditation, visions
IMMANUEL KANT
 Human transcendence is based on
rationality
 Humans are able to comprehend
certain abstract concepts that have
no equivalent physical object or
sesnsory experience
JEAN-PAUL SARTRE
 Person’s ability to comprehend and
relate objects and beings outside of
his own self as an indication of
transcendence
 Ability of person to relate to people,
things, and experiences in
meaningful manner
MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
 Branch of philosophy concerned
with natural environment and
humanity’s place within it
ANTHROPOCENTRISM
 Human are the central and most
significant species on the planet
 Primary cause that drives changes in
the environment
DEEP ECOLOGY
 Natural world as being maintained
by the interrelationship among living
organisms and that every living thing
on the planet is dependent on each
other for survival
 Human interference as significant
threat to the natural world
GAIA HYPOTHESIS
 By James Lovelock
 Non-organic elements play a
significant role in maintaining
balance in the environment as they
interact with living organisms to
regulate various systems
Theological Views
 Gen 1:26-28 – mankind is intended
to live in harmony with all creation
- God created man and granted
him dominion over all creatures
and tasked him to subdue the
earth
 Pope John Paul II- man’s lordship
over nature as a “ministerial act”, a
continuation of the work of the
Creator, must be done with wisdom
and love
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) 2014 study
 Human activities have contributed to
the rise of global temperatures
through the release of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
 Emerged in the 1970s
 Advocated human responsibility and
action with regard to environmental
issues
1. All nonhuman (animals, natural
resources) have intrinsic value and
should be preserved
2. Preservation of the environment is
beneficial for humasn
3. Man has responsibility to safeguard
the planet as it has been entrusted to
him by God
SOCIAL ECOLOGY
 Ecological and ethical approach in
analyzing society, sees relationship
between social problems and
environmental problems
 Society should implement changes to
address environmental issues
CLIMATE ETHICS & CLIMATE
JUSTICE
 Fair distribution of environmental
benefits, also burden of meeting
environmental challenges
ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS
 Greek word “Aesthesis”= perception
of the senses
 Concepts of beauty in nature but has
recently been increasingly influenced
by environmental concerns
ENVIRONMENTALISM
 Important issue in international
politics as governments and
international organizations have
devoted efforts to discuss
environmental issues and
formulate plans to address them
KYOTO PROTOCOL 1997
 Various nations committed to
reduce greenhouse gas
emisssions
EARTH DAY
 First instituted in 1970
 Global effort to raise awareness
of environmental issues and
inspire action
FREEDOM
 Or “Liberty” is a social and political
concept which has great significance
in how people participate in society
 In political and social context is the
freedom of an individual from
oppression, compulsion, or coercion
from other persons
 “Age of Enlightenment”- early man
existed in a “natural state” and had
absolute freedom
 Establishment of societies- “social
contract”
POLITICAL FREEDOM:
 Positive Liberty- person taking
control of his or her own life and
fulfilling one’s potential
 Negative Liberty- freedom from
external restraint, barriers, and other
interferences from other people
LIBERALISM
 Preservation of individual rights and
stresses the role of the government in
protecting these civil liberties
LIBERTARIANISM
 Individual, not the government, is the
best judge in upholding and
exercising rights.
SOCIALISM
 Freedom to acquire economic
resources and the ability to work and
act according to one’s desires
 Maximizing one’s potential
NATURAL RIGHTS
 Innate in the person, universal and
inalienable
 Such as the right to life
LEGAL RIGHTS
 Rights that are based on society’s
customs and laws, and are enacted by
legislation and enforced by a govt
THEOLOGICAL VIEWS- freedom from sin
and living a life of righteousness, living in
accordance with the will of God
HUMAN AGENCY
 Capacity of a person to act and exert
control over his or her behavior
FREE WILL
 Capacity to choose from alternative
courses of action or decision
FREE ACTION
 Freedom to perform an action
without any obstacle or hindrances
FACULTIES MODEL
 Free will as the use of mental
faculties
 Human action is based on rationality
and sound judgment
HIERARCHICAL MODEL
 Free will is based on human wants
and desires
 When he or she identifies one desire
as acceptable and decides to act on it
THE REASONS-RESPONSIVE VIEW
 Man has free will because he or she
is able to entertain reasons not to
enact a certain decision and act upon
them when the need arises
 Planning, crossing out one
unattainable decision
CONSTRAINTS ON FREE ACTION
 Prohibitions
 Laws
 Social controls imposed by society
 Person with disability or sickness
 Weather, accidents, poverty
DETERMINISM
 Every event in the world is brought
about by underlying causes or
factors
MARXIST PHILOSOPHY
 Society imposes certain controls on
people, and that a person’s social
group largely influences how he or
she thinks or acts
 Man is essentially constrained by
society
MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
 Person’s status of deserving praise
and reward, or blame and
punishment for an action
CONTROL AND REGULATION
 Necessary elements in the
responsible exercises of freedom
THE PERSON AND OTHERS
EXISTENTIALISM & PHENOMENOLOGY
 Major philosophical branches that
devote much discussion on the
concept of interpersonal relations
SELF
 Egocentric perspective that defines
how he or she perceives and relates
to reality
OTHER
 Objects outside of personal
experience, other individuals apart
from the self
INTERSUBJECTIVITY
 Shared awareness and understanding
among persons
 Shared or common knowledge and
consensus, shared emotions such as
grief, joy, love
Various levels of self-other interactions
1.simple awareness of the existence of other
 We are aware that they are other
beings unique from us, they exist
outside of our own awareness or
perception
2.awareness of the self as being seen by
others
 You are immediately aware of this
person’s action as an other
3.awareness of the self in the other
 The way we act with other people is
often influenced by our ideas of how
these people see us
SEEMING
 Martin Buber
 Individual presents himself or herself
in a certain way when dealing with
others
 Taking on roles or characters when
dealing with certain people or when
in certain situations
DIALOGUE
 Genuine relationship established
among individuals
EXISTENTIALISTS: consider human
relationships as a defining influence on
human life
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF
KNOWLEDGE
 Shape knowledge and truth within a
certain society
PHENOMENOLOGISTS: shared
experience between persons can shape the
perception of reality
ALIENATION
 Individual ceases to view other as
distinct and authentic person,and
considers him or her as a mere object
 Karl Marx: alienation gives rise to
exploitation of people
EMPATHY
 Edith Stein
 Awareness that the other is a person
with thoughts and feelings
 Edmund Husserl: put oneself ”in the
place where the other is”
AVAILABILITY
 Gabriel Marcel
 Willingness of a person to be present
and be at the disposal of another
ETHICS OF CARE
 Emphasizes the moral dimension of
relationships and interactions
 To see needs of other people, most
especially the vulnerable
 Human person is regarded by
Philosophy as a “being-with-others”
 Seeking and maintaining meaningful
and harmonious relationships with
others is necessary for personal
development
CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE
 Human relations in the context of
community
 Strongest bonds are those that
involve parents and their children,
friends, and the bond between man
and wife
 Even greater still is the relationship
between God and man which is
defined as a fellowship & covenant
 Old Testament- Creation, Noah’s
salvation from the Great Flood,
Abraham’s journey to the Promised
Land, deliverance of the Israelites
from Egypt, Ten Commandments,
God’s Promise to Davi
 New Testament- Jesus Christ, death
and resurrection, importance of
fellowship among men
- “love your neighbor as yourself”
(Mark 12:31)
- “do unto others what you would
have them do unto you”
(Matthew 7:12)
 Compels us to be sympathetic most
especially to the least of our breathen
MAN AND SOCIETY
SOCIETY
 Large, independent, and organized
group of people living in the same
territory and sharing a common
culture and heritage
 Hunting-and-gathering societies
 Lifestyle dependent on resources
readily available from their
surroundings, “primitive”
 Agricultural societies
 Agricultural activities, farming,
fishing, livestock-raising
 Industrial societies
 Mechanized production and the
exchange of goods and services
 Modern societies
 Technologically-advanced societies
characterized by industry, mass
production, and advanced
communication & transportation
 Virtual society
 Not confined by territory and are
composed of individuals coming
from various social backgrounds
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
 Studying society and its influences
on the human person
FORMATION OF SOCIETIES
 Humans are considered to have a
natural tendency to cooperate and
organize, and society is a natural
outcome of this human tendency to
socialize
 Humans as living in a so-called
“natural state” removed fromo
modernity and civilization
THOMAS HOBBES
 Man in natural state is governed by
his desires that leads into conflict
 Society is therefore men seek to
control their natural tendencies and
impose order
 “Social contract” – agreement
where individual sacrifices some of
their wants and submit to a higher
authority to meet the needs of many
JOHN LOCKE
 Man in natural state as more
cooperative and reasonable
 Society is formed through the
consent of the individuals
 “Consent of the governed” –
covenant among individuals to
cooperate and share the burden of
upholding the welfare of society
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
 “General will” – people are the ones
who organized society & established
an authority & government,
government is able to impose its will
on people and the best judge of what
is most beneficial for society
JOHN RAWLS
 Redefines social contract and
explained that human beings
approach social cooperation in a
rational manner in order to meet their
individual self-interests
 Introduced new version of natural
state “original position” to explain
social formation, “veil of ignorance”
no knowledge of one’s own
characteristics
DAVID GAUTHIER
 “self-interest” a significant factor in
building and maintaining societies
SOCIALIZATION
 Individual learns the prevailing
behaviors, attitudes,, and values
 within his or her society, a person FILIPINO SOCIETY
adopts a set of ideals and behavior
 Very close relationship among
considered appropriate within his or
family members and members of
her society
extended family
 Individuals retain their own unique
 Traditions: pakikisama,
traits, society directly and indirectly
pakikipagkapwa-tao, utang-na-loob,
influences certain aspects of
damayan, bayanihan
individual behavior
 Religion has an important role=
STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT family-centered and conservative
(fiesta, Christmas, Holy Week)
 Stanford University 1971
 24 male volunteers with sound HAPPINESS
mental state and had no history of
2 DEFINITIONS:
violence participate in a simulated
1. Can be interpreted as a state of mind
prison as prison guards and prisoners
a. in a good mood
 Guards began to implement harsh
b. Can still maintain his or her
and abusive measures against the
happiness even if he or she is
prisoners, the prisoners then began to
experiencing difficulties in life
rebel so the researchers had to stop
2. Evaluation of one’s experiences in life
SOCIAL ROLES
a. satisfying life
 Set of expected behaviors that must
be performed by a person EUDAIMONIA (good spirit)
SOCIAL GROUP  Person’s state of well-being or
happinesss, term used by Ancient
 People in a social group tend to
Greeks
behave a certain way, and continuous
interactions within their group PLATO
reinforce such behavior
 Equates happiness with living a
NORMATIVE DEMOCRATIC THEORY moral life, practicing virtues,
fulfilling personal duties, and
 Perspective which considers a
controlling one’s desires
democratic society as morally
desirable ARISTOTLE
 Happiness is the primary reason for
human action,
Western Society- more individualistic &
 One becomes happy through the
secular, being assertive and direct
practice of virtues and the
Asian Societies- more rigid and formal, accumulation of achievements
value respect, familial relations, social status
EPICUREANS
SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
 Happiness means a life of peace that
 Community relations are defined by is free from fear and discomfort
the desire to establish and maintain
ST. AUGUSTINE & ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
 Happiness as a union with God
 Achieving unity with the Divine, and
man’s eventual union with God is the
epitome of happiness
GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE
 Utilitarianism proposes a view on
happiness based on this
 Person’s actions are considered
moral or desirable when they
produce the greatest happiness for
other people
WHOLE LIFE SATISFACTION
 Person is able to evaluate his or her
life experiences and determine his or
her level of satisfaction with how he
or she has lived life
WLADYSLAW TATARKIEWICZ
 Happiness as “satisfaction with one’s
life as a whole”
RICHARD BRANDT
 Person’s happiness based on a total
life pattern- a person should not only
be satisfied with thhe life he or she
has lived, but must also feel constant
joy and enthusiasm in life
WAYNE SUMNER
 Happiness in two ways:
1. Cognitive perspective- one must able
to look back at past experiences and
have positive evaluation of his or her
condition
2. Emotional or affective side-
happiness is brought about by a
sense of well being in having lived a
life that is enriching and rewarding
3 DISTINCT ELEMENTS OF HAPPINESS
1.Contentment- satisfaction with one’s life
2.Welfare- satisfaction of a person’s wants
and desires plus basic needs
3. Dignity- ability to control and define
one’s own destiny, and the freedom to live a
life of one’s choosing
PSYCHOLOGISTS
 Happiness as a balance between a
person’s emotions, moods,& feelings
 Combination of physical, emotional,
psychological happiness
ECONOMISTS
 Use socioeconomic data to define
happiness and well-being in
numerical terms, giving rise to
various statistics such as the Gross
National Happiness Index & Gross
National Well-Being Index
 Factors such as: sustainable
development, promotion of cultural
values, preservation of the
environment, good governance
 2011, UN recognized happiness as “a
fundamental human goal and
universal aspiration”
 World Happiness report since 2012
ETHICS
 Significant role in discussing
happiness &the means to achieve it
ARISTOTLE
 Set worthwhile goals, determine role
in society
 Devote himself or herself to public
service and contribute to the good of
society
 Goal that will lead to true happiness
is the pursuit of knowledge
EPICUREANS
 Happiness is possible if one enjoys
the simple pleasures of life and
commits to a life of virtue
ST. AUGUSTINE
 Happiness can be found in the
afterlife when the spirit reunites with
God
JEREMY BENTHAM
 Happiness is achieved through wise
decision-making
IMMANUEL KANT
 Achieving happiness is impossible
because of the ever-changing nature
of man’s desires.
SUFFERING
 Mild, moderate, severe
 Experience of unpleasantness,
discomfort, and pain
 Threats to human existence or the
lack of pleasure or happiness
 Can also be caused by conflict
between “perfect world” and actual
state of world leading to anxiety,
uncertainty and dread
 Physical Suffering
 Physical sensations,
discomfort, hunger, distress,
pain caused by injury, disease
and the lack of basic needs
 Mental Suffering
 Emotional and mental states
depression, anxiety, fear,
loneliness and grief caused
by sudden changes in
lifestyle, loss of employment,
stressful situations, and grief
caused by death of loved one
WELTSCHMERZ
 Man’s realization that the
world can never live up to the
ideal “perfect world” leading
to feelings of sadness or
apathy
ANGST
 Fear and anxiety
 Relate this feeling to
“existential dread”- crisis
brought when a person begins
to question his or her purpose
and reason for being
ENNUI
 Feeling of weariness and discontent
brought by a lack of interest or
intense boredom with the world
TWO MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
1. Suffering as an undesirable human
condition, and that humans naturally
seek pleasure and avoid pain
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER
“proposed a view of world controlled by
chaotic forces that bring about human
suffering”
 German Philosopher, best known for
his 1818 work the “World as Will &
Representation”
 Developed an atheistic metaphysical
& ethical system that has been
described as an exemplary
manifestation of philosophical
pessimism
 “pessimistic view” – human
existence is characterized by
suffering caused by man’s inability
to meet his unlimited wants&desires
2. Suffering is necessary to human
existence. Suffering is essential
 because it defines human existence,  STOICS- one must face difficulties
to grow, for u to become stronger in life with fortitude and patience
 NIETZSCHE- human suffering
FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
emphasize individual’s roles in
“suffering is inevitable, and that man is making sense of adversity, a person
meant to suffer” should face his or her suffering and
take responsibility for it
 German Philosopher whose work has
exerted a profound influence on HUMANITARIANISM
Western Philosophy and Modern
 Purpose of a person’s existence is to
Intellectual history
make other people happy
 Certain forms of suffering can be
beneficial and can result in personal SOCIAL SUPPORT/GROUPS
growth and development, test of a
 Family
person’s worth
 Peer group
GEORGE SEFLER  Religious groups
 Suffering as one of many interrelated
elements that define the meaning of
experiences throughout life
 Suffering and happiness go hand-in-
hand in defining a person’s views on
his life’s experiences
 Balance between positive and
negative experiences will result in a
well-adjusted, functional person
THEODICY
 Philosophical branch which tries to
reconcile the existence of a
benevolent, all-good God with the
reality of suffering in the world
COPING
 Means that a person employs in
dealing with difficult life situations,
and involves a conscious effort to
solve personal and interpersonal
problems
 EPICUREANS- suffering can be
avoided by seeking only the
pleasurable things in life and
avoiding those that cause harm or
pain
DEATH
 End of all biological functions that
sustain a living organism
 Causes: aging, injury, fatal injury
 “brain death” – ceasing of all brain
functions, clinically dead
 Natural occurrence
AGING OR SENESCENCE
 gradual decline of the human body
 decline of the senses- sight and
hearing, gradual loss of vitality and
mobility, mental decline, increased
frailty and susceptibility to injury or
disease
REINCARNATION
 belief that a person’s spirit begins a
new life in another body
ETERNAL OBLIVION
 belief that the person’s
consciousness is completely erased
upon death, wala ng senses but still
has unconscious mind
*first & last sense- hearing
CEREMONIES & COMMEMORATION
 All Souls Day
 Chinese Ghost Festival
 Mexican Day of the Dead
PHILIPPINE SOCIETY
 Wake- opportunity to come together
in memory of the deceased
 Abuloy- voluntary contributions for
the family of the deceased
 Funeral procession- important
practice, adopt a respectful and
somber attitude as the procession
passes
DUALIST PERSPECTIVE
 Mind and spirit, being incorporeal,
persists after the body’s demise, his
spirit endures after death
AFTERLIFE
 Believed that the spirit of the dead
survives and continues to persist
NEAR DEATH EXPERIENCE
 People who were close to death
reported experiences of an afterlife
 “out-of-body experience”- person
views his or her body or the events
surrounding his or her apparent death
from a distance
ETERNAL OBLIVION
 Opposite view to the belief in
afterlife
 Belief that death totally extinguishes
the consciousness of the person
 Denies the existence of a
noncorporeal, immortal aspect in
man, and considers death as the end
of a person’s existence
MORTALITY SALIENCE
 Man’s awareness of the inevitability
of death
MARTIN HEIDEGGER
(German Philosopher)
 He believes that man is being
oriented towards death (being-
toward-death)
 Human existence is fundamentally
defined by the awareness of one’s
impending death
 Fulfillment of existence, acceptance
of one’s morality ->sense of freedom
 “every man is a born men and dies as
a single one”
LUDWIG JOSEPH JOHAN WITTGENSTEIN
(Austrian)
 Death is a phenomenon that is
outside of human experience, we do
not live to experience death
 “where one cannot speak, thereof
one must be silent”
KARL JASPERS
(German-Swiss Psychiatrist & Philosopher)
 Death as the most significant “limit
situation”
 one should have the capacity to alter
his or her perspectives and ideas to
be able to live with the fact that he or
she is destined to die
 “what is meaningful cannot in fact be
isolated”
ERIK ERIKSON
(Psychologist)
 Defines death as an important aspect
in the development of man
 “Doubt is the brother of shame”
EGO INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR
 Last stage of our lives,
 Ego Integrity- a person achieving
his or her life’s purpose or having
come to terms with his or her life
 Despair- person views his or her life
as a failure or his or her life
experiences as generally
unsatisfactory
 Wisdom- view of life undaunted by
death
CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE
 Death in the context of man’s
spiritual nature
 Death entails destruction of the
physical body, as man is created
from dust and in death, he returns to
dust (General 3:19)
 Man’s Spirituality- defines his
existence as it is the person’s
ultimate destiny to live on in eternity
as a spirit united with God
THEISTIC VIEW
 Meaning of life as a part of a larger
plan devised by God
GRIEF
 Natural reaction to death and dying
 Involves multitude of emotions such
as sadness, anxiety, anger, and guilt
 May also be brought by forms of loss
BEREAVEMENT
 State of loss brought by death
MOURNING
 Process by which persons deal with
death
FIVE STAGES OF GRIEF
(Elisabeth Kubler-Ross)
 DENIAL- dying person initially
expresses disbelief
- often refuse to believe the news
at first
 ANGER- person expresses
frustration with his or her situation,
- their situation is “unfair” often
thinking that the deceased did not
deserve such fate
 BARGAINING- dying person is
willing to do anything to survive and
to prolong his or he life,
- things will improve if they
behave in a certain way or make
changes in their lives
 DEPRESSION- intense sadness and
exhibits disinterest in life and its
normal routines,
 - Person may become withdrawn,
sullen and express hopelessness
- Experience certain emotional or
mental problems
 ACCEPTANCE- last emotional
stage, person finally comes to terms
with his or her impending death and
has embraced his or her morality
- calm & emotionally stable,
source of emotional support for
their grieving family members
FOUR TRAJECTORIES OF GRIEF
(George Bonnano)
 RESILIENCE- emotionally stable
despite the loss, continue with
normal activities
- Most ideal emotional course
when experiencing grief
 RECOVERY- person experiences a
period of grief, eventually gives way
to recovery and a return to normalcy
 CHRONIC DEPRESSION-
continues long after the death or
traumatic experience has passed,
- may persist for several years
often needs counseling & support
*Acute Depression- sudden
 DELAYED GRIEF- well-adjusted
but experiences feelings of grief,
anxiety, and distress at a later time