Billie Call Christian Institute

First Marking Period Notes

Grade 11 Chemistry
Water, Solutions, and Solubility
1.0 Water

1.1 Introduction

What is so special about water? It has no color, no taste and no smell. It is one of the simplest
chemical substances, made of just three atoms. It appears to be everywhere — in clouds, oceans, ice
and steam. Water seems common, but you might be surprised to know just how uncommon it really
is. As far as we know, Earth is the only planet in our solar system where water exists as a liquid. No
living thing — plant or animal — can survive without it.

Life depends on water. Water is by far the most abundant substance in plant and animal tissue as
well as the world around us. It accounts for about 70% of the human body and is higher in many
growing plants. Over 80% of the earth surface is covered by water. Water is not only used all over
the world in large quantities for drinking purposes, but it is used in even greater quantities for
washing, bleaching, dyeing, cooking, raising steam to drive engine or turbine to generate electricity
and as a solvent in industrial processes.

Sources of water

There are two kinds of natural sources of water, they are

I. Surface water
II. Subsurface/underground water

1. Surface water is the water present on the surface of the earth. It is of three types on the basis of
its purity.
a. Rainwater is the purest form of natural water. However while coming down through the air, rain
collects dust particle, germs, and bacteria and some gases like carbon dioxide.
b. River and lake water comes from rain and melting of snow on the mountains. River water is the
main source of both drinking and irrigation. River and lake water contain both soluble and
insoluble impurities such as minerals, dead animal matters, town wastes, and other impurities.
They also contain disease carrying germs which may cause dysentery, typhoid, and jaundice.
They need to be purified before they are used for drinking.
c. Seawater: Streams and rivers finally flow into the sea and therefore they are the largest
reservoirs of natural water. Salt water is salty due to the presence of salts. Seawater is of little
use in the industry and is unfit for irrigation.
2. Underground water: Some part of rainwater goes into the earth and accumulates in hard
rock as a reservoir. This reservoir of water in hard rock below the earth’s surface is called
underground water or subsurface water. Underground water is free from suspended
impurities. It may contain soluble salts. There are mainly two types of underground water.
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 3. They are
i. Well water
ii. Spring water
a. Well water: When the earth’ surface is dug deep, water reservoirs are found. Such a
reservoir of water is called a well. The depth of a well varies from place to place. Well water
contains soluble impurities. The water of a deep well is purer than that of a shallow well.
Sewage impurities may mix in a shallow well.

b. Spring water: In hilly areas of our country, underground water comes from some springs
have definite color and taste. Water from springs may have medicinal values. Some spring
water may contain sulfur and other minerals that cure skin diseases.

Types of water

There are two types of water. They are natural water and treated water.

1. Natural water: Rainwater, spring water, well water, river water and seawater are all natural water.
Rainwater is the purest source of natural water because it is formed as a result of water vapor
through the atmosphere. Spring water contains a considerable amount of mineral salts, but very
little suspended impurities such as dusts and bacteria. It is a good source of drinking water.

Well water contains a lot of clay and other mineral salts. A well that is used as a source of drinking
water should be sited away from sources of underground water pollution, lined with bricks and
covered. Water from deep wells tend to be less polluted that that of surface wells. River water, lake
water, and seawater contain a lot of dissolved air, mineral salts, bacteria, and organic remains.
These waters have to be specially purified before they can be used for drinking.
2. Treated water: Treated water is usually prepared for special purposes. Examples of treated water
are distilled water, pipe-borne water, and chlorinated water.
Physical Properties of water
1. Pure water is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and transparent.
2. It has a boiling point 100o C and a freezing point of 0o C.
3. It has a maximum density of 1 g/cm3 at 4o C.
4. It is neutral to litmus paper.
Chemical Properties of water
1. Reaction with metal: Water reacts with metals to a degree varying with their position in the
electrochemical series. They react with metal to form metal oxide or hydroxide and liberate
hydrogen.
2. Reaction with nonmetals: Nonmetals like carbon, chlorine, and silicon also with water.
3. Reaction with oxides: Oxides of alkaline metals readily form strong alkalis or hydroxides
with water.

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 Hardness of water

Water which produces lather with difficulty is known as hard water and which produces lather
readily with soap is known as soft water.
In short, hardness of water is defined as soap destroying power of water. Hardness of water is due to
the presence of soluble salts i.e. bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Since
all these are soluble salts so they remain dissolved in water and are not removed by filtration.

The advantages of hard water are

1) Most people agree that it tastes better.

2) It is thought to reduce the number of heart illnesses.

3) It provides useful calcium ions for the healthy growth

of bones and teeth.

4) The formation of lime scale in pipes (see below) causes

the inside of the pipe to be covered with insoluble carbonates.
This layer of carbonate prevents the water in the pipe
from coming into contact with the metal of the pipe
and so prevents pipe corrosion and prevents poisonous metal salts becoming dissolved in the water.

Disadvantages of Hardness of Water:

(i) There is wastage of soap and detergents.
(ii) It is unsuitable for cooking certain vegetables, dal and meat. They take very long time to cook in
hard water.
(iii) With hard water clothes are not cleaned properly and they do not have a long life.
(iv) Temporary hard water on boiling leads to deposit of a layer of calcium carbonate on inside walls
of boilers and kettles which is known as scaling or furring of boilers.
This layer interferes with smooth action of boilers resulting in loss of their efficiency. Sometimes
scaling of boilers may lead to bursting of boilers resulting in serious accidents and deaths.
(v) It is harmful for industrial purposes and also shortens the life of pipes and fixtures in the
industries.
(vi) It is harmful to the health as in certain cases it may lead to diarrhea and other digestive disorders.
Types of Hardness of Water:
Hardness of water is of two types:
(a) Temporary hardness.
(b) Permanent hardness.
(a) Temporary Hardness:
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
(i) It can be removed by boiling. On boiling the carbon dioxide is expelled out of water and
precipitates of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are deposited at the bottom.

Boiling is an expensive method of removing hardness of water on a large scale.

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(ii) Temporary hardness can also be removed by adding lime or calcium hydroxide (Clark’s process)
to water. Lime absorbs carbon dioxide and precipitates of calcium carbonate are formed which settle
at the bottom and separated by filtration.
Ca (HC03)2 + Ca (OH)2 — 2CaC03 + 2H20.
(b) Permanent Hardness:
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of chlorides and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. It is
not removed by boiling.
Removal of permanent hardness
Permanent hardness can be removed by following methods:
1. Addition of washing soda: When sodium carbonate or soda ash is added to water, it removes
both temporary and permanent hardness of water. The sulfate of calcium and magnesium is
converted into sodium sulfate.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + CaCo3
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 →Na2SO4 + MgCo3

2. Addition of caustic soda: The caustic soda removes the calcium and magnesium ions from
water as insoluble calcium and magnesium hydroxides respectively.
CaSO4 +2NaOH→Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4
MgSO4 +2NaOH→Mg(OH)2 + Na2SO4
3. Base Exchange or Permutit Process: This process is used for removal of hardness of water
on large scale. Sodium permutit is a loose compound of sodium, aluminum and silica. When
hard water is passed through it the calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged with sodium
ions thus hardness is removed. Therefore this process is also called ―base exchange process‖.
With continuous use the sodium ions in the permuted get exhausted and become unfit for
further removal of hardness of water. Therefore at this stage it is regenerated by adding strong
solution of sodium chloride whereby calcium and magnesium is displaced by sodium and it
again becomes sodium permuted fit to remove the hardness of water.

Solutions
A solution is defined as a homogenous mixture which mainly comprises of two components namely
solute and solvent. For example, salt and sugar is a good illustration of a solution. A solution can be
categorized into several components.

On the basis of physical states of solvent and solute can be categorized as solid, liquid and gaseous
solutions.

Types of Solutions
In solid solutions, solute and solvent are in the solid-state. For example ceramics, and polymer blends.
In liquid solutions, solid, gas or liquid is mixed in a liquid state. Gaseous solutions are usually

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homogenous mixtures of gases like air. Depending upon a number of solutions and solute, it can be
classified into dilute and concentrated solutions.
Types of Solutions
Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized into
supersaturated, unsaturated and saturated solutions.
 A supersaturated solution comprises of a large amount of solute at a temperature wherein it
will be reduced as a result the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
 An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving any more
solute at a given temperature.
 A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of dissolving
any more solute at a given temperature.
Mixtures
A mixture is composed of two or more substance but they are not chemically combined. In contrast,
the compound contains various elements which are bonded to each other. For instance, consider a
mixture of salt that is when salt is dissolved in water it is a mixture but ideally, salts consist of two
components namely sodium and chlorine.
Here Sodium and Chlorine are bonded together with the electrostatic force of attraction to
form sodium chloride even though there is no chemical bond between water and salt in the mixture.
Hence matter can be classified as mixtures, compounds, and elements. Further mixtures can be
classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogenous and Heterogeneous Solutions
Homogeneous solutions are solutions with uniform composition and properties throughout the
solution. For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a solution of salt or sugar in water etc.
Heterogeneous solutions are solutions with non-uniform composition and properties throughout the
solution. A solution of oil and water, water and chalk powder and solution of water and sand etc.
Examples

Aerated drinks, Salt-water or Sugar water mixtures, fruit juices are some of the examples for
solutions. Some solutions are heterogeneous in nature and they are termed as suspension.
Such suspended particles can be seen quite clearly in the solution. Hence when light is passed through
such solutions, it scatters in different directions. Medicated syrups are one of the finest examples for
this.

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 Measuring Concentration
Molarity, molality, and normality are all units of concentration in chemistry. Molarity (M) is defined as the
number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent. Normality (N) is defined as the number of equivalents per liter of solution. Molality, as
compared to molarity, is also more convenient to use in experiments with significant temperature changes.
This is because the volume of a solution increases with temperature, and heating causes molarity to
decrease; however, since molality is based on masses rather than volumes, molality remains unchanged.

Molarity(M) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of a solution and the unit for molarity is
moles/L.
M = moles of solute/liters of solution
(Note: If you are given volume in mL or some other volume unit, you need to convert it to liters.)

Molality( m ) is the number of moles per kilogram of solvent. It is determined by dividing the number of
moles (n) of the solute by the mass of the solvent in kg.
m = moles of solute/mass of solvent in kg
Practice Problems
1. What mass of solute is needed to prepare each of the following solutions?

a. 1.00 L of 0.125 M K2SO4 21.8 g K2SO4

b. 375 mL of 0.015 M NaF 0.24 g NaF

c. 500 mL of 0.350 M C6H12O6 31.5 g C6H12O6

2. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions:

a. 12.4 g KCl in 289.2 mL solution 0.576 M KCl

b. 16.4 g CaCl2 in 0.614 L solution 0.241 M CaCl2

c. 48.0 mL of 6.00 M H2SO4 diluted to 0.250 L 1.15 M H2SO4

3. Calculate the molality of each of the following solutions:

a. 2.89 g of NaCl dissolved in 0.159 L of water (density of water is 1.00 g/mL) 0.311 molal NaCl

b. 1.80 mol KCl in 16.0 mol of H2O 6.25 molal KCl

c. 13.0 g benzene, C6H6 in 17.0 g CCl4 9.80 molal C6H6

4. Calculate the mole fractions of each compound in each of the following solutions:

a. 19.4 g of H2SO4 in 0.251 L of H2O (density of water is 1.00 g/mL) H2SO4: 0.0143, H2O: 0.986

b. 35.7 g of KBr in 16.2 g of water KBr: 0.250, H2O: 0.750

c. 233 g of CO2 in 0.409 L of water (density of water is 1.00 g/mL) CO2: 0.189, H2O: 0.811

5. Calculate the mole fraction, molarity and molality of NH3 if it is in a solution composed of 30.6 g NH3 in
81.3 g of H2O. The density of the solution is 0.982 g/mL and the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
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 Molarity: 15.8 M NH3, molality: 22.1 molal NH3, mole fraction(NH3): 0.285
6. Calculate the molalities of the following aqueous solutions:

a. 0.840 M sugar (C12H22O11) solution (density= 1.12 g/mL) 1.01 molal C12H22O11

b. 4.91 M NaOH solution (density = 1.04 g/mL) 5.82 molal NaOH

c. 0.79 M NaHCO3 solution (density = 1.19 g/mL) 0.703 molal NaHCO3

7. A patient has a cholesterol count of 206 mg/dL. What is the molarity of cholesterol in this patient’s blood if
the molecular mass of cholesterol is 386.64 g/mol? (1 L = 10 dL)

5.33 x 10-3 M cholesterol

8. Concentrated phosphoric acid is 90% H3PO4 by mass and the remaining mass is water. The molarity of
H3PO4 in 90% H3PO4 is 12.2 M at room temperature.

a. What is the density of this solution at room temperature? 1.33 g/mL

b. What volume (in mL) of this solution is needed to make a 1.00 L solution of a 1.00 M phosphoric
acid? 82.0 mL

Solubility
The solubility of a solute is: the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a certain
amount of solvent or solution at a certain temperature.

MAIN FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY:

Nature of the solute and solvent – The amount of solute that dissolves depends on what
type of solute it is. While only 1 gram of lead (II) chloride can be dissolved in 100 grams
of water at room temperature, 200 grams of zinc chloride can be dissolved. This means
that a greater amount of zinc chloride can be dissolved in the same amount of water than
lead II chloride.
Temperature -- Generally, an increase in the temperature of the solution increases the solubility
of a solid solute. For example, a greater amount of sugar will dissolve in warm water than in cold
water. A few solid solutes, however, are less soluble in warmer solutions. For all gases, solubility
decreases as the temperature of the solution rises. An example of this is Soda. The solubility of
the carbon dioxide gas decreases when a soda is warm, making the soda flat.

Pressure -- For solid and liquid solutes, changes in pressure have practically no effect on
solubility. For gaseous solutes, an increase in pressure increases solubility and a decrease in
pressure decrease solubility. Example: When the cap on a bottle of soda pop is removed, pressure
is released, and the gaseous solute bubbles out of solution. This escape of a gas from solution is
called effervescence.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF SOLUTION:
The rate of solution is: a measure of how fast a substance dissolves.
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Size of the particles -- When a solute dissolves, the action takes place only at the surface of each
particle. When the total surface area of the solute particles is increased, the solute dissolves more
rapidly. Breaking a solute into smaller pieces increases its surface area and increases its rate of solution.
Stirring -- With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings fresh portions of the solvent in contact
with the solute. Stirring, therefore, allows the solute to dissolve faster.

Amount of solute already dissolved – When you have very little solute in the solution, dissolving
takes place quickly. When you have a lot of solute in the solution, dissolving takes place more
slowly.
temperature -- For liquids and solid solutes, increasing the temperature not only increases the
amount of solute that will dissolve but also increases the rate at which the solute will dissolve. For
gases, the reverse is true. An increase in temperature decreases both solubility and rate of solution.