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MICHOACAN A.C.
PSYCHOLOGY
Teacher: Pola
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health,
the central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The
peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of
neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the central nervous
system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or
voluntary, component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The
autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood
pressure and the rate of breathing, that work without conscious effort, according
to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves that connect the brain
and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.
Nerves
Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and
branch out to every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan
Medical School.
Neurons
Send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals
known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the NIH
noted. There are over 100 trillion neural connections in the average human brain,
though the number and location can vary. For example, a new study published
January 2018 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
found that out of the 160 participants studied, the brains of highly creative people
have more connections among three specific regions of the brain than less creative
thinkers.
A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication process
typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond. Signals travel along an alpha motor
neuron in the spinal cord 268 mph (431 km/h); the fastest transmission in the
human body, according to Discover magazine.
Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send
feedback to the central nervous system about the body's surrounding environment,
according to the American Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in
the central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, transmit signals to activate the
muscles or glands.
Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that
support, protect or nourish nerve cells, according to the Oregon
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is protected by the skull
(the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels from the back of the brain, down the
center of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region of the lower back.
The brain and spinal cord are both housed within a protective triple-layered
membrane called the meninges.
The central nervous system has been thoroughly studied by anatomists and
physiologists, but it still holds many secrets; it controls our thoughts, movements,
emotions, and desires. It also controls our breathing, heart rate, the release of
some hormones, body temperature, and much more.
The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves, and olfactory epithelium are sometimes
considered to be part of the CNS alongside the brain and spinal cord. This is
because they connect directly with brain tissue without intermediate nerve fibers.
Below, we will look at some of the parts of the CNS in more detail, starting with the
brain.
THE BRAIN
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the
outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an estimated
15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of other neurons.
In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up
the human brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body's total energy. The
brain is the central control module of the body and coordinates activity. From
physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of memories, and the
sensation of emotion.To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have
dedicated roles. However, many higher functions — reasoning, problem-solving,
creativity — involve different areas working together in networks.The brain is
roughly split into four lobes:
The spinal cord carries information from the brain to the rest of the body. The
spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information between
the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks. From the brainstem, where the
spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves enter the cord .Along its length, it
connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that run in from
the skin, muscles, and joints. Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine
to the muscles and sensory information travels from the sensory tissues — such as
the skin — toward the spinal cord and finally up to the brain. The spinal cord
contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses, such as the involuntary
movement your arm might make if your finger was to touch a flame. The circuits
within the spine can also generate more complex movements such as walking.
Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can coordinate all of the
muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a cat is separated from its
spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it will start spontaneously
walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is only required to stop and start the
process, or make changes if, for instance, an object appears in your path.
Both types of tissue contain glial cells, which protect and support neurons. White
matter mostly consists of axons (nerve projections) and oligodendrocytes — a type
of glial cell — whereas gray matter consists predominantly of neurons.
CENTRAL GLIAL CELLS
Also called neuroglia, glial cells are often called support cells for neurons. In the
brain, they outnumber nerve cells 10 to 1. Without glial cells, developing nerves
often lose their way and struggle to form functioning synapses. Glial cells are found
in both the CNS and PNS but each system has different types. The following are
brief descriptions of the CNS glial cell types:
Astrocytes: these cells have numerous projections and anchor neurons to their
blood supply. They also regulate the local environment by removing excess ions
and recycling neurotransmitters.
Oligodendrocytes: responsible for creating the myelin sheath — this thin layer
coats nerve cells, allowing them to send signals quickly and efficiently.
Ependymal cells: lining the spinal cord and the brain's ventricles (fluid-filled
spaces), these create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and keep it circulating
using their whip-like cilia.
Radial glia: act as scaffolding for new nerve cells during the creation of the
embryo's nervous system.
CRANIAL NERVES
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and pass
through holes in the skull rather than traveling along the spinal cord. These nerves
collect and send information between the brain and parts of the body – mostly the
neck and head. Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and optic nerves arise from the
forebrain and are considered part of the central nervous system:
Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I): transmit information about odors from the
upper section of the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the base of the brain.
Optic nerves (cranial nerve II): carry visual information from the retina to the
primary visual nuclei of the brain. Each optic nerve consists of around 1.7 million
nerve fibers.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
DEFINITION
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all neurons that exist outside the
brain and spinal cord. This includes long nerve fibers containing bundles of axons
as well as ganglia made of neural cell bodies. The peripheral nervous system
connects the central nervous system (CNS) made of the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body and receives input from the external environment as well.
Functionally, the PNS is divided into sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerves,
depending on whether they bring information to the CNS from sensory receptors or
carry instructions towards muscles, organs or other effectors. Motor nerves can be
further classified as somatic or autonomic nerves, depending on whether the motor
activity is under voluntary conscious control.
Anatomically, the PNS can be divided into spinal and cranial nerves, depending on
whether they emerge from the spinal cord or the brain and brainstem. Both cranial
and spinal nerves can have sensory, motor or mixed functions. The enteric
nervous system, surrounding the gastrointestinal tract is another important part of
the peripheral nervous system. While it receives signals from the autonomic
nervous system, it can function independently as well and contains nearly five
times as many neurons as the spinal cord.
Thus, the PNS regulates internal homeostasis through the autonomic nervous
system, modulating respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion reproduction
and immune responses. It can increase or decrease the strength of muscle
contractility across the body, whether it is sphincters in the digestive and excretory
systems, cardiac muscles in the heart or skeletal muscles for movement. It is
necessary for all voluntary action, balance and maintenance of posture and for the
release of secretions from most exocrine glands. The PNS innervates the muscles
surrounding sense organs, so it is involved in chewing, swallowing, biting and
speaking. At the same time, it mediates the response of the body to noxious
stimuli, quickly removing the body from the injurious stimulus, whether it is
extremes in temperature, pH, or pressure, as well as stretching and compressing
forces.
Neurotransmitter Signaling
Types of Neurotransmitters
Adrenaline
Adrenaline is primarily a hormone released by
the adrenal gland, but some neurons may
secrete it as a neurotransmitter
It increases heart rate and blood flow, leading to
a physical boost and heightened awareness
It is produced during stressful or exciting
situations
Noradrenaline
In contrast to adrenaline, noradrenaline is
predominantly a neurotransmitter that is
occasionally released as a hormone
It contracts blood vessels and increases blood
flow, improving attention and the speed at which
responsive actions occur
Dopamine
It is primarily responsible for feelings of
pleasure, but is also involved in movement and
motivation
People tend to repeat behaviours that lead to
dopamine release, leading to addictions
Abnormal dopamine secretion is common in
specific movement disorders, like Parkinson’s
disease
Serotonin
Contributes to feelings of well-being and
happiness
Is affected by exercise and light exposure, and
plays a role in the sleep cycle and digestive
system regulation
GABA
Inhibits neuron firing in the CNS – high levels
improve focus whereas low levels cause anxiety
Also contributes to motor control and vision
Acetylcholine
Involved in thought, learning and memory within
the brain
Activates muscle contraction in the body and is
also associated with attention and awakening
Glutamate
Most common brain neurotransmitter
Regulates development and creation of new
nerve pathways and hence is involved in
learning and memory
Endorphins
Release is associated with feelings of euphoria
and a reduction in pain (body’s natural 'pain
killers’)
Released during exercise, excitement and sex
LIMBIC SYSTEM
Emotion in the Brain
The major brain regions that support emotional processing include the limbic
prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), nucleus accumbens, and insula.
Technical note: there are two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain; the
same for the two amygdalae, ACCs, and insulae. Following common practice, we’ll
By the way, as an interesting evolutionary detail, the limbic system seems to have
evolved from the olfactory (scent) neural circuitry in the brain developed by our
ancient mammal ancestors, living around 180 million years ago. They seem to
have used their advanced sense of smell to hunt at night, while those cold-blooded
The conscious experience of emotion is just the top story – the penthouse floor –
resting on many layers of neurological activity, both the firing of very complex and
intertwining neural circuits and the tidal flows of neurotransmitters and hormones
• Hippocampus – This vaguely sea-horse shaped region helps store the contexts,
predator . . . or the look of an angry parent. This region is necessary for forming
stress).
from the feeling tone of experience when it is unpleasant (distinct from pleasant or
deadline – the amygdala sends a jolt of alarm to the hypothalamus and other brain
regions. It also triggers the ventral tegmentum, in the brain stem, to send dopamine
to the nucleus accumbens (and other brain regions) in order to sensitize them all to
the “red alert” information now streaming through the brain as a whole.
regulation of basic bodily drives such as thirst and hunger. When it gets a “Yikes!”
signal from the amygdala, it tells the pituitary gland to tell the adrenals to start
release epinephrine and other stress hormones, to get the body ready for
immediate fight-or-flight action. But keep in mind that this activation occurs not just
when a lion jumps out of the bushes, but chronically, in rush-hour traffic and multi-
tasking, and in response to internal mental events such as pain or anger. (For
more on the stress response – and what you can do about it – see the Wise Brain
• Prefrontal cortex (PFC) – If you whack your self on the forehead, the mini-shock
waves reverberate through the PFC, which is “pre” because it is in front of the
frontal cortex. The PFC is centrally involved in anticipating things, making plans,
between different goals: these are called the “executive functions,” and if the brain
Where emotion is concerned, the PFC helps foresee the emotional rewards (or
penalties) of different courses of action. The PFC also inhibits emotional reactions;
many more nerve fibers head down from the PFC to the limbic circuitry than in the
other direction. The left PFC plays a special role in controlling negative affect and
aggression: stroke victims whose left PFC is damaged tend to become more
irritable, distraught, and hostile (the same happened for the unfortunate and
famous Phineas Gage, the engineer who suffered an iron bar through his forehead
in a mining explosion). On the other hand, differential activation of the left PFC is
• Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) – This sits in the middle of the brain, centrally
located for communication with the PFC and the limbic system. It monitors conflicts
between different objects of attention – Should I notice the bananas in this tree or
that snake slithering toward me? Should I listen to my partner or focus on this TV
show? – and flags those for resolution by the frontal lobes. Therefore, it lights up
feelings – inside ourselves and other people – in the face of competing stimuli
(e.g., trying to get a sense for what’s really bugging a family member underneath a
– the accumbens receives a major wake-up call of dopamine from the tegmentum,
which sensitizes it to information coming from the amygdala and other regions.
Consequently, the accumbens sends more intense signals to the pallidum, a relay
station for the motor systems, which results in heightened behavioral activity. This
system works for both negative and positive feelings. For example, the accumbens
lights up when a person with an addiction sees the object of his or her craving.
• Insula – Deeply involved in interoception – the sensing of the internal state of the
body (e.g., gut feelings, internal sensations of breathing, nausea) – the insula lets
you know about the deeper layers of your emotional life. And it is key to sensing
Sensory Receptors
Stimuli in the environment activate specialized receptor cells in the peripheral
nervous system. Different types of stimuli are sensed by different types of receptor
cells. Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different
criteria: cell type, position, and function. Receptors can be classified structurally on
the basis of cell type and their position in relation to stimuli they sense. They can
also be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how
the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential.
Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they
transduce. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets
chemical stimuli, such as an object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors respond to
solute concentrations of body fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a chemical sense
that interprets the presence of chemicals from tissue damage, or similar intense
stimuli, through a nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as
well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through
a mechanoreceptor. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is
temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to
temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature.
Sensory Modalities
Ask anyone what the senses are, and they are likely to list the five major senses—
taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight. However, these are not all of the senses.
The most obvious omission from this list is balance. Also, what is referred to simply
as touch can be further subdivided into pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-follicle
position, on the basis of the type of mechanoreceptors that perceive these touch
sensations. Other overlooked senses include temperature perception by
thermoreceptors and pain perception by nociceptors.
Listing all the different sensory modalities, which can number as many as 17,
involves separating the five major senses into more specific categories,
or submodalities, of the larger sense. An individual sensory modality represents
the sensation of a specific type of stimulus. For example, the general sense of
touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure,
deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement.
Gustation (Taste)
Olfaction (Smell)
Audition (Hearing)
Equilibrium (Balance
)Somatosensation (Touch)
Vision
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does continuously. They
are procedures in charge of processing all the information we receive from the
environment. Thanks to these cognitive processes, cognition exists and it allows us
to explore the world.
In the 60’s, a new psychological perspective emerged that lead to the cognitive
revolution and the study of cognitive processes. Mental processes in psychology
are now thoroughly investigated. They are now even applied not only to explain
disorders but to areas such as marketing and sales.
Attention
Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are capable of
centering our attention on the stimuli that interest us. Some actions such as
walking and chewing require little attention. Nonetheless, other activities such as
speaking and body language require focus, especially when we are giving a
lecture.
Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves
towards relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it.
There are different types of attention including arousal, focused attention,
sustained attention, selective attention, alternating attention, and divided attention.
Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we have to repeat
several times a day, making it easier to focus on other tasks. For example, at
first learning to driveand focus on all the things one must do is difficult but after a
while, it is done naturally and without thinking.
Memory
What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary school? How
do you play the guitar? Our memory has the answers to these questions and much
more. It allows us to encode the data we receive from the environment, consolidate
and retrieve it later.
We have different types of memory; sensory memory, short-term memory, working
memory, semantic memory, etc. All these types of memories interact together but
they don’t all depend on the same brain areas. An example of this is people with
amnesia still remember how to walk but can’t remember their partner’s name.
Cognitive processes such as memory are essential for daily life. Memory, as a
cognitive process, includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the
mechanism where information is changed from the moment it reaches us to a form
that our brain can store. Storage refers to how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is
held. Finally, retrieval refers to getting information out storage.
Language
Astonishingly, we are capable of producing and comprehending different sounds
and words, combine different letters and phrases and expressing with precision
what we want to communicate, even in different languages. We even use our body
language to communicate.
Language development is produced all throughout our lifetime. The communicative
skills of each person vary significantly and can be improved by practice.
Some language disorders especially make it difficult to communicate for different
reasons, although it is also possible to help people with these problems.
Cognitive processes involved in language are fundamental in learning how
to effectively communicate.