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Influence of the filament winding tension on physical and mechanical

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Article  in  Composites Part A Applied Science and Manufacturing · December 2002

DOI: 10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00209-9

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 Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

Influence of the filament winding tension on physical and

mechanical properties of reinforced composites
P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin*
Advanced Composite Materials Engineering Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 4-9 Mechanical Engineering Building, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB T6G 2G8, Canada

Received 25 January 2002; revised 18 October 2002; accepted 23 October 2002

Abstract
In this experimental investigation the influence of the applied tow tension during filament winding on the physical and mechanical
properties of glass-fibre reinforced polymeric composite tubulars, was studied. Pressure retaining tubular products used in the
transportation/storage of fluids are generally subjected to a variety of loading conditions during their service life; thus tubular specimens were
tested under different biaxial loading ratios. The stress/strain response was recorded and functional and structural failure envelopes were
developed. These envelopes indicate the leakage and final failure characteristics of the components, respectively. The mechanical properties
were analysed in conjunction with the measured physical properties: ‘fibre volume fraction’ and ‘effective wall thickness’. Experimental
findings demonstrate that the component strength depends on the degree of fibre tensioning. Under fibre-dominated loading conditions,
higher winding tension leads to an improved resistance against failure of tubular components, whereas under matrix-dominated loading
failure is delayed by reduced fibre tensioning.
q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: E. Filament winding; B. Physical properties; B. Mechanical properties; Fibre-reinforced composites

1. Introduction example, Ref. [2 – 4]. Cohen [5] used the design of

In the composites industry, the process of filament
winding has evolved to be the preferred, and most cost
effective method, for producing pressure retaining struc-
tures from fibre reinforced polymeric (FRP) composites
(e.g. piping and tanks for the transportation/storage of
fluids). Although this method has been in use for an
extended period of time, the effect of processing parameters
has only been investigated to a limited extend. In Ref. [1]
the influence of primary processing parameters (i.e.
parameters that can be selected, monitored and controlled
by the operator; e.g. the tow tension) on secondary
processing parameters (i.e. parameters that are not directly
controllable by the operator, e.g. the winding bandwidth)
has been reported. However, it is often of greater
importance to understand how primary processing par-
ameters affect the quality of a component. Techniques for
predicting physical part properties were reported in, for
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 1-780-492-2009; fax: þ1-780-492-2200.
E-mail address: fernand.ellyin@ualberta.ca (F. Ellyin).
1359-835X/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 8 3 5 X ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 0 9 - 9
experiment method (‘DOE’) to identify the applied tow
tension during winding (winding tension) to be the most
significant manufacturing parameter for the resulting
mechanical part properties. Increasing this parameter
produced a higher fibre volume fraction and, at the same
time, an increased strength of the investigated structures
(i.e. filament wound pressure vessels). In a later publication
Cohen et al. [6] demonstrated a relationship between the
fibre volume fraction in hoop-dominated laminae and the
failure strength of filament wound pressure vessels. Note
that in this specific case the fibre volume fraction was varied
by a resin removal technique (i.e. running the fibres through
an orifice after impregnation) instead of controlling the
winding tension.
The current study is seen as an extension of other
research works concerned with the performance of pres-
surised tubulars (see e.g. [8,9]). However, the preceding
investigations do not include a discussion on the influence
of processing parameters, or they are limited to specialised
cases such as purely hoop-dominated fibre/loading con-
figurations [5,6]. In this paper, results from an experimental
1616 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
study are presented. The focus is to investigate the influence
of the primary processing parameter ‘winding tension’ on
the performance of pressurised tubular components. First,
the effect of tow tensioning on the physical properties ‘fibre
volume fraction’ and ‘effective wall thickness’ are
described. Using a unique tow tensioning system [7],
specimens were produced applying different winding
tensions. In this study an angle-ply lay-up of [^ 6083]T
was chosen, which is typical of pressurised composite
structures such as piping that usually incorporate lay-up
configurations with winding angles between 55 and 708. The
investigation on physical properties was then extended to
the mechanical properties of the components. Structures in
industrial applications are generally subjected to complex
loading states; thus, monotonic tests were conducted
applying several biaxial loading ratios. The experimental
set-up was designed to facilitate testing for functional and
structural failure, i.e. the loss of the fluid containment
capability and the structural integrity. Functional and
structural failure envelopes were developed and analysed
qualitatively, providing an insight into the material
behaviour for a wider range of structures and loading
configurations.
2. Testing program and experimental procedures
2.1. Specimen material system and fabrication method
Tubular specimens were produced by the wet filament
winding method. A four axis, computer controlled winding
system was used for the fabrication. The winding machine
was equipped with a unique numerically controlled
tensioning system that allows for accurate tension control
of each individual tow [7]. Eight tows of an Owens-Corning
E-glass fibre material of 0.735 g/m weight were tensioned,
and guided through a drum-type resin bath. As matrix
material, Resolution Performance’s EPON826/EPI-
CURE9551 two-component resin system was used, which
was kept at a constant temperature of 30 8C in the resin tank.
Wet tows were finally combined to a fibre band while
passing though the pay-out eye of the winding machine and
placed in an helical pattern onto chrome-plated steel
mandrels with a diameter of 38.1 mm. Six layers were
deposited creating a [^ 6083]T interwoven angle-ply lay-up.
Two batches of specimens were produced by applying
uniform tow tension of 26.7 and 44.5 N, respectively.
After completion of the winding sequence, excessive
built-up of liquid resin on the surface of the parts was
removed using a foam brush. Parts were then cured in a two-
stage curing cycle at 80 and 120 8C for 1 and 2.5 h,
respectively, (excluding ramping times of 15 min) and
afterwards allowed to cool down to room temperature.
Finally, mandrels were extracted from the tubulars, and
specimens of a specified length were machined from the
parts.
2.2. Determination of the fibre volume fraction
The fibre volume fraction was determined by a resin
burnout test. Ring samples of 25.4 mm length were taken
from several locations along the length of a tubular. It is
important to point out that the outside surface of these
sections was machined to three-fourth of their individual
average wall thickness, exposing the fibres of the top cover
of the fibre bed. This preparation step was necessary for the
following reason: Excess resin accumulates on the outside
surface during the winding process building a resin cover
that strongly affects a weight-based determination of the
fibre volume fraction. It was found that measurements
without removing the resin cover do not result in an useful
parameter, as only the ‘local’ fibre volume fraction (nf )
within the fibre bed significantly influences mechanical part
properties.
After machining, several sample sections from a single
tubular were subjected to an elevated temperature of 540 8C
for three hours leaving the pure glass fibre bed behind.
Knowing the weight of each section before and after the
burnout procedure, and the densities of the constituents, an
average fibre volume fraction was determined for each
manufactured tubular batch.
2.3. Experimental procedures for the determination
of mechanical properties
Mechanical testing was done under stress control using a
facility for multiaxial loading of tubular specimens [10].
Different biaxial loading ratios (given by the ratio of Hoop
to Axial stress [H:A]) were applied by internal pressuris-
ation and axial loading of the specimens. These ratios were:
[1H:0A], i.e. a pure hoop loading, [3H:1A], i.e. a loading
condition in which—based on netting analysis—the result-
ing stress coincides with the applied fibre direction,
[2H:1A], i.e. an unconstrained loading condition (‘pressure
vessel loading’), and [1H:15A], i.e. an effectively pure axial
loading condition (note that a low internal pressurisation
was necessary to facilitate the investigation of leakage
events).
Tubular specimens were provided with aluminium end
tabs resulting in a 102 mm gauge section. A strain gauge
rosette with a perpendicular grid was aligned in axial and
hoop direction of the tubular and bonded at the mid-length
of the specimen. Hoop and axial stresses (sH and sA ) were
computed according to Eqs. (1) and (2) from the recorded
internal pressure pi and the applied axial load FA. Together
with the hoop and axial strain gauge readings (1H and 1A )
the global stress –strain response was obtained
IDðpi 2 po Þ 2 2spo
sH ¼ ð1Þ
2s
ID2 ðpi 2 po Þ 2 4po sðID þ sÞ FA
sA ¼ þ ð2Þ
4sðID þ sÞ psðID þ sÞ
 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
where s is the effective wall thickness (as defined in Section
3.2), ID the inside diameter and po the atmospheric pressure.
The monotonic stress-strain response under different
loading ratios is only one aspect of describing the
mechanical properties of a pressurised tubular structure.
Of greater interest are the circumstances under which a part
exhibits failure. Two characteristics can be distinguished:
(a) a functional failure event in which the part is no longer
able to contain the fluid and (b) a structural failure event in
which the part loses its load-bearing capability. Both failure
events can either occur simultaneously or as two distinct
events. To facilitate an experimental investigation of the
two at the same time, tubular specimens were equipped with
a bladder system [11]. Hydraulic oil was used to pressurise a
specimen from within a rubber bladder. The fluid filled the
inside of the bladder as well as an annulus between the
bladder and the wall of the tubular. During testing the loss of
hydraulic fluid from the pressure intensifier was measured
and data was normalised according to the compressibility of
the hydraulic fluid and the expansion characteristics of the
specimen and the testing system (e.g. hoses). The event of a
functional failure is indicated by an extra loss of fluid
(defined to be a loss of 1% of the specimen inside volume,
i.e. 2 ml), as leakage occurs through crack openings in the
specimen wall (i.e. matrix cracks). After the fluid in the
annulus has penetrated through the wall, the rubber bladder
acts as a seal enabling continued testing to the point of
structural failure.
A sudden drop of the internal pressure and/or the applied
axial load indicates a structural failure. Strain gauge
readings are not suited for detecting a structural failure, as
effects associated with a functional failure (i.e. matrix
cracking and fluid leakage) impair the gauge bond making
the readings less reliable after occurrence of a functional
failure.
3. Influence on physical properties
3.1. Fibre volume fraction
Fibre volume fraction values (nf ) showed a strong
correlation with the applied winding tension (see Fig. 1).
In the case of the 26.7 N winding tension, an average fibre
volume fraction of 70.8% was determined with an average
absolute deviation from the mean of 0.05%. For the 44.5 N
winding tension a fibre volume fraction value of 74.0% was
computed with a variability of 0.38%. This accounts for a
significant increase in fibre volume fraction of more than an
absolute value of 3%.
Note that the fibre volume fraction for samples with an
unworked resin cover was found to be inconsistent. Values
of 65.4 and 67.4% were measured with a high variability of
0.90 and 2.00% for the low and high winding tensions,
respectively. A strict influence of an increase in winding
tension cannot be ascertained in every case. An increased
1617
Fig. 1. Dependency of fibre volume fraction on the applied winding tension.
tow tension displaces more resin from within the fibre bed,
which in turn accumulates on the outside of the part; thus the
overall fibre volume fraction remains theoretically
unchanged. However, a high variability is caused by (a)
the manual operation of removing excessive resin build-up
and (b) resin drip-off.
3.2. Effective specimen wall thickness
In conjunction with basic geometrical information the
thickness of the load bearing fibre bed (i.e. the effective
specimen wall thickness, s ), can be approximated using the
volume of deposited fibre material and the fibre volume
fraction of the part [1]. More complex models for this
purpose were described by for e.g. Banerjee et al. [12]. In
the current study, the method proposed in Ref. [1] was
chosen for its simplicity. An analytical determination of the
wall thickness was preferred over measurement techniques,
as (a) distance measurements using calliper type devices are
difficult to obtain (the resin cover falsifies any measure-
ments) and (b) the use of optical means (e.g. micrographs)
often necessitates the destruction of the specimen. Optical
methods are also generally tedious, especially, if a number
of samples needs to be investigated.
In Eq. (4) the thickness of the fibre bed is given by the
sum of single cover thicknesses (t ) (i.e. thickness of two
interwoven laminae, given by Eq. (3)), which are calculated
by the number of applied tows (TOW), the tow weight
(TEX), the fibre density (rf ) and the fibre volume fraction
(nf ). Necessary geometrical information is the inside
diameter of the part (ID) and the winding angle (a). Finally,
the number of winding circuits (C ) needs to be taken into
account for a volume-based calculation (The width of a fibre
band is generally not sufficient to complete one laminae in a
single pass of the machine carriage, hence it requires several
passes, i.e. circuits resulting in an interwoven two-layer
structure.). Using Eqs.(3) and (4) the thickness of the fibre
bed was determined to be 1.27 and 1.21 mm for the lower
and higher fibre volume fraction, respectively. Note that
1618 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
the overall average specimen thickness including the resin
cover was found to be 1.38 mm
TEX TOW C
tðCOVER#nÞ ¼
nf rf pððID=2Þ þ tðCOVER#1Þ þ · · · þ tðCOVER#n 2 1ÞÞcosðaÞ
s ¼ tðCOVER#1Þ þ tðCOVER#2Þ þ · ·· þ tðCOVER#nÞ ð4Þ
To verify the proposed method, the effective wall thickness
was measured for a specimen at several points around the
circumference (angle increments of 108) using a toolmaker
microscope. Based on these measurements, it was found that
the calculation produced a slightly smaller thickness value
with a relative error of less than 10%. However, due to the
pronounced unevenness of the outside of the fibre bed, it
was difficult to assess a distinct dividing line between the
fibre bed and the resin cover. Hence, it can be concluded that
results are strongly dependent on the quantity and location
of measurements, as well as on the applied method.
4. Influence on mechanical properties
4.1. On the effect of the axial loading rate
Internal pressurisation was applied using a loading rate
(›pi/›t ) of 0.462 kPa/s in the case of pure axial loading, and
4.626 kPa/s for the other three loading conditions. These
rates were chosen in order to provide sufficient time for
matrix cracks to develop/connect, and fluid to penetrate
along cracks through the pipe wall. The selected loading
ratios were attained by adjusting the following axial loading
rates (›FA/›t ): 2 5.28 N/s for [1H:0A], 2 1.63 N/s for
[3H:1A], 0.0 N/s for [2H:1A], and 15.84 N/s for [1H:15A].
These values are based on the overall average specimen wall
thickness and were obtained from Eq. (5). The exception is
the [2H:1A] loading case, where a true unconstrained
Fig. 2. Biaxial stress–strain response for a pure hoop [1H:0A] loading ratio,
1A, 1H: axial and hoop strain (measured); 1T, 1P (calculated) transverse and
parallel to fibre strain.
loading condition was applied (i.e. zero axial load).
Consequently, the actual loading ratios deviate from the
ð3Þ
theoretical one. However, differences are small, i.e. the
actual loading ratios for specimens with a high and low fibre
volume fraction are 2.064 and 2.067, respectively, (based on
the effective wall thickness).
From Eqs. (1) and (2) one gets

 !
› FA › pi A IDðID þ sÞ ID2
¼ p 2 ð5Þ
›t ›t H 2 4
4.2. Biaxial monotonic stress – strain characteristics
(a) [1H:0A]: Fig. 2 shows the measured global stress –
strain response along with the computed strains transverse
(1T) and parallel (1P) to the fibres. In this test the functional
failure of the tubular occurred almost simultaneous with
the structural failure, i.e. gradual leakage was not observed.
The presence of a negative transverse strain component is
deemed to be the reason for this type of behaviour (see
Section 5.1).
(b) [3H:1A]: Results from this test reveal a stress range
with pronounced leakage between functional failure and the
structural failure event (see Fig. 3). A positive transverse
strain greater than 0.25% was measured within this range,
where also a strong non-linearity in the otherwise almost
linear stress –strain response was recorded for the axial and
transverse direction (i.e. the matrix-dominated directions).
(c) [2H:1A]: Similar to the preceding test, the hoop and
parallel to the fibres stress –strain response of this loading
(i.e. fibre-dominated components) is nearly linear before
Fig. 3. Biaxial stress–strain response for a [3H:1A] loading ratio, 1A, 1H:
axial and hoop strain (measured); 1T, 1P (calculated) transverse and parallel
to fibre strain.
 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
Fig. 4. Biaxial stress–strain response for a [2H:1A] loading ratio, 1A, 1H:
axial and hoop strain (measured); 1T, 1P (calculated) transverse and parallel
to fibre strain.
functional failure (see Fig. 4). However, a more pronounced
non-linear behaviour is noticeable in the matrix-dominated
directions. After functional failure at a transverse strain of
0.35% an extremely non-linear behaviour was recorded.
The matrix-dominated strain components trend towards
high positive values, whereas the hoop strain shifts towards
high negative values. This behaviour indicates a strong
change in specimen geometry. After functional failure the
matrix increasingly breaks down allowing the fibres to
realign in the resultant loading direction. This behaviour
was subsequently accompanied by a significant change in
length and diameter of the specimen. However, these
changes were not measurable with the existing test set-up,
hence, stresses were calculated assuming unchanged speci-
men dimensions.
(d) [1H:15A]: Fig. 5 shows the stress – strain response of
a typical specimen in the almost pure axial loading case.
Strains in fibre direction were negligibly small; thus the load
was carried to a great extend by the matrix material. At
0.32% transverse strain functional failure occurred at a low
Fig. 5. Biaxial stress– strain response for an effectively pure axial [1H:15A]
loading ratio, 1A, 1H: axial and hoop strain (measured); 1T, 1P (calculated)
transverse and parallel to fibre strain.
1619
axial stress value. At this point the specimen also lost its
load-bearing capability, consequently, the functional and
structural failure coincide in this loading case.
4.3. Structural failure characteristics
A visual inspection of the fractured specimens provides
further insights into the mechanisms accompanying struc-
tural failure. In Fig. 6 the damaged specimens are presented
for the [3H:1A], [2H:1A] and [1H:15A] loading cases. Note
that a specimen tested under a pure hoop loading is not
shown, since these specimens failed by bursting leaving
only fragments behind. And thus, no localised damage could
be assessed. This type of behaviour indicates that within the
structure a high amount of energy was stored in an evenly
distributed manner. Under a [3H:1A] loading, burst failures
with fractured surfaces parallel to the fibre direction could
be observed. Failure generally occurred within the gauge
section of the specimen. This type of damage is character-
istic of a fibre dominated failure mode where fibres are
loaded parallel to the resulting loading direction. The
strength of the fibre structure is well utilised in this loading/
lay-up combination. In the [2H:1A] loading case, localised
failure occurred near the end tabs, indicating a stress
concentration in this zone. As the fibres were fixed in the
annulus of the end-tabs, the aforementioned fibre realign-
ment after matrix breakdown led to an additional localised
fibre bending; thus, the potential of the fibre structure could
not be fully utilised. In the pure axial loading case the fibre
bed immediately pulled apart after the breakdown of the
matrix, indicating a poor utilisation of the potential strength
of the structure.
4.4. Biaxial monotonic failure envelopes
Test results for specimens with an average fibre volume
fraction of 70.8 and 74.0% were compiled into four biaxial
Fig. 6. Photograph of specimens failed under (a) [3H:1A], (b) [2H:1A] and
(c) [1H:15A] loading conditions, and (d) undamaged specimen (from left to
right).
1620 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
Fig. 7. Biaxial functional and structural stress failure envelopes.
failure stress envelopes (shown in Fig. 7). As expected the
structural failure envelopes encompass the functional type.
In the pure hoop loading case, structural and functional
failure points practically coincide at the highest recorded
hoop stresses. Generally, failure stresses show a good
consistency for the different loading ratios. The exception is
the [3H:1A] loading case, where values exhibit considerable
scatter. This is attributed to variations in the strength of the
fibre structure, which is predominantly load bearing in this
case. However, mean values still follow a general trend that
is similar for the structural and functional failure type. This
trend can be described as follows: Under [3H:1A] loading a
higher winding tension (i.e. higher fibre volume fraction)
produced components with greater strength (strength mean-
ing resistance against failure). However, in the case of the
other loading ratios, a higher winding tension produced
parts with equal or even less strength. In particular under
increasingly matrix dominated loading (i.e. [1H:15A],
[2H:1A]) test results indicate that component strength was
decreased by an increased tow tension.
Note that this study does not discuss the presence of
residual stresses that may arise from the manufacturing
procedures, e.g. curing specimens at elevated temperatures.
Process models for the determination of fibre pretension are
available (see for example [2 – 4]). However, a time-
dependent relaxation of residual stresses also needs to be
considered, as polymer matrix materials are generally of a
visco-elastic nature (see e.g. [13,14]). Accounting for these
effects, i.e. relaxation of initial residual stresses resulting
from the applied winding tension due to curing at elevated
temperatures and visco-elastic effects, are beyond the scope
this experimental study.
5. Discussion
5.1. Qualitative analysis of functional failure events
Matrix damage is regarded to be the primary cause for
functional failure, as fluid weeping through the pipe wall
could be observed, without any other visible damage to the
pipe. This observation suggests that a network of cracks
develops, starting from inter-laminar matrix damage, i.e.
long cracks forming parallel to the fibres. These cracks
bridge intra-laminar zones and coalesce allowing fluid to
penetrate through the wall of the tubular. It is reasonable to
assume that inter-laminar matrix cracking is caused by
strains acting transverse to the fibre direction. Note that this
leakage mechanism is only operative, if an opening mode,
i.e. a positive displacement, is present. Hence, the typical
leakage event was absent under [1H:0A] loading where
transverse strains were found to be compressive. From the
recorded test data, strains parallel and transverse to the fibre
direction at the leakage load were computed for the
remaining three loading ratios. As shown in Fig. 8,
functional failure occurs approximately at an average
value of 0.3% transverse strain, independent of the applied
loading ratio. The exhibited scatter of data points is
probably due to: (a) the strain gauge readings being affected
by the developed damage and (b) the strain gauges being
positioned close to undulations of the interwoven fibre
structure, where the local stress state varies from those
locations where a uniform fibre structure exists. However,
the observation of a common failure indicator (i.e.
transverse strain) confirms that the functional failure
envelopes in fact properly represent the material behaviour.
5.2. Qualitative analysis of structural failure events
A uniaxial fibre/matrix structure is preferably loaded in
fibre direction. Failure occurs when the tensile load exceeds
a certain critical value (the maximum tensile strength,
sPmax). In the following, the observed structural failure
behaviour will be qualitatively analysed applying the same
principle. In the [3H:1A] loading case the resulting stress
caused by the biaxial loading coincides with the applied
winding angle of 608. The stress/strain response and the
investigation of fractured specimens indicated that for this
case fibres were actually experiencing a predominantly
tensile loading (see Sections 4.2 and 4.3). Hence, the stress
Fig. 8. Strains parallel and transverse to fibres at functional failure loads.
 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
Fig. 9. Mohr’s circle illustration for comparison of the [3H:1A] and
[1H:0A] structural failure behaviour.
parallel to the fibres at structural failure under [3H:1A]
loading is assumed to be the maximum tensile strength of
the fibre/matrix structure, sPmax.
Mohr’s circles were chosen to illustrate the conditions
under pure hoop loading, see Fig. 9. The [3H:1A] loading
condition is represented by the top circle acting as a scale for
comparison with the circle for the [1H:0A] loading case
(shown below). The second circle was constructed using the
maximum tensile strength of the fibre/matrix structure,
sPmax, and the given loading ratio. It can be observed that
the hoop stress, sH, is necessarily greater than that in the
first circle. This corresponds with the behaviour shown in
the structural failure envelope (Fig. 7). Moreover, the
transverse stress, sT, for the pure hoop loading case is
shown to be considerably less than that under [3H:1A]
loading. This then supports the assumption that significant
matrix cracking did not occur under the pure hoop loading.
Comparing the failure behaviour under [3H:1A] and
[2H:1A] loading using a similar approach as presented
above supports the assumption of a localised load
concentration in the fibre structure (see Section 4.2). In
the bottom part of Fig. 10, a Mohr’s circle for the [2H:1A]
loading was constructed using a fibre angle of 558, which is
the limit case for fibre realignment after matrix breakdown
(found by conducting netting analysis for the particular
loading ratio). Matching the stresses parallel to the fibre
direction (i.e. sP ¼ sPmax ) for the two considered loading
ratios, resulted in nearly identical hoop stress values sH.
This does not correspond with the experimental results,
where the hoop stress is found to be less in the [2H:1A]
loading case. However, incorporating a decreased maxi-
mum strength of the fibre structure (i.e. sP , sPmax) gave a
representation that quantitatively matched the experimental
findings. Such a decrease was already suggested in Section
4.3 based on the presence of additional bending loads near
1621
Fig. 10. Mohr’s circle illustration for comparison of the [3H:1A] and
[2H:1A] structural failure behaviour.
the specimen end tabs. Depending on the amount of strength
reduction, axial stresses at failure, sA, can be higher or
lower than the corresponding axial stresses in the [3H:1A]
loading case; thus explaining the intersection of the
structural failure envelopes for the high and low fibre
volume fraction.
6. Conclusions
In this investigation the effect of the primary manufac-
turing parameter ‘winding tension’ on physical and
mechanical properties of filament wound [^ 6083]T compo-
site tubulars was studied. Specimens were manufactured
using different winding tensions, and mechanical testing
was conducted under different loading ratios. Results from
the mechanical testing were compiled into functional and
structural failure stress envelopes, and the observed
mechanical behaviour was analysed qualitatively to show
the plausibility of the experimental findings. Linking the
applied winding tension to the physical properties of a part,
as well as to the mechanical response at failure, led to the
following conclusions.
† Increasing the filament winding tow tension significantly
increased fibre compaction; thus the primary processing
parameter ‘winding tension’ is suited for controlling the
fibre volume fraction of the manufactured components.
† Mechanical testing revealed that stresses at functional
and structural failure depend on the applied winding
tension.
† Comparison of test results from specimens wound with a
low and high tow tension indicated that the mechanical
properties do not follow a simple unidirectional trend.
Generally, an increase in winding tension has a beneficial
effect on the component strength in the case of a fibre
dominated loading, whereas under a matrix dominated
1622 P. Mertiny, F. Ellyin / Composites: Part A 33 (2002) 1615–1622
loading condition a slight decrease in the failure strength
was obtained by increasing fibre compaction.
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by the contributions
from TransCanada Pipelines Limited, the Alberta Intellec-
tual Infrastructure Partnership Program (IIPP), the Canadian
Foundation for Innovation (CFI), the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and the University
of Alberta. In addition, the authors would also like to
acknowledge the contributions made by the members of the
ACME group and the technical staff at the Department of
Mechanical Engineering (J. Wolodko, G. Meijer and B.
Faulkner).
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