www.surabooks.com This material only for sample www.surabooks.

com
Namma Kalvi

UNIT-I
 www.nammakalvi.org

PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES


1
Chapter
FUNCTION

ns
CHAPTER SNAPSHOT
1.1 Introduction

io
1.2 Function with respect to Programming language
at
1.2.1 Function Specification
1.2.2 Parameters (and arguments)
ic
1.3 Interface vs Implementation
1.4 Pure functions
bl

1.4.1 Impure functions

1.4.2 Side-effects (Impure functions)
Pu

1.4.3 Chameleons of Chromeland problem using function

ra
Su

[1]

orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757

Unit I - Chapter 1
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science
Evaluation
This material only for sample
Part - I
Choose the best answer  (1 mark)
1. The small sections of code that are used to
perform a particular task is called
(a) Subroutines (b) Files
(c) Pseudo code (d) Modules
 [Ans. (a) subroutines]
2. Which of the following is a unit of code that is
often defined within a greater code structure?
(a) Subroutines (b) Function
(c) Files (d) Modules
 [Ans. (b) Function]
3. Which of the following is a distinct syntactic
block?
(a) Subroutines (b) Function
(c) Definition (d) Modules
 [Ans. (c) Definition]
ic
4. The variables in a function definition are
bl
called as
(a) Subroutines (b) Function
Pu
(c) Definition (d) Parameters
 [Ans. (d) Parameters]
5. The values which are passed to a function
ra
definition are called
(a) Arguments (b) Subroutines
Su
(c) Function (d) Definition
 [Ans. (a) Arguments]
6. Which of the following are mandatory to
write the type annotations in the function
definition?
(a) Curly braces (b) Parentheses
(c) Square brackets (d) indentations
 [Ans. (b) Parentheses]
7. Which of the following defines what an object
can do?
(a) Operating System (b) Compiler
(c) Interface (d) Interpreter
 [Ans. (c) Interface]
2
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
8. Which of the following carries out the
instructions defined in the interface?
(a) Operating System (b) Compiler
(c) Implementation (d) Interpreter
 [Ans. (c) Implementation]
9. The functions which will give exact result
when same arguments are passed are called
(a) Impure functions (b) Partial Functions
(c) Dynamic Functions (d) Pure functions
 [Ans. (d) Pure functions]
10. The functions which cause side effects to the
arguments passed are called
ns
(a) impure function (b) Partial Functions
(c) Dynamic Functions (d) Pure functions
 [Ans. (a) impure function]
io
Part - II
at
Answer the following questions
 (2 marks)
1. What is a subroutine?
Ans. (i) Subroutines are the basic building blocks of
computer programs. Subroutines are small
sections of code that are used to perform a
particular task that can be used repeatedly.
(ii) In Programming languages these
subroutines are called as Functions.
2. Define Function with respect to Programming
language.
Ans. A function is a unit of code that is often defined
within a greater code structure. Specifically, a
function contains a set of code that works on
many kinds of inputs, like variants, expressions
and produces a concrete output.
3. Write the inference you get from X:=(78).
Ans. X:= (78) has an expression in it but (78) is not
itself an expression. Rather, it is a function
definition. Definitions bind values to names,
in this case the value 78 being bound to the
name ‘X’. Definitions are not expressions, at
the same time expressions are also not treated
as definitions. Definitions are distinct syntactic
blocks. Definitions can have expressions nested
inside them, and vice-versa.
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample

4. Differentiate interface and implementation.

Ans. The difference between interface and
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

3. What is the side effect of impure function.
Give example.

Function
implementation is Ans. (i) The variables used inside the function may
Interface Implementation cause side effects though the functions
Interface just Implementation carries which are not passed with any arguments.
defines what an out the instructions In such cases the function is called impure
object can do, but defined in the interface function.
won't actually do it (ii) When a function depends on variables or
functions outside of its definition block,
5. Which of the following is a normal function
you can never be sure that the function will
definition and which is recursive function
behave the same every time it’s called.
definition.
i) let rec sum x y : (iii) For example the mathematical function
random() will give different outputs for the
return x + y
same function call.
ii) let disp :
Program :

ns
print 'welcome'
let Random number
iii) let rec sum num :
let a := random()
if (num!=0) then return num + sum

io
if a > 10 then
(num-1)
return: a
else
return num
at else
return: 10
ic
Ans. (i) Recursive function
(iv) Here the function Random is impure as it
(ii) Normal function
is not sure what will be the result when we
bl

(iii) Recursive function call the function.

Part - III
Pu

4. Differentiate pure and impure function.

Answer the following questions Ans.

 (3 marks) Interface Implementation

ra

The return value of The return value

1. Mention the characteristics of Interface. the pure functions of the impure
Su

Ans. (i) The class template specifies the interfaces to solely depends on its functions does not
enable an object to be created and operated arguments passed. solely depend on its
properly. Hence, if you call arguments passed.
(ii) An object's attributes and behaviour is the pure functions Hence, if you call the
controlled by sending functions to the with the same set of impure functions
object. arguments, you will with the same set of
always get the same arguments,
2. Why strlen is called pure function? return values. you might get the
Ans. (i) strlen is a pure function because the They do not have any different return
function takes one variable as a parameter, side effects. values. For example,
and accesses it to find its length. random(), Date().
(ii) This function reads external memory but They do not modify They may modify the
does not change it, and the value returned the arguments which arguments which are
derives from the external memory accessed. are passed to them passed to them

3
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Unit I - Chapter 1
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

5. What happens if you modify a variable outside
the function? Give an example.
 
This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org
compared to 0 with the equality operator,
so ‘b’ is also a type of ‘int’. Since ‘a’ is
Ans. One of the most popular groups of side effects is multiplied with another expression using
modifying the variable outside of function. the * operator, ‘a’ must be an int.
For example : (ii) Parameter with Type : Now let us write
let y: = 0 the same function definition with types for
(int) inc (int) x some reason:
y: = y + x; (requires: b> 0 )
(returns: a to the power of b )
return (y)
let rec pow (a: int) (b: int) : int :=
Part - IV if b=0 then 1
Answer the following questions else a * pow b (a-1)
■ When we write the type annotations for
 (5 marks) ‘a’ and ‘b’ the parentheses are mandatory.
1. What are called Parameters and write a note Generally we can leave out these

ns
on annotations, because it's simpler to let the
(i) Parameter without Type compiler infer them.
(ii) Parameter with Type ■ T  here are times we may want to explicitly

io
write down types. This is useful on
Ans. Parameters (and arguments) : Parameters at times when you get a type error from
are the variables in a function definition and
the compiler that doesn't make sense.
arguments are the values which are passed to a
Explicitly annotating the types can help
function definition.
ic
with debugging such an error message.
(i)  Parameter without Type : Let us see an
bl

example of a function, definition : 2. Identify in the following program

(requires: b>=0 ) let rec gcd a b :=
Pu

(returns: a to the power of b) if b <> 0 then gcd b (a mod b) else return a

let rec pow a b:=
if b=0 then 1 i) Name of the function
ii) Identify the statement which tells it is a
ra

else a * pow a (b –1)

■  In the above function definition variable recursive function
‘b’ is the parameter and the value which is iii) Name of the argument variable
Su

passed to the variable ‘b’ is the argument. iv) Statement which invoke the function
The precondition (requires) and recursively
postcondition (returns) of the function is v) Statement which terminates the recursion
given. Ans. (i) gcd
■  Note we have not mentioned any types: (ii) let rec gcd
(data types). Some language compiler (iii) a, b
solves this type (data type) inference
problem algorithmically, but some require (iv) gcd b (a mod b)
the type to be mentioned. (v) return a
■  In the above function definition if 3. Explain with example Pure and impure
expression can return 1 in the then branch, functions.
by the typing rule the entire if expression Ans. Pure functions :
has type int.
(i) Pure functions are functions which will
■  Since the if expression has type ‘int’, the give exact result when the same arguments
function's return type also be ‘int’. ‘b’ is are passed.

4
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample
(ii) For example the mathematical function sin
(0) always results 0. This means that every
time you call the function with the same
arguments, you will always get the same
result.
(iii) A function can be a pure function provided
it should not have any external variable
which will alter the behaviour of that
variable.
Let us see an example
let square x
return: x * x
(iv) The above function square is a pure function
because it will not give different results for
same input.
(v) There are various theoretical advantages of
having pure functions. One advantage is
that if a function is pure, then if it is called
several times with the same arguments,
the compiler only needs to actually call the
function once. Lt’s see an example
let i: = 0;
ic
if i <strlen (s) then
-- Do something which doesn't 
bl
 affect s
Pu
++i
(vi) If it is compiled, strlen (s) is called each
time and strlen needs to iterate over the
whole of ‘s’. If the compiler is smart
ra
enough to work out that strlen is a pure
function and that ‘s’ is not updated in the
Su
loop, then it can remove the redundant
extra calls to strlen and make the loop to
execute only one time.
(vii) From these what we can understand, strlen
is a pure function because the function
takes one variable as a parameter, and
accesses it to find its length. This function
reads external memory but does not
change it, and the value returned derives
from the external memory accessed.
Impure functions :
(i) The variables used inside the function may
cause side effects though the functions
which are not passed with any arguments.
In such cases the function is called impure
function.
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
(ii) When a function depends on variables or
functions outside of its definition block,
Function
you can never be sure that the function
will behave the same every time it’s called.
For example the mathematical function
random() will give different outputs for the
same function call.
let Random number
let a := random()
if a > 10 then
return: a
else
return: 10
(iii) Here the function Random is impure as it
is not sure what will be the result when we
call the function.
ns
4. Explain with an example interface and
implementation.
io
Ans. (i) An interface is a set of action that an object
can do. For example when you press a light
at switch, the light goes on, you may not have
cared how it splashed the light. In Object
Oriented Programming language, an
Interface is a description of all functions
that a class must have in order to be a new
interface.
(ii) In our example, anything that "ACTS
LIKE" a light, should have function
definitions like turn_on () and a turn_off
(). The purpose of interfaces is to allow the
computer to enforce the properties of the
class of TYPE T (whatever the interface is)
must have functions called X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) A class declaration combines the
external interface (its local state) with an
implementation of that interface (the code
that carries out the behaviour). An object
is an instance created from the class. The
interface defines an object’s visibility to the
outside world.
 The difference between interface and
implementation is
Interface Implementation
Interface just Implementation
defines what an carries out the
object can instructions defined
do, but won't in the interface
actually do it
5
Unit I - Chapter 1
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science
(iv) In object oriented programs classes are the
interface and how the object is processed
This material only for sample
and executed is the implementation.
Characteristics of interface :
(i) The class template specifies the interfaces to
enable an object to be created and operated
properly.
(ii) An object's attributes and behaviour is
controlled by sending functions to the
object.
For example, let's take the example of
increasing a car’s speed.
ENGINE
getSpeed
No
required
speed
Pull Fuel
Yes
ic
Return
bl
additional questions and Answers
Pu
Choose the Correct Answer 1 MARK
ra
1. Which of the following are expressed using
statements of a programming language?
Su
(a) Functions (b) Algorithm
(c) Interface (d) Implementation
 [Ans. (b) Algorithm]
2. What must the used when a bulk of statements
to be repeated for many number of times?
(a) Algorithm (b) Program
(c) Subroutines (d) Parameters
 [Ans. (c) Subroutines]
3. Which of the following contains a set a
code that works an many kinds of input and
produces a concrete output?
(a) Function (b) Algorithm
(c) Arguments (d) Language
 [Ans. (a) Function]
6
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
(iii) The person who drives the car doesn't care
about the internal working. To increase
the speed of the car he just presses the
accelerator to get the desired behaviour.
Here the accelerator is the interface
between the driver (the calling / invoking
object) and the engine (the called object).
(iv) In this case, the function call would be
Speed (70): This is the interface. Internally,
the engine of the car is doing all the things.
It's where fuel, air, pressure, and electricity
come together to create the power to move
the vehicle.
(v) All of these actions are separated from the
driver, who just wants to go faster. Thus we
separate interface from implementation.
ns
(vi) Let us see a simple example, consider the
following implementation of a function
io
that finds the minimum of its three
arguments:
at
let min 3 x y z :=
if x < y then
if x < z then x else z
else
if y < z then y else z
4. Which of the following are the values which
are passed to a function definition?
(a) Parameters (b) Algorithm
(c) Data types (d) Arguments
 [Ans. (d) Arguments]
5. The function definition is introduced by the
keyword
(a) def (b) rec
(c) let (d) infer
[Ans. (c) let]
6. The recursive function is defined using the
keyword
(a) let (b) let rec
(c) name (d) infer
 [Ans. (b) let rec]
7. A function definition which call itself is called
(a) user defined function
(b) built-in function
(c) derived function
(d) recursive function
 [Ans. (d) recursive function]
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

 
DATA ABSTRACTION
2
Chapter


www.nammakalvi.org

ns
io
CHAPTER SNAPSHOT at
2.1 Data Abstraction – Introduction
2.2 Abstract Data Types
ic
2.3 Constructors and Selectors
2.4 Representation of Abstract datatype using Rational numbers
bl

2.5 Lists, Tuples

Pu

2.5.1 List
2.5.2 Tuple
2.6 Data Abstraction in Structure
ra
Su

[9]

orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757

Unit I - Chapter 2
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

Evaluation
 
This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org

8. Bundling two values together into one can be

Part - I considered as
Choose the best answer  (1 mark) (a) Pair
(b) Triplet
1. Which of the following functions that build
the abstract data type ? (c) Single
(a) Constructors (b) Destructors (d) Quadrat [Ans. (a) Pair]
(c) Recursive (d) Nested
9. Which of the following allow to name the
 [Ans. (a) Constructors]
various parts of a multi-item object?
2. Which of the following functions that retrieve (a) Tuples
information from the data type?
(b) Lists
(a) Constructors (b) Selectors
(c) Classes
(c) Recursive (d) Nested

ns
 [Ans. (b) Selectors] (d) Quadrats [Ans. (c) Classes]

3. The data structure which is a mutable ordered 10. Which of the following is constructed by

io
sequence of elements is called placing expressions within square brackets?
(a) Built in (b) List
at (a) Tuples (b) Lists
(c) Tuple (d) Derived data (c) Classes (d) Quadrats
 [Ans. (b) List]  [Ans. (b) Lists]
ic
4. A sequence of immutable objects is called Part - II
bl

(a) Built in (b) List Answer the following questions

(c) Tuple (d) Derived data  (2 marks)
Pu

 [Ans. (c) Tuple] 1. What is abstract data type?

Ans. (i) Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type (or
5. The data type whose representation is known
class) for objects whose behavior is defined
are called
ra

by a set of value and a set of operations.

(a) Built in datatype
(ii) The definition of ADT only mentions what
(b) Derived datatype
Su

operations are to be performed but not how

(c) Concrete datatype these operations will be implemented.
(d) Abstract datatype 
(iii) It does not specify how data will be
 [Ans. (b) Derived datatype ] organized in memory and what algorithms
6. The data type whose representation is will be used for implementing the
unknown are called operations. It is called “abstract” because
(a) Built in datatype it gives an implementation independent
view. The process of providing only the
(b) Derived datatype
essentials and hiding the details is known
(c) Concrete datatype
as abstraction.
(d) Abstract datatype 
 [Ans. (c) Concrete datatype] 2. Differentiate constructors and selectors.
Ans. (i) Constructors are functions that build the
7. Which of the following is a compound
abstract data type.
structure?
(ii) Selectors are functions that retrieve
(a) Pair (b) Triplet
information from the data type.
(c) Single (d) Quadrat
 [Ans. (a) Pair]

10
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com

3. What is a Pair? Give an example.

This material only for sample

Ans. (i) Any way of bundling two values together

Sura’s
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

2. Which strategy is used for program designing?
Define that Strategy.

into one can be considered as a Pair. Lists
are a common method to do so. Therefore
List can be called as Pairs.
(ii) Example : List = [10,20,30]
4. What is a List? Give an example.
Ans. (i) List is constructed by placing expressions
within square brackets separated by
commas.
(ii) Such an expression is called a list literal.
List can store multiple values. Each value
can be of any type and can even be another
list.
Data Abstraction
Ans. A powerful strategy for designing programs:
'wishful thinking'. Wishful Thinking is the
formation of beliefs and making decisions
according to what might be pleasing to imagine
instead of by appealing to reality.
3. Identify Which of the following are
constructors and selectors?
(a) N1=number()
(b) accetnum(n1)
(c) displaynum(n1)
(d) eval(a/b)
(e) x,y= makeslope (m), makeslope(n)

ns
(iii) The elements of a list can be accessed in (f) display()
two ways. The first way is via our familiar
Ans. (a) Constructors
method of multiple assignment, which
(b) Selector

io
unpacks a list into its elements and binds
each element to a different name. at (c) Selector
(d) Constructors
(iii) Example : lst := [10, 20]
(e) Constructors
x, y := lst
ic
(f) Selector
5. What is a Tuple? Give an example.
bl

Ans. (i) A tuple is a comma-separated sequence of 4. What are the different ways to access the
values surrounded with parentheses. Tuple elements of a list. Give example.
Pu

is similar to a list. Ans. (i) The elements of a list can be accessed in

(ii) The difference between the two is that you two ways. The first way is via our familiar
cannot change the elements of a tuple once method of multiple assignment, which
it is assigned whereas in a list, elements can unpacks a list into its elements and binds
ra

be changed. each element to a different name.

(iii) Example : colour= ('red', 'blue', 'Green') lst := [10, 20]
Su

Part - III x, y := lst

Answer the following questions
 (3 marks)
1. Differentiate Concrete datatype and Abstract
datatype.
Ans. (i) Concrete datatypes or structures (CDT's)
are direct implementations of a relatively
simple concept.
(ii) Abstract Datatypes (ADT's) offer a
high level view (and use) of a concept
independent of its implementation.
(iii) A concrete data type is a data type whose
representation is known and in abstract
data type the representation of a data type
is unknown
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
(ii) In the above example x will become10 and
y will become 20.
(iii) A second method for accessing the elements
in a list is by the element selection operator,
also expressed using square brackets. Unlike
a list literal, a square-brackets expression
directly following another expression does
not evaluate to a list value, but instead
selects an element from the value of the
preceding expression.
lst[0]
10
lst[1]
20
11
Unit I - Chapter 2
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

5. Identify Which of the following are List, Tuple
and class ?
 
This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org
(v) In the above code read distance(), getlat()
and getlon() as functions and read lt
(a) arr [1, 2, 34] as latitude and lg longitude. Read := as
(b) arr (1, 2, 34) “assigned as” or “becomes”
(c) student [rno, name, mark] (vi) lt1, lg1 := getlat(city1), getlon(city1) is read
(d) day= (‘sun’, ‘mon’, ‘tue’, ‘wed’) as lt1 becomes the value of getlat(city1) and
(e) x= [2, 5, 6.5, [5, 6], 8.2] lg1 becomes the value of getlont(city1).
(f) employee [eno, ename, esal, eaddress] (vii) Notice that you don’t need to know how
Ans. (a) List these functions were implemented. You are
(b) Tuple assuming that someone else has defined
(c) Class them for us.
(d) Tuple (viii) It’s okay if the end user doesn’t know how
(e) List functions were implemented. However,
(f) Class the functions still have to be defined by
Part - IV someone.

ns
(ix) Let us identify the constructors and
Answer the following questions
selectors in the above code. As you already

io
 (5 marks) know that Constructors are functions that
at build the abstract data type. In the above
1. How will you facilitate data abstraction. pseudo code the function which creates the
Explain it with suitable example. object of the city is the constructor.
ic
Ans. To facilitate data abstraction, you will need to city = makecity (name, lat, lon)
create two types of functions: constructors and
bl

(x) Here makecity (name, lat, lon) is the

selectors.
Constructors and Selectors : constructor which creates the object
Pu

city.
(i) Constructors are functions that build the
abstract data type. Selectors are functions (name, lat, lon) value passed as parameter
that retrieve information from the data
ra

type.
(ii) For example, say you have an abstract data make city ( )
Su

type called city. This city object will hold the

city’s name, and its latitude and longitude.
To create a city object, you’d use a function city
like
city = makecity (name, lat, lon) lat lon
(iii) To extract the information of a city object,
Constructor
you would use functions like
getname(city) Selectors are nothing but the functions that
getlat(city) retrieve information from the data type.
getlon(city) Therefore in the above code
(iv) The following pseudo code will compute
getname(city)
the distance between two city objects:
getlat(city)
distance(city1, city2):
lt1, lg1 := getlat(city1), getlon(city1) getlon(city)
lt2, lg2 := getlat(city2), getlon(city2) (xi) are the selectors because these functions
return ((lt1 - lt2)**2 + extract the information of the city object.
 (lg1 -lg2)**2))½
12
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample

2. What is a List? Why List can be called as Pairs.

Explain with suitable example.
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

3. How will you access the multi-item? Explain
with example.

Data Abstraction
Ans. To enable us to implement the concrete level Ans. (i) The structure construct (In OOP languages
of our data abstraction, Some languages like it's called class construct) is used to
Python provides a compound structure called represent multi-part objects where each
Pair which is made up of list or Tuple. The first part is named (given a name). Consider the
way to implement pairs is with the List construct. following pseudo code:
List : class Person:
(i) List is constructed by placing expressions creation( )
within square brackets separated by
firstName := " "
commas. Such an expression is called a list
literal. List can store multiple values. Each lastName := " "
value can be of any type and can even be id := " "
another list. email := " "
Example for List is [10, 20]. The new data type Person is pictorially
represented as

ns
(ii) The elements of a list can be accessed in
two ways. The first way is via our familiar
Person class name (multi part data representation)
method of multiple assignment, which

io
unpacks a list into its elements and binds
each element to a different name. creation ( )
at function belonging to the new datatype

}
lst := [10, 20]
x, y := lst
ic
first Name
(iii) In the above example x will become10 and
bl

y will become 20. A second method for last Name

accessing the elements in a list is by the datatype
id
Pu

element selection operator, also expressed

using square brackets. email
(iv) Unlike a list literal, a square-brackets
expression directly following another Let main() contains
ra

expression does not evaluate to a list value, p1:=Person() statement creates

but instead selects an element from the the object
Su

value of the preceding expression. firstName := "Padmashri" setting a field called

lst[0] first Name with
10 value Padmashri
lst[1] lastName :="Baskar" setting a field called
20 lastName with
(v) In both the example mentioned above value Baskar
mathematically we can represent list similar id :="994–222–1234" setting a field called
to a set. id value 994–222–
lst[(0, 10), (1, 20)] - where 1234
(o, 10) (1, 20) email="compsci@gamil.com" setting a filed called
email with value
Index position Value Index position Value compsci@gmail.
com
(vi) Any way of bundling two values together
into one can be considered as a pair. Lists - - output of firstName : Padmashri
are a common method to do so. Therefore
List can be called as Pairs.

13
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Unit I - Chapter 2
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

(ii) The class (structure) construct defines the
form for multi-part objects that represent a
 
This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

person. Its definition adds a new data type,
in this case a type named Person.
(iii) Once defined, we can create new variables
(instances) of the type. In this example
Person is referred to as a class or a type,
while p1 is referred to as an object or an
instance.
www.nammakalvi.org
(iv) Here class Person as a cookie cutter, and
p1 as a particular cookie. Using the cookie
cutter you can make many cookies. Same
way using class created many objects of that
type.
(v) A class defines a data abstraction by
grouping related data items. A class is not
just data, it has functions defined within it.
We say such functions are subordinate to
the class because their job is to do things
with the data of the class.

additional questions and Answers

Choose the Correct Answer 1 MARK 6. The process of providing only the essentials
and hiding the details is known as

ns
1. Which of the following is a powerful concept
that allows programmers to treat codes as (a) Functions (b) Abstraction
objects? (c) Encapsulation (d) Pairs

io
(a) Encapsulation (b) Data Abstraction  [Ans. (b) Abstraction]
(c) Inheritance (d) Polymorphism
 [Ans. (b) Data Abstraction]
at
7. Which of the following gives an implementation
independent view?
ic
2. Which of the following provides modularity? (a) Abstract
(a) Datatypes (b) Subroutines (b) Concrete
bl

(c) Classes (d) Abstraction (c) Datatype

 [Ans. (b) Objects] (d) Behavior of an object
Pu

3. ADT expansion is  [Ans. (a) Abstract]

(a) Abstract Data Template 8. How many ways to implement an ADT?
(b) Absolute Data Type (a) Only one (b) Two
ra

(c) Abstract Data Type (c) Three (d) Many

(d) Application Development Tool  [Ans. (d) Many]
Su

 [Ans. (c) Abstract Data Type]

9. Which of the following are implemented using
4. Which of the following is a type for objects & lists?
whose behavior is defined by a set of value and (a) Singly linked list ADT
a set of operations?
(a) User-defined datatype (b) Doubly Linked list ADT
(b) Derived datatype (c) Stack ADT
(c) Built-in datatype
(d) Queue ADT
(d) Abstract datatype
(e) All of these [Ans. (e) All of these]
[Ans. (d) Abstract datatype]
10. Which of the following replicate how we think
5. ADT behavior is defined by about the world?
(i) Set of Variables (ii) Set of Value
(a) Queue ADT
(iii) Set of Functions (iv) Set of Operations
(b) Data Hiding
(a) i, ii (b) ii, iii
(c) Data Abstraction
(c) ii, iv (d) i, iii
 [Ans. (c) ii, iv] (d) Stack ADT[Ans. (c) Data Abstraction]

14
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

 
SCOPING
3
Chapter

www.nammakalvi.org
CHAPTER SNAPSHOT
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Variable Scope
3.3 LEGB rule
3.4 Types of Variable Scope
3.5 Module

Evaluation

ns
Part - I 6. The process of subdividing a computer program

io
Choose the best answer  (1 mark) into separate sub-programs is called
(a) Procedural Programming
1. Which of the following refers to the visibility
of variables in one part of a program to
at
(b) Modular programming
another part of the same program. (c) Event Driven Programming
ic
(a) Scope (b) Memory (d) Object oriented Programming
[Ans. (b) Modular programming]
bl

(c) Address (d) Accessibility

[Ans. (a) Scope] 7. Which of the following security technique that
Pu

regulates who can use resources in a computing

2. The process of binding a variable name with
environment?
an object is called
(a) Password (b) Authentication
(a) Scope (b) Mapping
(c) Access control (d) Certification
ra

(c) late binding (d) early binding

[Ans. (c) Access control]
[Ans. (b) Mapping]
Su

8. Which of the following members of a class can be

3. Which of the following is used in programming
handled only from within the class?
languages to map the variable and object?
(a) Public members
(a) :: (b) := (c) = (d) ==
(b) Protected members
[Ans. (c) =]
(c) Secured members
4. Containers for mapping names of variables to (d) Private members
objects is called [Ans. (a) Public members]
(a) Scope (b) Mapping
(c) Binding (d) Namespaces 9. Which members are accessible from outside the
class?
[Ans. (d) Namespaces]
(a) Public members
5. Which scope refers to variables defined in (b) Protected members
current function? (c) Secured members
(a) Local Scope (b) Global scope (d) Private members
(c) Module scope (d) Function Scope [Ans. (a) Public members]
 [Ans. (a) Local Scope]
[19]

orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757

Unit I - Chapter 3
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s
This material only for sample

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

10. The members that are accessible from within
the class and are also available to its sub-
  www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org
(iii) Look at this example :
1. Disp(): Entire program Output
classes is called 2. a:=7 of the
(a) Public members 3. print a Disp( ): Program
a:=7
(b) Protected members 4. Disp() print a 7
(c) Secured members Disp ( )
(d) Private members
[Ans. (b) Protected members]
(iv) On execution of the above code the variable
Part - II a displays the value 7, because it is defined
Answer the following questions and available in the local scope.
 (2 marks) 2. Define Global scope with an example.
1. What is a scope? Ans. (i) A variable which is declared outside of all
Ans. Scope refers to the visibility of variables, the functions in a program is known as
parameters and functions in one part of a Global variable.

ns
program to another part of the same program.
(ii) This means, global variable can be accessed
2. Why scope should be used for variable. State inside or outside of all the functions in a

io
the reason. program. Consider the following example
Ans. Scobe should be used for a variable because every at 1. a:=10 Entire program Output
part of the program can access the variable. 2. Disp(): of the
a:=10
3. What is Mapping? 3. a:=7 Disp( ) Program
ic
a:=7
Ans. The process of binding a variable name with an 4. print a print a 7
object is called mapping.= (equal to sign) is used 5. Disp() 10
bl

Disp 1( ):
print a
in programming languages to map the variable 6. print a
and object.
Pu

(iii) On execution of the above code the variable

4. What do you mean by Namespaces? a which is defined inside the function
Ans. Namespaces are containers for mapping names displays the value 7 for the function call
of variables to objects. Disp() and then it displays 10, because a is
ra

5. How Python represents the private and defined in global scope.

protected Access specifiers?
Su

3. Define Enclosed scope with an example.

Ans. Python prescribes a convention of prefixing
the name of the variable/method with single or
double underscore to emulate the behaviour of
protected and private access specifiers.
Part - III
Answer the following questions
 (3 marks)
1. Define Local scope with an example.
Ans. (i) Local scope refers to variables defined in
current function. Always, a function will
first look up for a variable name in its local
scope.
(ii) Only if it does not find it there, the outer
scopes are checked.
Ans. (i) All programming languages permit
functions to be nested. A function (method)
within another function is called nested
function.
(ii) A variable which is declared inside a
function which contains another function
definition with in it, the inner function
can also access the variable of the outer
function. This scope is called enclosed
scope.
(iii) When a compiler or interpreter search for
a variable in a program, it first searches
Local, and then searches Enclosing scopes.
Consider the following example

20
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com

1. Disp():
2. a:=10
Entire program
Disp( )
This material only for sample

Output
of the
Sura’s

1. Disp():
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

Look at this example
Entire program Output

Scoping
3. Disp1(): a:=10 Program 2. a:=7 of the
Disp 1( ):
4. print a print a 10 3. print a Disp( ): Program
a:=7
5. Disp1() Disp 1( ): 10 4. Disp() print a 7
print a
6. print a Disp( ) Disp ( )
7. Disp()

4. Why access control is required?
Ans. (i) Access control is a security technique that
regulates who or what can view or use
resources in a computing environment.
(ii) It is a fundamental concept in security that
minimizes risk to the object.
5. Identify the scope of the variables in the
(ii) On execution of the above code the variable
a displays the value 7, because it is defined
and available in the local scope.
Global Scope:
(i) A variable which is declared outside of all
the functions in a program is known as
global variable.

ns
following pseudo code and write its output
(ii) This means, global variable can be accessed
color:= Red
inside or outside of all the functions in a
mycolor():

io
program. Consider the following example
b:=Blue
1. a:=10 Entire program Output
lue
myfavcolor():
at 2. Disp(): a:=10 of the
3. a:=7 Disp( ) Program
g:=Green
ic
a:=7
4. print a print a 7
printcolor, b, g 10
5. Disp()
bl

Disp 1( ):
myfavcolor() print a
6. print a
printcolor, b
Pu

mycolor() (iii) On execution of the above code the variable

print color 'a' which is defined inside the function
Ans. color : =Red – global scope displays the value 7 for the function call
Disp() and then it displays 10, because a is
ra

b:=Blue – local scope

defined in global scope.
g:=Green – Enclosed scope
Enclosed Scope :
Su

Part - IV (i) All programming languages permit

Answer the following questions
 (5 marks)
1. Explain the types of scopes for variable or
LEGB rule with example.
Ans. Types of Variable Scope :
There are 4 types of Variable Scope, let's discuss
them one by one:
Local Scope :
(i) Local scope refers to variables defined in
current function. Always, a function will
first look up for a variable name in its local
scope. Only if it does not find it there, the
outer scopes are checked.
functions to be nested. A function (method)
with in another function is called nested
function.
(ii) A variable which is declared inside a
function which contains another function
definition with in it, the inner function
can also access the variable of the outer
function. This scope is called enclosed
scope.
(iii) When a compiler or interpreter search for a
variable in a program, it first search Local,
and then search Enclosing scopes. Consider
the following example

21
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Unit I - Chapter 3
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

1. Disp():
2. a:=10
Entire program Output
of the

 
This material only for sample

Output :

www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org

outer x variable
Disp( )
Program inner x variable
3. Disp1(): a:=10

4. print a
Disp 1( ):
print a 10 (i) Above statements give different outputs
10 because the same variable name 'x' resides
5. Disp1() Disp 1( ):
print a in different scopes, one inside the function
6. print a Disp( ) display() and the other in the upper level.
7. Disp()
The value ‘outer x variable’ is printed
(iv) In the above example Disp1() is defined when x is referenced outside the function
with in Disp(). The variable ‘a’ defined in definition.
Disp() can be even used by Disp1() because (ii) Whereas when display() gets executed,
it is also a member of Disp(). ‘inner x variable’ is printed which is the
Built-in Scope : x value inside the function definition. From
(i) Finally, we discuss about the widest scope. the above example, we can guess that there
The built-in scope has all the names that are is a rule followed, in order to decide from
pre-loaded into the program scope when which scope a variable has to be picked.

ns
we start the compiler or interpreter. (iii) The LEGB rule is used to decide the order
(ii) Any variable or module which is defined in which the scopes are to be searched

io
in the library functions of a programming for scope resolution. The scopes are listed
language has Built-in or module scope. at below in terms of hierarchy (highest to
They are loaded as soon as the library files lowest).
are imported to the program. Local(L) Defined inside function/
ic
Entire program Library files class
Built in/module scope associated
bl

Enclosed(E) Defined inside enclosing

with the software functions (Nested
Disp( )
Pu

Disp 1( ):
function concept)
print a Global(G) Defined at the uppermost
Disp 1( ): level
print a
Built-in(B) Reserved names in built-
ra

Disp( )
in functions (modules)

Su

LEGB rule :
BUILT-IN
(i) Scope also defines the order in which
variables have to be mapped to the object GLOBAL
in order to obtain the value. ENCLOSED
(ii) Let us take a simple example as shown
LOCAL
below:
1. x:= 'outer x variable'
2. display():
3. x:= 'inner x variable' 2. Write any Five Characteristics of Modules.
4. print x Ans. The following are the desirable characteristics of
5. display() a module.
(iii) When the above statements are executed (i) Modules contain instructions, processing
the statement (4) and (5) display the result logic, and data.
as (ii) Modules can be separately compiled and
stored in a library.

22
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample

(iii) Modules can be included in a program.

(iv) Module segments can be used by invoking
Sura’s
(iv) Modular
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

programming allows many
programmers to collaborate on the same
application.
a name and some parameters.

Scoping
(v) Module segments can be used by other (v) The code is stored across multiple files.
modules. (vi) Code is short, simple and easy to
understand.
3. Write any five benefits in using modular
programming. (vii) Errors can easily be identified, as they are
localized to a subroutine or function.
Ans. (i) Less code to be written.
(viii) The same code can be used in many
(ii) A single procedure can be developed for
applications.
reuse, eliminating the need to retype the
code many times. (ix) The scoping of variables can easily be
controlled.
(iii) Programs can be designed more easily
because a small team deals with only a
small part of the entire code.

ns
additional questions and Answers

io
Choose the Correct Answer 1 MARK 5. How the names are mapped with objects in
at programming language?
1. The part of a program that can see or use the (a) name == object (b) name :: object
variables are called (c) name := object (d) object := name
ic
(a) Scope (b) Parameter [Ans. (c) name := object]
bl

(c) Function (d) Indentation

6. The order in which variables have to be
[Ans. (a) Scope] mapped to the object in order to obtain the
Pu

2. Which of the following refers to the addresses value is called

to an object in memory? (a) Rule (b) Syntax
(a) Functions (b) Indentation (c) Scope (d) Hierarchy
ra

(c) Variables (d) Operators  [Ans. (c) Scope]

 [Ans. (b) Indentation] 7. Which of the following rule is used to decide
Su

3. How many variables can be mapped to the the order in which the scopes are to be searched
for scope resolution?
same instance?
(a) LEGB (b) LGEB
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) LBEG (d) LGBE
(c) 4 (d) Multiple  [Ans. (a) LEGB]
 [Ans. (d) Multiple]
8. Write the below interns of hierarchy (highest
4. Which of the following keeps track of all these to lowest)?
mappings with namespaces? (1) Reversed names in built in functions
(a) Programming languages (2) Defined inside function
(3) Defined inside enclosing function
(b) Application software
(4) Defined at the uppermost level
(c) System software
(a) 3, 2, 1, 4 (b) 1, 4, 2, 3
(d) My SQL (c) 2, 3, 1, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4, 1
 [Ans. (a) Programming languages] [Ans. (d) 2, 3, 4, 1]

23
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Unit I - Chapter 3
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s
This material only for sample

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

Choose the correct statement
  www.surabooks.com

www.nammakalvi.org
4. Write the output of the following program.
Ans.
1. Choose the correct statement from the
following. Entire program Output of
(i) A Program cannot be divided into modules the Program
that work together to get the output. Disp( ):
a:=7
7
print a
(ii) Modules can be separately compiled and
stored in a library. Disp ( )
(iii) Procedure, subroutines and functions are
not examples of modules.
(iv) Modules contain instructions, logic and data 5. Write the output of the following program.
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iii Ans.
(c) iii and iv (d) ii and iv
Entire program Output of
 [Ans. (d) ii and iv] the Program
Choose the incorrect statement a:=10
Disp( ) 7
a:=7

ns
1. Choose the incorrect statement from the print a 10
following. Disp 1( ):
print a
(i) There a different types of variable scope

io
(ii) Enclosed and extended are the type of
variable scope 6. Write the output of the following program.
(iii) A variable is declared outside of all the
at
Ans.
function is called global variable
ic
Entire program Output of
(iv) Built-in Scope is also called Module scope.
the Program
bl

(a) i, iii and iv (b) ii and iii Disp( )

a:=10 10
(c) i and ii (d) iii only Disp 1( ):
10
Pu

print a
 [Ans. (c) i and ii]
Disp 1( ):
print a

Very Short Answers 2 MARKS Disp( )

ra

1. Define variable. 7. What is modular programming?

Ans. Variable are addresses (references, or pointers), Ans. The process of subdividing a computer program
Su

to an object in memory. into separate sub-programs is called modular

2. What is the use of LEGB rule?
Ans. The LEGB rule is used to decide the order in
which the scopes are to be searched for scope
resolution. The scopes are listed below in terms
of hierarchy (highest to lowest).
programming.
8. What is meant by module?
Ans. A module is a part of a program. Programs
are composed of one or more independently
developed modules.

3. Name the types of variable scope.

Short Answers 3 MARKS
Ans. (i) Local scope 1. How the changes inside the function can’t affect
(ii) Enclosed scope the variable on the outside of the function in
unexpected ways?
(iii) Global scope
Ans. (i) Every variable defined in a program has
(iv) Built-in scope.
global scope.

26
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample

(ii) Once defined, every part of your program

can access that variable. But it is a good
practice to limit a variable's scope to a
Sura’s
(iv) Modular
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

programming enables
programmers to divide up the work and

single definition.
(iii) This way, changes inside the function can't
affect the variable on the outside of the
function in unexpected ways.
2. Write a note on built-in scope.
Ans. (i) Built-in scope is the widest scope. The
built-in scope has all the names that are
pre-loaded into the program scope when
we start the compiler or interpreter.
(ii) Any variable or module which is defined
in the library functions of a programming
language has Built-in or module scope.
Scoping
debug pieces of the program independently.
The examples of modules are procedures,
subroutines, and functions.
4. How will you ensure the principle of
data encapsulation in object – oriented
programming?
Ans. Public members (generally methods declared
in a class) are accessible from outside the class.
The object of the same class is required to invoke
a public method. This arrangement of private
instance variables and public methods ensures

ns
They are loaded as soon as the library files the principle of data encapsulation.
are imported to the program.
5. Write a note on access modifiers of a class.

io
Entire program Library files
Ans. (i) 
Public members (generally methods
Built in/module scope associated
declared in a class) are accessible from
Disp( )
with the software
at outside the class.
ic
Disp 1( ): (ii) Protected members of a class are accessible
print a
Disp 1( ):
from within the class and are also available
bl

print a to its sub-classes.

Disp( )
(iii) Private members of a class are denied access
Pu

(iii) 
Normally only Functions or modules from outside the class. They can be handled
come along with the software, as packages, only from within the class.
therefore they will come under Built in
ra

scope. 6. Write a short note on types of variable scope.

Ans. (i) 
Public members (generally methods
3. Write a note on module.
Su

declared in a class) are accessible from

Ans. (i) A module is a part of a program. Programs
outside the class.
are composed of one or more independently
(ii) A variable which is declared outside of all
developed modules. A single module can
the functions in a program is known as
contain one or several statements closely
global variable.
related each other.
(iii) 
A variable which is declared inside a
(ii) Modules work perfectly on individual level
function which contains another function
and can be integrated with other modules.
definition with in it, the inner function
A software program can be divided into
can also access the variable of the outer
modules to ease the job of programming
function. This scope is called enclosed
and debugging as well.
scope.
(iii) A program can be divided into small
(iv) Built-in scope the widest scope has all the
functional modules that work together to
names that are pre-loaded into program
get the output. The process of subdividing
scope when we start the compiler or
a computer program into separate sub-
interpreter.
programs is called Modular programming.
27
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample www.surabooks.com

Chapter
 

4 ALGORITHMIC STRATEGIES
www.nammakalvi.org


CHAPTER SNAPSHOT

ns
4.1 Introduction to Algorithmic strategies
4.2 Complexity of an Algorithm

io
4.2.1 Time Complexity
4.2.2. Space Complexity
at
4.3 Efficiency of an algorithm
ic
4.3.1 Method for determining Efficiency
4.3.2 Space-Time tradeoff
bl

4.3.3 Asymptotic Notations

4.3.4 Best, Worst, and Average ease Efficiency
Pu

4.4 Algorithm for Searching Techniques

4.4.1 Linear Search
4.4.2. Binary Search
ra

4.5 Sorting Techniques

4.5.1 Bubble sort algorithm
Su

4.5.2 Selection sort

4.5.3 Insertion sort
4.6 Dynamic programming
4.6.1 Fibonacci Series – An example
4.6.2 Fibonacci Iterative Algorithm with Dynamic programming approach

[29]

orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757

Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science
Evaluation
This material only for sample
Part - I
Choose the best answer  (1 mark)
1. The word comes from the name of a Persian
mathematician Abu Ja’far Mohammed ibn-i
Musa al Khowarizmi is called?
(a) Flowchart (b) Flow
(c) Algorithm (d) Syntax
[Ans. (c) Algorithm]
2. From the following sorting algorithms which
algorithm needs the minimum number of
swaps?
(a) Bubble sort (b) Quick sort
(c) Merge sort (d) Selection sort
[Ans. (d) Selection sort]
3. Two main measures for the efficiency of an
algorithm are
(a) Processor and memory
ic
(b) Complexity and capacity
bl
(c) Time and space (d) Data and space
[Ans. (c) Time and space]
Pu
4. The complexity of linear search algorithm is
(a) O(n) (b) O(log n)
(c) O(n2) (d) O(n log n)
ra
[Ans. (a) O(n)]
5. From the following sorting algorithms which
Su
has the lowest worst case complexity?
(a) Bubble sort (b) Quick sort
(c) Merge sort (d) Selection sort
[Ans. (c) Merge sort]
6. Which of the following is not a stable sorting
algorithm?
(a) Insertion sort (b) Selection sort
(c) Bubble sort (d) Merge sort
[Ans. (b) Selection sort]
7. Time complexity of bubble sort in best case is
(a) θ (n) (b) θ (nlogn)
(c) θ (n2) (d) θ (n(logn) 2)
[Ans. (a) θ (n)]
30
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
8. The Θ notation in asymptotic evaluation
represents
(a) Base case (b) Average case
(c) Worst case (d) NULL case
[Ans. (b) Average case]
9. If a problem can be broken into subproblems
which are reused several times, the problem
possesses which property?
(a) Overlapping subproblems
(b) Optimal substructure
(c) Memoization
(d) Greedy
[Ans. (a) Overlapping subporblems]
ns
10. In dynamic programming, the technique of
storing the previously calculated values is
io
called ?
at (a) Saving value property
(b) Storing value property
(c) Memoization
(d) Mapping [Ans. (c) Memoization]
Part - II
Answer the following questions
 (2 marks)
1. What is an Algorithm?
Ans. An algorithm is a finite set of instructions to
accomplish a particular task. It is a step-by-step
procedure for solving a given problem.
2. Define Pseudo code.
Ans. (i) Pseudo code is an informal high level
description of the operations principle of a
computer program or other algorithm.
(ii) It uses the structural conventions of a
normal programming language, but is
intended for human reading rather than
machine reading.
3. Who is an Algorist?
Ans. (i) Algorism is the technique of performing
basic arithmetic by writing numbers in
place value form and applying a set of
memorized rules and facts to the digits.
(ii) One who practices algorism is known as an
algorist.
 
www.surabooks.com

4. What is Sorting?
This material only for sample

Sura’s
www.surabooks.com

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

3. What are the factors that influence time and

Ans. Sorting is any process of arranging information
or data in an ordered sequence either in
ascending or descending order.
5. What is searching? Write its types.
Ans. Searching is designed to check for an element
or retrieve an element from any data structure
where it is store(d)
Types :
(i) Linear Search
(ii) Binary Search.
Part - III
Answer the following questions
 (3 marks)
Algorithmic strategies
space complexity?
Ans. (i) Time Factor -Time is measured by
counting the number of key operations like
comparisons in the sorting algorithm.
(ii) Space Factor - Space is measured by the
maximum memory space required by the
algorithm.
4. Write a note on Asymptotic notation.
Ans. Asymptotic Notations are languages that uses
meaningful statements about time and space
complexity. The following three asymptotic
notations are mostly used to represent time
complexity of algorithms:

ns
(i) Big O : Big O is often used to describe the
worst-case of an algorithm.
1. List the characteristics of an algorithm.
(ii) Big Ω : Big Omega is the reverse Big O, if

io
Ans. (i) Input
Bi O is used to describe the upper bound
(ii) Output (worst - case) of a asymptotic function, Big
(iii) Finiteness
at Omega is used to describe the lower bound
(iv) Definiteness (best-case).
ic
(v) Effectiveness (iii) Big Θ : When an algorithm has a complexity
bl

(vi) Correctness with lower bound = upper bound, say that

(vii) Simplicity an algorithm has a complexity O (n log
Pu

(viii) Unambiguous n) and Ω (n log n), it’s actually has the

(ix) Feasibility complexity Θ (n log n), which means the
(x) Portable running time of that algorithm always falls
(xi) Independent in n log n in the best-case and worst-case.
ra

2. Discuss about Algorithmic complexity and its 5. What do you understand by Dynamic
types. programming?
Su

Ans. The complexity of an algorithm f (n) gives the
running time and/or the storage space required
by the algorithm in terms of n as the size of input
data.
(i) Time Complexity : The Time complexity
of an algorithm is given by the number of
steps taken by the algorithm to complete
the process.
(ii) Space Complexity : Space complexity
of an algorithm is the amount of memory
required to run to its completion.
Ans. (i) Dynamic programming is an algorithmic
design method that can be used when the
solution to a problem can be viewed as the
result of a sequence of decisions.
(ii) Dynamic programming approach is similar
to divide and conquer. The given problem
is divided into smaller and yet smaller
possible sub-problems.
(iii) Dynamic programming is used whenever
problems can be divided into similar
sub-problems. So that their results can be
re-used to complete the process.

31
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science
(iv) Dynamic programming approaches are
used to find the solution in optimized way.
This material only for sample
For every inner sub problem, dynamic
algorithm will try to check the results of
the previously solved sub-problems. The
solutions of overlapped sub-problems are
combined in order to get the better solution.
Part - IV
Answer the following questions
 (5 marks)
1. Explain the characteristics of an algorithm.
Ans.
Input Zero or more quantities to be
supplied.
Output Al least one quantity is produced.
Finiteness
Algorithms must terminate after
finites number of steps.
Definiteness
all operations should be well
defined. For example operations
ic
involving division by zero or
bl
taking square root for negative
number are unacceptable.
Pu
Effectiveness Every instruction must be carried
out effectively.
Correctness The algorithms should be error
free.
ra
Simplicity East to implement.
Su
Unambiguous Algorithm should be clear and
unambiguous. Each of its steps
and their inputs/outputs should
be clear and must lead to only one
meaning.
Feasibility Should be feasible with the
available resources.
Portable An algorithm should be generic,
independent of any programming
language or an operating system
able to handle all range of inputs.
Independent An algorithm should have
step-by-step directions, which
should be independent of any
programming code.
32
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
2. Discuss about Linear search algorithm.
Ans. (i) Linear search also called sequential search is
a sequential method for finding a particular
value in a list.
(ii) This method checks the search element with
each element in sequence until the desired
element is found or the list is exhausted. In
this searching algorithm, list need not be
ordered.
Pseudo code :
(i) Traverse the array using for loop
(ii)  In every iteration, compare the target
search key value with the current value of
the list.
 If the values match, display the current
ns
index and value of the array
If the values do not match, move on to the
io
next array element.
at (iii) If no match is found, display the search
element not found.
To search the number 25 in the array given
below, linear search will go step by step in a
sequential order starting from the first element
in the given array if the search element is found
that index is returned otherwise the search is
continued till the last index of the array. In this
example number 25 is found at index number 3.
index 0 1 2 3 4
values 10 12 20 25 30
Example 1 :
Input: values[] = {5, 34, 65, 12, 77, 35}
target = 77
Output: 4
Example 2:
Input: values[] = {101, 392, 1, 54, 32, 22, 90, 93}
target = 200
Output: -1 (not found)
3. What is Binary search? Discuss with example.
Ans. Binary search : Binary search also called half-
interval search algorithm. It finds the position
of a search element within a sorted array. The
binary search algorithm can be done as divide-
and-conquer search algorithm and executes in
logarithmic time.


www.surabooks.com
Pseudo code for Binary search :
Start with the middle element:
This material only for sample
Sura’s
(i) If the search element is equal to the middle
element of the array i.e., the middle value =
number of elements in array/2, then return
the index of the middle element.
(ii) If not, then compare the middle element
with the search value,
(iii) If the search element is greater than the
number in the middle index, then select
the elements to the right side of the middle
index, and go to Step-1.
(iv)  If the search element is less than the
number in the middle index, then select
the elements to the left side of the middle
index, and start with Step-1.
(v) When a match is found, display success
message with the index of the element
matched.
(vi) If no match is found for all comparisons,
then display unsuccessful message.
Binary Search Working principles :
at
(i) List of elements in an array must be sorted
ic
first for Binary search. The following
bl
example describes the step by step operation
of binary search.
Pu
(ii) Consider the following array of elements,
the array is being sorted so it enables to do
the binary search algorithm. Let us assume
that the search element is 60 and we need
ra
to search the location or index of search
element 60 using binary search.
Su
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(iii) First, we find index of middle element of
the array by using this formula :
mid = low + (high - low) / 2
(iv) Here it is, 0 + (9 - 0 ) / 2 = 4 (fractional part
ignored). So, 4 is the mid value of the array.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(v) Now compare the search element with the
value stored at mid value location 4. The
value stored at location or index 4 is 50,
which is not match with search element. As
the search value 60 is greater than 50.
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
www.surabooks.com
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
Algorithmic strategies
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(vi) Now we change our low to mid + 1 and find
the new mid value again using the formula.
low to mid + 1
mid = low + (high - low) / 2
(vii) Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the
value stored at location 7 with our target
value 31.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ns
(viii) The value stored at location or index 7 is
not a match with search element, rather it is
more than what we are looking for. So, the
io
search element must be in the lower part
from the current mid value location
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(ix) The search element still not found. Hence,
we calculated the mid again by using the
formula.
high = mid -1
mid = low + (high - low)/2
Now the mid value is 5.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(x) Now we compare the value stored at
location 5 with our search element. We
found that it is a match.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(xi) We can conclude that the search element 60
is found at location or index 5. For example
if we take the search element as 95, For this
value this binary search algorithm return
unsuccessful result.
33
Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science

4. Explain the Bubble sort algorithm with
example.
 
This material only for sample

(v) The
www.surabooks.com

Ans. Bubble sort algorithm:
(i) Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
The algorithm starts at the beginning of the
list of values stored in an array. It compares
each pair of adjacent elements and swaps
them if they are in the unsorted order.
(ii) This comparison and passed to be continued
until no swaps are needed, which indicates
that the list of values stored in an array is
sorted. The algorithm is a comparison sort,
is named for the way smaller elements
"bubble" to the top of the list.
(iii) Although the algorithm is simple, it is too
slow and less efficient when compared to
www.nammakalvi.org
above pictorial example is for
iteration–1. Similarly, remaining iteration
can be done. The final iteration will give the
sorted array. At the end of all the iterations
we will get the sorted values in an array as
given below :
11 12 13 14 15 16
5. Explain the concept of Dynamic programming
with suitable example.
(i) Dynamic programming is an algorithmic
design method that can be used when the
solution to a problem can be viewed as the
result of a sequence of decisions.
(ii) Dynamic programming approach is similar

ns
insertion sort and other sorting methods. to divide and conquer. The given problem
(iv) Assume list is an array of n elements. The is divided into smaller and yet smaller
swap function swaps the values of the given

io
possible sub-problems.
array elements.
(iii) Dynamic programming is used whenever
Pseudo code :
(i) Start with the first element i.e., index = 0,
at problems can be divided into similar sub-
compare the current element with the next problems. so that their results can be re-
ic
element of the array. used to complete the process.
(ii) If the current element is greater than the (iv) Dynamic programming approaches are
bl

next element of the array, swap them. used to find the solution in optimized way.
Pu

(iii) If the current element is less than the next
or right side of the element, move to the
next element. Go to Step 1 and repeat until
end of the index is reached.
ra
For every inner sub problem, dynamic
algorithm will try to check the results of the
previously solved sub-problems.
(v) The solutions of overlapped sub-problems

(iv) Let's consider an array with values {15, 11, are combined in order to get the better
16, 12, 14, 13} Below, we have a pictorial solution.
Su

representation of how bubble sort will sort Steps to do Dynamic programming :

the given array.
(i)  The given problem will be divided into
15>11
15 11 16 12 14 13 smaller overlapping sub-problems.
So interchange
(ii) An optimum solution for the given problem
15>16
15 11 16 12 14 13 can be achieved by using result of smaller
No swapping
sub-problem.
(iii) Dynamic algorithms uses Memoization.
16>12
11 15 16 12 14 13
So interchange Fibonacci Series – An example :
(i) Fibonacci series generates the subsequent
16>14 11 15 12 16 14 13 number by adding two previous numbers.
So interchange
Fibonacci series starts from two numbers −
16>13 Fib 0 & Fib 1. The initial values of Fib 0 &
11 15 12 14 16 13
So interchange Fib 1 can be taken as 0 and 1.

11 15 12 14 13 16

34
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample
(ii) Fibonacci series satisfies the following
conditions :
Fibn = Fibn-1 + Fibn-2
(iii) Hence, a Fibonacci series for the n value 8
can look like this
Fib8 = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Fibonacci Iterative Algorithm with Dynamic
programming approach : The following exam-
ple shows a simple Dynamic programming
approach for the generation of Fibonacci series.
Initialize f0=0, f1 =1
additional questions and Answers
Choose the Correct Answer 1 MARK 6. Which of the following is not a type of
1. Which of the following is a finite set of
instructions to accomplish a particular task?
(a) Flowchart (b) Functions
(c) Algorithm (d) Abstraction
 [Ans. (c) Algorithm]
ic
2. Which of the following are the characteristics
bl
of an algorithm?
(i) Definiteness
Pu
(ii) Correctness
(iii) Effectiveness
(a) i, ii (b) ii, iii
ra
(c) Only ii (d) i, ii and iii
[Ans. (d) i, ii and iii]
Su
3. Which of the following is not a characteristic
of an algorithm?
(a) Definiteness (b) Correctness
(c) Data structure (d) Effectiveness
 [Ans. (c) Data structure]
4. Which of the following is not an example of
data structures?
(a) Control statement (b) Structure
(c) List (d) Dictionary
 [Ans. (a) Control statement]
5. Which of the following is an example of data
structures?
(a) List (b) Tuple
(c) Dictionary (d) All of these.
 [Ans. (d) All of these]
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
step-1: Print the initial values of Fibonacci f0
and f1
Algorithmic strategies
step-2: Calculate fibanocci fib ← f0 + f1
step-3: Assign f0← f1, f1← fib
step-4: Print the next consecutive value of
fibanocci fib
step-5: Goto step-2 and repeat until the specified
number of terms generated
For example if we generate fibobnacci series
upto 10 digits, the algorithm will generate the
series as shown below:
The Fibonacci series is : 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55.
ns
searching technique?
(i) Linear (ii) Binary
io
(iii) Selection (iv) Merge
at (a) Only i (b) Only ii
(c) Only iii (d) iii and iv
[Ans. (d) iii and iv]
7. Which of the following is not a sorting
technique?
(a) Bubble (b) Binary
(c) Insertion (d) Quick
 [Ans. (b) Binary]
8. The way of defining an algorithm is called
(a) Pseudo strategy
(b) Programmic strategy
(c) Algorithmic strategy
(d) Data structured strategy
 [Ans. (c) Algorithmic strategy]
9. Which characteristics of algorithm defined the
operation involving division by zero?
(a) Finiteness (b) Definiteness
(c) Input (d) Correctness
 [Ans. (b) Definiteness]
10. Which characteristics of an algorithm should
be generic, independent of any programming
language?
(a) Independent (b) Portable
(c) Feasibility (d) Unambiguous
[Ans. (b) Portable]
35
Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s ➠ XII Std - Computer Science
3. Choose the incorrect pair from the following
(a) Big O – Worst case
This material only for sample
(b) Big Ω - First case
(c) Big µ - Best case
(d) Big α - Average case
 [Ans. (b) Big Ω - First case]
4. Choose the incorrect statement from the
following.
(i) In Algorithm, All operations in should be
well defined
(ii) Algorithms must not terminate after finite
number of steps.
(iii) In algorithms, errors are acceptable
(iv) An algorithm should have step-by-step
directions.
(a) i and ii (b) i, iii and iv
(c) ii and iii (d) iii only
 [Ans. (c) ii and iii]
Very Short Answers 2 MARKS
ic
1. Give an example of data structures.
bl
Ans. Examples for data structures are arrays,
structures, list, tuples, dictionary.
Pu
2. What in algorithmic strategy? Give an
example.
Ans. (i) The way of defining an algorithm is called
ra
algorithmic strategy.
(ii) For example to calculate factorial for
Su
the given value n then it can be done by
defining the function to calculate factorial
once for the iteration-1 then it can be called
recursively until the number of required
iteration is reached.
3. What is algorithmic solution?
Ans. An algorithm that yields expected output for a
valid input is called an algorithmic solution.
4. How the efficiency of an algorithm is defined?
Ans. Efficiency of an algorithm is defined by the
utilization of time and space complexity.
5. What does analysis of an algorithm deals with?
Ans. (i) Analysis of an algorithm usually deals with
the running and execution time of various
operations involved.
40
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
 
www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
(ii) The running time of an operation is
calculated as how many programming
instructions is executed per operation.
6. What is algorithm analysis?
Ans. An estimation of the time and space complexities
of an algorithm for varying input sizes is called
algorithm analysis.
7. How the analysis of algorithms and
performance evaluation can be divided?
Explain.
Ans. Analysis of algorithms and performance
evaluation can be divided into two different
phases:
(i) A Priori estimates : This is a theoretical
performance analysis of an algorithm.
ns
Efficiency of an algorithm is measured by
assuming the external factors.
io
(ii) A Posteriori testing : This is called
at performance measurement. In this analysis,
actual statistics like running time and
required for the algorithm executions are
collected.
8. Name the two factors, which decide the
efficiency of an algorithm.
Ans. (i) Time factor
(ii) Space factor
9. Give an example. How the time efficiency of an
algorithm is measured.
Ans. The time efficiency of an algorithm is measured
by different factors. For example, write a program
for a defined algorithm, execute it by using any
programming language, and measure the total
time it takes to run.
10. What is algorithmetic strategy?
Ans. A way of designing algorithm is called algorithmic
strategy.
11. What is best algorithm?
Ans. The best algorithm to solve a given problem is
one that requires less space in memory and takes
less time to execute its instructions to generate
output.
12. What are asymptotic notations?
Ans. Asymptotic Notations are languages that uses
meaningful statements about time and space
complexity.
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample
13. What are the three asymptotic notations used
to represent time complexity of algorithms?
Ans. (i) Big O
(ii) Big W
(iii) Big μ
14. Write a note on Big omega asymptotic
notation.
Ans. Big Omega is the reverse Big O, if Big O is used
to describe the upper bound (worst - case) of
a asymptotic function, Big Omega is used to
describe the lower bound (best-case).
15. Write a note on memorization.
Ans. Memoization or memoisation is an optimization
technique used primarily to speed up computer
programs by storing the results of expensive
function calls and returning the cached result
when the same inputs occur again.
Short Answers 3 MARKS
1. List the manipulation manipulated effectively
through data structures by algorithm.
ic
Ans. variables for an algorithm. For example,
bl
Search To search an item in a data
structure using linear and binary
Pu
search.
Sort To sort items in a certain order
using the methods such as bubble
ra
sort, insertion sort, selection sort,
etc.
Insert
Su
To insert an item (s) in a data
structure.
Update To updata an existing item (s) in a
data structure.
Delete To delete an existing item (s) in a
data structure.
2. Design an algorithm to find square of the
given number and display the result.
Ans. The algorithm can be written as:
Step 1 – start the process
Step 2 – get the input x
Step 3 – calculate the square by multiplying the
input value ie., square ← x* x
Step 4 − display the result square
Step 5 − stop
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
3. Write a note on time/space trade off.
Algorithmic strategies
Ans. (i) A space-time or time-memory trade off
is a way of solving in less time by using
more storage space or by solving a given
algorithm in very little space by spending
more time.
(ii) To solve a given programming problem,
many different algorithms may be used.
Some of these algorithms may be extremely
time-efficient and others extremely space-
efficient.
(iii) Time/space trade off refers to a situation
where you can reduce the use of memory
at the cost of slower program execution,
or reduce the running time at the cost of
ns
increased memory usage.
4. Write a note on two factors in which space
io
required by an algorithm is decided.
Ans. The space required by an algorithm is equal to
at the sum of the following two components:
(i) A fixed part is defined as the total
space required to store certain data and
simple variables and constants used in an
algorithm.
(ii) A variable part is defined as the total
space required by variables, which sizes
depends on the problem and its iteration.
For example: recursion used to calculate
factorial of a given value n.
5. Write the different factors in which the time
efficiency of an algorithm its measured.
Ans. The execution time that you measure in this case
would depend on a number of factors such as:
(i) Speed of the machine
(ii) Compiler and other system Software tools
(iii) Operating System
(iv) Programming language used
(v) Volume of data required
6. Write a pseudo code for linear search.
Ans. (i) Traverse the array using 'for loop'
(ii) In every iteration, compare the target
search key value with the current value of
the list.
(iii) 
If the values match, display the current
index and value of the array
41
Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com
Sura’s
This material only for sample
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
(iv) If the values do not match, move on to the
next array element.
(v) If no match is found, display the search
element not found.
7. Write a pseudo code for Binary search.
Ans. Start with the middle element:
(i) If the search element is equal to the middle
element of the array i.e., the middle value =
number of elements in array/2, then return
the index of the middle element.
(ii) If not, then compare the middle element
with the search value,
(iii) If the search element is greater than the
number in the middle index, then select
the elements to the right side of the middle
index, and go to Step-1.
(iv)  If the search element is less than the
number in the middle index, then select
the elements to the left side of the middle
index, and start with Step-1.
(v) When a match is found, display success
message with the index of the element
ic
matched.
(vi) If no match is found for all comparisons,
bl
then display unsuccessful message.
8. Write a pseudo code for bubble sort.
Pu
Ans. (i) Start with the first element i.e., index = 0,
compare the current element with the next
element of the array.
ra
(ii) If the current element is greater than the
next element of the array, swap them.
Su
(iii) If the current element is less than the next
or right side of the element, move to the
next element. Go to Step 1 and repeat until
end of the index is reached.
9. Write a pseudo code for selection sort.
Ans. (i) Start from the first element i.e., index-0,
we search the smallest element in the array,
and replace it with the element in the first
position.
(ii) Now we move on to the second element
position, and look for smallest element
present in the sub-array, from starting
index to till the last index of sub - array.
(iii) Now replace the second smallest identified
in step-2 at the second position in the or
original array, or also called first position in
the sub array.
42
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
  www.surabooks.com
www.nammakalvi.org
10. Write a pseudo code for Insertion sort.
Ans. Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already
sorted.
Step 2 − Pick next element
Step 3 − Compare with all elements in the sorted
sub-list
Step 4 − Shift all the elements in the sorted
sub-list that is greater than the value to
be sorted
Step 5 − Insert the value
Step 6 − Repeat until list is sorted.
11. Write the steps to do dynamic programming.
Ans. (i)  The given problem will be divided into
smaller overlapping sub-problems.
ns
(ii) An optimum solution for the given problem
can be achieved by using result of smaller
sub-problem.
io
(iii) Dynamic algorithms uses Memoization.
at
12. Write a pseudo code that defines Fibonacci
Iterative algorithm with Dynamic
programming approach.
Ans. The following shows a simple Dynamic
programming approach for the generation of
Fibonacci series.
Initialize f0=0, f1 =1
Step 1 - Print the initial values of Fibonacci f0
and f1
Step 2 - Calculate fibanocci fib ← f0 + f1
Step 3 - Assign f0← f1, f1← fib
Step 4 - Print the next consecutive value of
fibanocci fib
step 5 - Goto step-2 and repeat until the specified
number of terms generated
For example if we generate fibobnacci series
upto 10 digits, the algorithm will generate the
series as shown below:
The Fibonacci series is : 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
Long Answers 5 MARKS
1. Explain Best, worst and Average case efficiency
of an algorithm with an example.
Ans. (i) Let us assume a list of n number of values
stored in an array. Suppose if we want to
search a particular element in this list, the
algorithm that search the key element in
 
www.surabooks.com This material only for sample
the list among n elements, by comparing
the key element with each element in the
list sequentially.
(ii) The best case would be if the first element in
the list matches with the key element to be
searched in a list of elements. The efficiency
in that case would be expressed as O(1)
because only one comparison is enough.
(iii) Similarly, the worst case in this scenario
would be if the complete list is searched and
the element is found only at the end of the
list or is not found in the list. The efficiency
of an algorithm in that case would be
expressed as O(n) because n comparisons
required to complete the search.
(iv) The average case efficiency of an algorithm
can be obtained by finding the average
number of comparisons as given below:
Minimum number of comparisons = 1
Maximum number of comparisons = n
If the element not found then
maximum number of comparison = n
ic
Therefore, average number
of comparisons = (n + 1)/2
bl
(v) Hence the average case efficiency will be
expressed as O (n).
Pu
2. Explain complexity of an algorithm.
Ans. Suppose A is an algorithm and n is the size
of input data, the time and space used by the
ra
algorithm A are the two main factors, which
decide the efficiency of A.
Su
(i) Time Factor : Time is measured by
counting the number of key operations like
comparisons in the sorting algorithm.
(ii) Space Factor : Space is measured by the
maximum memory space required by the
algorithm. The complexity of an algorithm
f (n) gives the running time and/or the
storage space required by the algorithm in
terms of n as the size of input data.
(iii) Time Complexity : The Time complexity
of an algorithm is given by the number of
steps taken by the algorithm to complete
the process.
(iv) Space Complexity : Space complexity of
an algorithm is the amount of memory
required to run to its completion. The space
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
Sura’s
www.surabooks.com
➠ XII Std - Computer Science
required by an algorithm is equal to the
Algorithmic strategies
sum of the following two components:
■ A fixed part is defined as the total
space required to store certain data and
variables for an algorithm. For example,
simple variables and constants used in an
algorithm.
■ A variable part is defined as the total
space required by variables, which sizes
depends on the problem and its iteration.
For example: recursion used to calculate
factorial of a given value n.
3. Write a note on Efficiency of an algorithm.
Ans. (i) Computer resources are limited that should
be utilized efficiently. The efficiency of
ns
an algorithm is defined as the number
of computational resources used by the
algorithm.
io
at (ii) An algorithm must be analyzed to
determine its resource usage. The efficiency
of an algorithm can be measured based on
the usage of different resources.
(iii) For maximum efficiency of algorithm
we wish to minimize resource usage. The
important resources such as time and space
complexity cannot be compared directly,
so time and space complexity could be
considered for an algorithmic efficiency.
Method for determining Efficiency :
(i) The efficiency of an algorithm depends on
how efficiently it uses time and memory
space.
(ii) The time efficiency of an algorithm is
measured by different factors. For example,
write a program for a defined algorithm,
execute it by using any programming
language, and measure the total time it
takes to run.
(iii) The execution time that you measure in this
case would depend on a number of factors
such as:
■ Speed of the machine
■ Compiler and other system Software
tools
■ Operating System
43
Unit I - Chapter 4
www.surabooks.com

Sura’s


■
■
This material only for sample

➠ XII Std - Computer Science

Programming language used
Volume of data required
  www.surabooks.com

(iv) However, to determine how efficiently
an algorithm solves a given problem, you
would like to determine how the execution
time is affected by the nature of the
algorithm.
(v) Therefore, we need to develop fundamental
laws that determine the efficiency of a
program in terms of the nature of the
underlying algorithm.
4. Differentiate Algorithm and program.
Ans.
Algorithm Program
www.nammakalvi.org
(iii) This algorithm repeatedly selects the next-
smallest element and swaps in into the
right place for every pass. Hence it is called
selection sort.
Pseudo code :
(i) Start from the first element i.e., index-0,
we search the smallest element in the array,
and replace it with the element in the first
position.
(ii) Now we move on to the second element
position, and look for smallest element
present in the sub-array, from starting
index to till the last index of sub - array.
(iii) Now replace the second smallest identified
in step-2 at the second position in the or

ns
original array, or also called first position in
Algorithm helps to Program is an expression
the sub array.
solve a given problem of algorithm in a
(iv) This is repeated, until the array is completely

io
logically and it can be programming language.
contrasted with the at sorted.
program (v) Let's consider an array with values {13, 16,
Algorithm can be Algorithm can be 11, 18, 14, 15}
ic
categorized based on implemented by (vi) Below, we have a pictorial representation of
their implementation structured or object how selection sort will sort the given array.
bl

methods, design oriented programming 6. Explain the sorting algorithm that uses n-1
techniques etc approach number passes to get the final sorted list.
Pu

There is no specific Program should be written

Ans. (i) Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
rules for algorithm for the selected language
It works by taking elements from the list
writing but some with specific syntax
one by one and inserting then in their
ra

guidelines should be
correct position in to a new sorted list.
followed.
(ii) This algorithm builds the final sorted array
Su

Algorithm resembles Program is more specific
a pseudo code which to a programming
can be implemented language
in any language
5. Explain Selection sort sorting algorithm.
Ans. (i) The selection sort is a simple sorting
algorithm that improves on the performance
of bubble sort by making only one exchange
for every pass through the list.
(ii) This algorithm will first find the smallest
elements in array and swap it with the
element in the first position of an array,
then it will find the second smallest element
and swap that element with the element in
the second position, and it will continue
until the entire array is sorted in respective
order.

44
orders@surabooks.com Ph: 81242 01000 / 812430 1000 / 96001 75757
at the end. This algorithm uses n-1 number
of passes to get the final sorted list as per the
pervious algorithm as we have discussed.
Pseudo for Insertion sort :
Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already
sorted.
Step 2 − Pick next element
Step 3 − Compare with all elements in the sorted
sub-list
Step 4 − Shift all the elements in the sorted sub-
list that is greater than the value to be
sorted
Step 5 − Insert the value
Step 6 − Repeat until list is sorted
www.nammakalvi.org