UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

CELL AND ITS STRUCTURE

CELL: The fundamental unit of every animal or plant is cells. Combination of cells is called TISSUES.
Every ORGAN in the body is made up of combination of many tissues. All cells are same and they
contain a gelatinous substance made up of or composed of water, protein, acids, fats, and various
minerals.

CELL MEMBRANE: Cell membrane protects the cell and surrounds it that passes into and out of the
cell.
NUCLEUS: The nucleus controls the structure of the cell. Cell reproduction process is directed by the
nucleus only and which determines the function of the cell and the structure of the cell.
CHROMOSOMES: These are rod-like structures inside the cell. Human body cells (other than sex cells,
the egg, and sperm cells) contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Sex cells, such as sperm and egg cells have 23
single chromosomes only. When one egg cell unites with a sperm cell to for an embryo, then the
embryonic cell has 46 chromosomes i.e. 23 pairs...understand the difference... Chromosomes contains the
regions called GENES. Thousands of genes are in an orderly sequence on each chromosome. Gene is
made up of a chemical substance called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is an important compound
that regulates the activities of the cell in a sequential order on each chromosome. The DNA is a series of
codes. When DNA activity carries out of the nucleus to other parts of the cell, the activities of the cell i.e.
cellular reproduction and the manufacture of proteins are controlled by DNA.
CYTOPLASM: It means cyto means cell, plasm means formation. Cytoplasm carries the work of a cell
i.e. nerve cell conducts stimulation, muscle cell contracts. Cytoplasm contains MITOCHODRIA and
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
MITOCHONDRIA: It is called power center of the cell. This is small and sausage-shaped bodies produce
energy by burning food in the presence of oxygen. This process is called catabolism (cata-down, bol-to
cast, -ism-process). This process makes complex food particles into simpler substances and energy is
released after this action to do the work of the cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: These like canal-like structures-this is a network within the cell. These
canals contain a very small structures called RIBOSOMES like a tunnel system in this proteins are
produced for the use of the cell. This process is called ANABOLISM (ana-up, bol-to cast, -ism-process).
After this process, complex proteins are made up from the simpler parts of food.
Smaller proteins linked like a chain to become complex proteins in this process. Both these catabolism
and anabolism in combination is called METABOLISM (meta-change, bol-to cast, -ism- process) i.e total
chemical activities that occuring in a cell. In this process, the sugars and fat in the food are used up and
burned quickly and so the ENERGY is released

CELL MEMBRANE : All cells have a phospholipids based cell membrane. The cell membrane is
selectively permeable in that it allows some materials to pass into or out of the cell but not others.
CYTOPLASM : Cells are filled with a complex collection of of substances in a water based solution. This
substance is called cytoplasm. Across all cells there are a number of common features to all cell
cytoplasm. For example all cells have ribosome's. Also, in all cells the first steps in cellular respiration
take place in the cytoplasm.
DNA: All cells contain DNA. In the simplest cells, the DNA is in one loop more loop like structures free
in the cytoplasm. In some cells such as those making up our body the DNA is isolated from the cytoplasm
in a special structure called a nucleus. Remember not all cells have a nucleus.

ACTION AND RESTING –PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

Resting and Action potentials

Resting Potential [Polarization]

 Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve and muscle cells are encased in a semi
permeable membrane. This membrane permits some substances to pass through while others are
kept out. Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids. These fluids are conductive
solutions containing charged atoms known as ions.
 The principle ions are sodium (Na+ ) Potassium (K+ ) and chloride (Cl - ). The membrane of
excitable cells permits entry of Potassium (K+ ) and chloride(C- ) ions but blocks the entry of
sodium (Na+ ) ions. So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell. This membrane
potential is called Resting potentials. This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect
to body fluids. So resting potential of a cell is negative.
 This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.
 Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.
Action Potential [Depolarization]

 When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by some form of
externally applied energy,, the membrane allows some Na+ and try to reach some balance of
potential inside and outside. Same time the some K+ goes outside but not rapidly like sodium.
 As a result, the cell has slightly Positive potential on the inside Due to the imbalance of the
Potassium ions. This potential is known as “action potential” and is approximately +20 mV.
 A cell that has been excited and that displays an action potential is said to be depolarized and
process from resting to action potential is called depolarization
Characteristics of Resting and Action Potential

Propagation of action potentials

When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials ionic currents to flow. This process excite
neighboring cells or adjacent area of the same cell
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is propagate from cell to cell is called
the propagation rate.
In nerve fiber the propagation rate is also called the nerve conduction rate, or conduction
velocity. Velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second. In heart muscle, the rate is
slower, average 0.2 to 0.4 m/sec.

An action potential (also known as a nerve impulse or a spike) is a self-regenerating wave of

electrochemical activity that allows excitable cells (such as muscle and nerve cells) to carry a signal over
a distance. It is the primary electrical signal generated by nerve cells, and arises from changes in the
permeability of the nerve cell's axonal membranes to specific ions. Action potentials are pulse-like waves
of voltage that travel along several types of cell membranes

Relatively static membrane potential of quiescent cells is called resting membrane potential (or resting
voltage), as opposed to the specific dynamic electrochemical phenomenon called action potential and
graded membrane potential.
Sodium pump

The process of active transport differs from diffusion in that molecules are transported away from
thermodynamic equilibrium; hence, energy is required. This energy can come from the hydrolysis of
ATP, from electron movement, or from light. The maintenance of electrochemical gradients in biologic
systems is so important that it consumes perhaps 30–40% of the total energy expenditure in a cell. In
general, cells maintain a low intracellular Na+ concentration and a high intracellular K+ concentration,
along with a net negative electrical potential inside. The pump that maintains these gradients is an
ATPase that is activated by Na+ and K+ (Na+-K+ATPase).

The ATPase is an integral membrane protein and requires phospholipids for activity. The ATPase has
catalytic centers for both ATP and Na+ on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane, but the K+ binding site
is located on the extracellular side of the membrane. Ouabain or digitalis inhibits this ATPase by binding
to the extracellular domain. Inhibition of the ATPase by ouabain can be antagonized by extracellular K+.

The intracellular Na+ concentration is lower than the extracellular.To equalize the difference, Na+
automatically flows into the cell via channels in the cell membrane, but it is continuously pumped out
again by means of the sodium-potassium pump.

It is very important that the pump continuously maintains the (unequal) intracellular and extracellular
Na+ balance because the flow of Na+ into a nerve cell forms the basis for the nerve impulses that make it
possible for us to move

Nervous system and its fundamentals

The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and
from different parts of its body. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts,

 The central nervous system (CNS)

 The peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are
enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the
body.
 Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those
nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent.
 Spinal nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves.

 A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information
through electrical and chemical signals. These signals between neurons occur via specialized
connections called synapses. Neurons can connect to each other to form neural networks.
Neurons are major components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system, and of
the autonomic ganglia of the peripheral nervous system.
 There are several types of specialized neurons. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as
touch, sound or light and all other stimuli affecting the cells of the sensory organs that then send
signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord
to cause muscle contractions and affect glandular outputs. Interneurons connect neurons to other
neurons within the same region of the brain, or spinal cord in neural networks.
 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 The brain plays a central role in the control of most bodily functions, including awareness,
movements, sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory. Some reflex movements can occur via spinal
cord pathways without the participation of brain structures.
 The spinal cord is connected to a section of the brain called the brainstem and runs through the spinal
canal. Cranial nerves exit the brainstem. Nerve roots exit the spinal cord to both sides of the body.
The spinal cord carries signals (messages) back and forth between the brain and the peripheral nerves.
 Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and also circulates within the cavities
(called ventricles) of the central nervous system.
 Billions of neurons allow the different parts of the body to communicate with each other via the brain
and the spinal cord. A fatty material called myelin coats nerve cells to insulate them and to allow
nerves to communicate quickly.

CEREBRUM :

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls voluntary actions, speech, senses, thought, and
memory. The cerebrum is divided into two halves, known as the right and left hemispheres. A mass of
fibers called the corpus callosum links the hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls voluntary limb
movements on the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls voluntary limb movements on
the right side of the body. Almost every person has one dominant hemisphere. Each hemisphere is divided
into four lobes, or areas, which are interconnected.

 The frontal lobes are located in the front of the brain and are responsible for voluntary movement and,
via their connections with other lobes, participate in the execution of sequential tasks; speech output;
organizational skills; and certain aspects of behavior, mood, and memory.
 The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes. They process
sensory information such as temperature, pain, taste, and touch. In addition, the processing includes
information about numbers, attentiveness to the position of one's body parts, the space around one's
body, and one's relationship to this space.
 The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain. They process memory and auditory
(hearing) information and speech and language functions.
 The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They receive and process visual information.
CEREBELLUM :

The cerebellum has been known to control equilibrium and coordination and contributes to the
generation of muscle tone. It has more recently become evident, however, that the cerebellum plays
more diverse roles such as participating in some types of memory and exerting a complex influence on
musical and mathematical skills.

BRAINSTEM:

The brainstem connects the brain with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, the pons, and the
medulla oblongata. It is a compact structure in which multiple pathways traverse from the brain to the
spinal cord and vice versa. For instance, nerves that arise from cranial nerve nuclei are involved with eye
movements and exit the brainstem at several levels.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

Nerve fibers that exit the brainstem and spinal cord become part of the peripheral nervous system. Cranial
nerves exit the brainstem and function as peripheral nervous system mediators of many functions,
including eye movements, facial strength and sensation, hearing, and taste. Fibers that carry motor input
to limbs and fibers that bring sensory information from the limbs to the spinal cord grow together to form
a mixed (motor and sensory) peripheral nerve.

The measurements on the nervous system include recording of electroencephalogram (EEG) and muscle’s
electrical action potentials, electromyogram (EMG), measurement of conduction velocity in motor nerves,
and recording of the peripheral nerves’ action potential, electroneurogram (ENG).

Basic components of a biomedical system:

The primary purpose of medical instrumentation is to measure or determine the presence of some physical
quantity that may some way assist the medical personnel to make better diagnosis and treatment. The
majority of the instruments are electrical or electronic systems, although mechanical systems such as
ventilators or spirometers are also employed.
Measurand: The physical quantity or condition that the instrumentation system measures is called the
measurand. The source for the measurand is the human body which generates a variety of signals. The
measurand may be on the surface of the body (electrocardiogram potential) or it may be blood pressure in
the chambers of the heart.
Transducer/Sensor: A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Because of the
familiar advantages of electric and electronic methods of measurement, it is the usual practice to convert
into electrical quantities all non-electrical phenomenon associated with the measurand with the help of a
transducer. For example: a piezo-electric crystal converts mechanical vibrations into an electrical signal
and therefore, is a transducer. The primary function of the transducer is to provide a usable output in
response to the measurand which may be a specific physical quantity, property or condition. In practice,
two or more transducers may be used simultaneously to make measurements of a number of physiological
parameters. ‘Sensor’ is also used in medical instrumentation systems. Basically, a sensor converts a
physical measurand to an electrical signal. The sensor should be minimally invasive and interface with the
living system with minimum extraction of energy.
Signal Conditioner: Converts the output of the transducer into an electrical quantity suitable for
operation of the display or recording system. Signal conditioners may vary in complexity from a simple
resistance network or impedance matching device to multi-stage amplifiers and other complex electronic
circuitry. Signal conditioning usually include functions such as amplification, filtering (analog or digital)
analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion or signal transmission circuitry. They help in increasing
the sensitivity of instruments by amplification of
the original signal or its transduced form.
Display System: Provides a visible representation of the quantity as a displacement on a scale, or on the
chart of a recorder, or on the screen of a cathode ray tube or in numerical form. Although, most of the
displays are in the visual form, other forms of displays such as audible signals from alarm or foetal
Doppler ultrasonic signals are also used. In addition of the above, the processed signal after signal
conditioning may be passed on to:
Alarm System—with upper and lower adjustable thresholds to indicate when the measurand goes
beyond preset limits.
Data Storage—to maintain the data for future reference. It may be a hard copy on a paper or on
magnetic or semiconductor memories.
Data Transmission—using standard interface connections so that information obtained may be
carried to other parts of an integrated system or to transmit it from one location to another.

In most of the medical instrumentation systems, some form of calibration is necessary at regular intervals
during their operation.
Measurements in the medical field can be classified into two types: in vivo and in vitro. In vivo
measurement is made on or within the living organism itself, such as measurement of pressure in the
chambers of the heart. On the other hand, in vitro measurement is performed outside the body.
For example; the measurement of blood glucose level in a sample of blood drawn from the patient
represent in vitro measurement

SOURCES OF BIOMEDICAL SIGNALS: Physiological signals

: These are unique to the biomedical systems. They are generated by nerve
cells and muscle cells. Their basic source is the cell membrane potential which under certain conditions
may be excited to generate an action potential.
The measurement of acoustic signals created by many biomedical
phenomena provides information about the underlying phenomena. The examples of such signals are:
flow of blood in the heart,
BIOMECHANICAL SIGNALS: These signals originate from some mechanical function of the biological
system. They include all types of motion and displacement signals, pressure and flow signals etc.
The signals which are obtained as a result of chemical measurements from
the living tissue or from samples analyzed in the laboratory. The examples are measurement of partial
pressure of carbon-dioxide (pCO2),
Extremely weak magnetic fields are produced by various organs such as the
brain, heart and lungs.
 These signals are generated as result of optical functions of the biological
systems, occurring either naturally or induced by the measurement process. For example, blood
oxygenation
BIO-IMPEDANCE SIGNALS: The impedance of the tissue is a source of important information
concerning its composition, blood distribution and blood volume etc.
GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

GENERAL CONSTRAINTS IN DESIGN OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS:

Measurement Range: Generally the measurement ranges are quite low compared with non-medical
parameters. Most signals are in the microvolt range.

Frequency Range: Most of the bio-medical signals are in the audio frequency range or below and that
many signals contain dc and very low frequency components.
These general characteristics of physiological signals limit the practical choices available to designers of
medical instruments.
 Inaccessibility of the Signal Source:
 Variability of Physiological Parameters:
 Interference among Physiological Systems:
 Transducer Interface Problems:
 High Possibility of Artifacts:
 Safe Levels of Applied Energy:
 Reliability Aspects

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS

The cardiovascular system is a complex closed hydraulic system, which performs the essential service of
transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, numerous chemical compounds and the blood cells.
Structurally, the heart is divided into right and left parts. Each part has two chambers called atrium and
ventricle. The heart has four valves (Fig. 1.1):
• The Tricuspid valve or right atrio-ventricular valve—between right atrium and ventricle. It consists
of three flaps or cusps. It prevents backward flow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium.
• Bicuspid Mitral or left atrio-ventricular valve—between left atrium and left ventricle. The valve has
two flaps or cusps. It prevents backward flow of blood from left ventricle to atrium.
• Pulmonary valve—at the right ventricle. It consists of three half moon shaped cusps. This does not
allow blood to come back to the right ventricle.
• Aortic valve—between left ventricle and aorta. Its construction is like pulmonary valve. This valve
prevents the return of blood back to the left ventricle from aorta.
The heart wall consists of three layers:
(i) The pericardium, which is the outer layer of the heart. It keeps the outer surface moist and prevents
friction as the heart beats.
(ii) The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart. It is the main muscle of the heart, which is made up
of short cylindrical fibres. This muscle is automatic in action, contracting and relaxing rythmically
throughout life.
(iii) The endocardium is the inner layer of the heart. It provides smooth lining for the blood to flow.

The blood is carried to the various parts of the body through blood vessels, which are hollow tubes. There
are three types of blood vessels.
(i) Arteries—are thick walled and they carry the oxygenated blood away from the heart.
(ii) Veins—are thin walled and carry de-oxygenated blood towards the heart.
(iii) Capillaries—are the smallest and the last level of blood vessels. They are so small that the blood
cells, which make blood, actually flow one at a time through them. There are estimated to be over
800,000 km of capillaries in human being, which include all the arteries and veins, which carry blood.

The circulatory system consists of four chamber muscular pump that beats about 72 times per minute
(on an average for a normal adult), sending blood through every part of the body.
The pump acts as two synchronized but functionally isolated two stage pumps. The first stage of each
pump (the atrium) collects blood from the hydraulic system and pumps it into the second stage ( the
ventricle). In this process, the heart pumps the blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and
through the systemic circulation to the other parts of the body.
In the pulmonary circulation, the venous (de-oxygenated) blood flows from the right ventricle, through
the pulmonary artery, to the lungs, where it is oxygenated and gives off carbon dioxide. The arterial
(oxygenated) blood then flows through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
Functions of the Cardiovascular System
Transportation: The cardiovascular system transports blood to almost all of the body’s tissues. The blood
delivers essential nutrients and oxygen and removes wastes and carbon dioxide to be processed or
removed from the body. Hormones are transported throughout the body via the blood’s liquid plasma.
Protection: The cardiovascular system protects the body through its white blood cells. White blood cells
clean up cellular debris and fight pathogens that have entered the body. Platelets and red blood cells form
scabs to seal wounds and prevent pathogens from entering the body and liquids from leaking out. Blood
also carries antibodies that provide specific immunity to pathogens that the body has previously been
exposed to or has been vaccinated against.
Regulation: The cardiovascular system is instrumental in the body’s ability to maintain homeostatic
control of several internal conditions. Blood vessels help maintain a stable body temperature by
controlling the blood flow to the surface of the skin. Blood vessels near the skin’s surface open during
times of overheating to allow hot blood to dump its heat into the body’s surroundings.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The condition of the cardiovascular system is examined by haemodynamic measurements and by

recording the electrical activity of the heart muscle (electrocardiography) and listening to the heart
sounds (phonocardiography). For assessing the performance of the heart as a pump, measurement of the
cardiac output (amount of blood pumped by the heart per unit time), blood pressure, blood flow rate and
blood volume are made at various locations throughout the circulatory system.

The respiratory system in the human body is a pneumatic system in which an air pump
(diaphragm) alternately creates negative and positive pressures in a sealed chamber (thoracic
cavity) and causes air to be sucked into and forced out of a pair of elastic bags (lungs).
 The lungs are connected to the outside environment through a passage way comprising nasal
cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
 The passage way bifurcates to carry air into each of the lungs wherein it again subdivides several
times to carry air into and out of each of the many tiny air spaces (alveoli) within the lungs.
 In the tiny air spaces of the lungs is a membrane interface with the hydraulic system of the body
through which certain gases can defuse.
 Oxygen is taken into the blood from the incoming air and carbon dioxide is transferred from the
blood to the air under the control of the pneumatic pump.
 Thus, the blood circulation forms the link in the supply of oxygen to the tissues and in the
removal of gaseous waste products of metabolism. The movement of gases between blood and
the alveolar air is basically due to constant molecular movement or diffusion from points of
higher pressure to points of lower pressure.
  In each minute, under normal conditions, about 250 ml of oxygen are taken up and 250 ml of
CO2 are given out by the body and these are the amounts of the two gases, which enter and leave
the blood in the lungs.
 The exact amount of CO2 expired depends upon the metabolism, the acid-base balance and the
pattern of respiration.
 The exchange of gases takes place in the alveoli and can be achieved by the normal 15-20
breaths/min, each one involving about 500 ml of air.
Ventilatory volumes:
The lungs expand and contract during the breathing cycle, drawing air in and out of the lungs. The
volume of air moved in or out of the lungs under normal resting circumstances (the resting tidal
volume of about 500 ml), and volumes moved during maximally forced inhalation and maximally forced
exhalation are measured in humans by spirometry.
 Measurement Equation Description

Minute tidal volume * respiratory the total volume of air entering, or leaving, the nose or
ventilation rate mouth per minute.

Alveolar (tidal volume – dead the volume of air entering or leaving the alveoli per
ventilation space) * respiratory rate minute.

the volume of air that does not reach the alveoli during
Dead space dead space * respiratory
inhalation, but instead remains in the airways, per
ventilation rate
minute.

Mechanics of breathing
In mammals, inhalation at rest is primarily due to the contraction of the diaphragm. This is an upwardly
domed sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the
sheet flattens, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The contracting diaphragm pushes the
abdominal organs downwards. This entirely passive bulging (and shrinking during exhalation) of the
abdomen during normal breathing is sometimes referred as "abdominal breathing".
Kidney: The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body
in vertebrates. They are located at the back of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space. In adults
they are about 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood
exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to
the bladder.
Function of kidney:
The main function of the kidneys is to form urine out of blood plasma, which basically consists of
two processes:
(i) the removal of waste products from blood plasma, and
(ii) the regulation of the composition of blood plasma.
It also maintains constancy of the volume, osmotic pressure, pH and electrolyte composition of the
extra-cellular body fluids.

 The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult kidney
contains around one million nephrons.
 The nephron utilizes four processes to alter the blood plasma which flows to
it: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.
 Via one or more of these mechanisms, the kidney participates in the control of the
volume of various body fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance,
various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins.
 Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys
is filtered.
 Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-
free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids.
 Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid.
 Examples of substances that are excreted are urea, ammonium, and uric acid.

The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a
precursor of vitamin D to its active form – calcitriol – and synthesize
the hormones erythropoietin and renin.
 Structure of kidney:

Structure of nephron:
Renal corpuscle
The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal corpuscle consists of
the glomerulus, and the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule.
Glomerulus
The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft, of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of the
renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent
arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water and
solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma, and into the space in Bowman's capsule called Bowman's
space.
Bowman's capsule
The Bowman's capsule, also called the glomerular capsule, surrounds the glomerulus. It is composed of a
visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes, and a parietal outer layer composed
of simple squamous epithelium. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are filtered through the visceral
layer of podocytes, resulting in the glomerular filtrate.
Renal tubule
The components of the renal tubule are:
 Proximal convoluted tubule (lies in cortex and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with brush
borders which help to increase the area of absorption greatly.)
 Loop of Henle (hair-pin like, i.e. U-shaped, and lies in medulla)
 Descending limb of loop of Henle
 Ascending limb of loop of Henle
 The ascending limb of loop of Henle is divided into 2 segments: Lower end of ascending
limb is very thin and is lined by simple squamous epithelium. The distal portion of
ascending limb is thick and is lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
 Thin ascending limb of loop of Henle
 Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (enters cortex and becomes - distal convoluted
tubule.)
 Distal convoluted tubule
 Connecting tubule

Skeletal system:
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of about 300 bones at birth –
this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The human
skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed
by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton,
which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of
the upper and lower limbs.The human skeleton performs six major functions; support, movement,
protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.

Types of bones:
The main 5 types of bone (in terms of bone shape) are listed in the following table together with brief
descriptions and examples of each. First remember the list of types of bones:
1. Long Bones
2. Short Bones
3. Flat Bones
4. Irregular Bones
5. Sesamoid Bones
LONG BONES
Long bones are longer than they are wide i.e. length >diameter. They consist of a shaft which is the main
(long ) part and variable number of endings(extremities) depending on the joints formed at one or both
ends of the long bone. Long bones are usually somewhat curved- contributing to their mechanical
strength.
Examples - Femur(leg bone), Tibia( leg bone), Fibula (leg bone),Humerus(arm bone), Ulna (arm bone),
Radius(arm bone).
SHORT BONES
Short bones can be approximately cube shaped i.e length is similar to width/depth diameter. The most
obvious examples are the carpal bones(of the hands wrists)and tarsal bones (of the feet/ ankles).
Examples -Scaphoid bone (wrist bone ),lunate bone ( wrist bone), Hamate bone (wrist bone),
FLAT BONES
Flat bones have thin shape and in some cases provide mechanical protection to soft tissues beneath or
enclosed by the flat bone. Eg. Cranial bones that protect the brain .
Flat bones also have extensive surfaces for muscle attachment eg. Scapulae (shoulder) bones.
Examples - Cranial bones(Frontal and Parietal), Scapulae (shoulder) bones, Sternum (protecting he organs
in the thorax) , Ribs (protecting he organs in the thorax).
IRREGULAR BONES
Irregular Bones have complicated shapes that cannot be classified as long , short or flat. Their shapes are
due to the functions they fulfill within the body. eg. Providing major mechanical support for thee body
yet also protecting the spinal cord (in the case of the vertebrae).
Examples – Atlas bones, Axis bones, Hyoid bone, Sphenoid bone, Zygomatic bones and other facial
bones.
SESAMOID BONES
Sesamoid Bones develop in some tendonds in locations where there is considerable friction, tension, and
physical stress. Typical areas in which they may form include the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
The presence, location and quantity of sesamoid bones varies considerable from person to person. Most
sesamoid bones are un named.
Examples – Only one type of sesamoid bone is present in all normal human skeletons ( Patellae) . Patellae
are also called as “Knee caps”. Complete human skeletons include 2 of these one in each leg.

PROPERTIES OF BONE:

 Relatively Hard
 Light weight
 Composite Material
 High compressive strength of about 170 MPa(1800 kgf/cm2)
 Poor Tensile strength of 104-121 MPa
 Very low shear stress strength (51.6 MPa)

 Material Properties
 Elastic-Plastic
 Yield Point
 Brittle-Ductile
 Toughness
 Independent of shape

 Structural Properties
 Bending Stiffness
 Torsional Stiffness
 Axial Stiffness
 Depends on shape of material
 (a) Bending Load (b) Compression (c) Torsion
Bending Load
Compression strength is greater than tensile strength
Fails in tension.
Torsion
The diagonal in the direction of the applied force is in tension – cracks perpendicular to this tension
diagonal.
Spiral fracture 450 to the long axis.
Combined bending & axial load
Oblique fracture
Butterfly fragment

SOFT TISSUE

 In anatomy, soft tissue includes the tissues that connect, support, or surround other structures
and organs of the body, not being hard tissuesuch as bone.
 Soft tissue includes tendons, ligaments, fascia, skin, fibrous tissues, fat, and synovial
membranes (which are connective tissue), and muscles, nerves and blood vessels (which are not
connective tissue)

COMPOSITION:

The characteristic substances inside the extracellular matrix of this kind of tissue are
the collagen, elastin and ground substance. Normally the soft tissue is very hydrated because of the
ground substance. The fibroblasts are the most common cell responsible for the production of soft
tissues' fibers and ground substance. Variations of fibroblasts, like chondroblasts, may also produce
these substances.

MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Impact testing results showed that the stiffness and the damping resistance of a test subject’s tissue
are correlated with the mass, velocity, and size of the striking object. Such properties may be useful
for forensics investigation when contusions were induced.[4] When solid object impact a human soft
tissues, the energy of the impact will be absorbed by the tissues to reducing effect of the impact or the
pain level, therefore; subjects with more soft tissue thickness tended to absorb the impacts with less
aversion.

Soft tissues have the potential to undergo big deformations and still come back to the initial
configuration when unloaded, i.e. their stress-strain curve is nonlinear. The soft tissues are
also viscoelastic, incompressible and usually anisotropic. Some viscoelastic properties observable in
soft tissues are: relaxation, creep and hysteresis .
Pseudoelasticity:
Even though soft tissues have viscoelastic properties, i.e. stress as function of strain rate, it can be
approximated by a hyperelastic model after precondition to a load pattern. After some cycles of loading
and unloading the material, the mechanical response becomes independent of strain rate.
Residual stress
In physiological state soft tissues usually present residual stress that may be released when the tissue
is excised. Physiologists and histologists must be aware of this fact to avoid mistakes when analyzing
excised tissues. This retraction usually causes a visual artifact.
REMODELLING AND GROWTH:
Soft tissues have the potential to grow and remodel reacting to chemical and mechanical long term
changes. The rate the fibroblasts produce tropocollagen is proportional to these stimuli. Diseases, injuries
and changes in the level of mechanical load may induce remodeling. An example of this phenomenon is
the thickening of farmer's hands. The remodeling of connective tissues is well known in bones by
the Wolff's law (bone remodeling). Mechanobiology is the science that study the relation between stress
and growth at cellular level.
Growth and remodeling have a major role in the cause of some common soft tissue diseases, like
arterial stenosis and aneurisms and any soft tissue fibrosis.

The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. The vertebral
column is the defining characteristic of a vertebrate, in which the notochord (a flexible rod of uniform
composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of bones—
vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs The vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that
encloses and protects the spinal cord.The vertebral column is a mechanical marvel in that it must afford
both rigidity and flexibility.
The Spine as a Whole
The segmental design of the vetebral column allows adequate motion among the head, trunk, and pelvis;
affords protection of the spinal cord; transfers weight forces and bending moments of the upper body to
the pelvis; offers a shockabsorbing apparatus; and serves as a pivot for the head. Without stabilization
from the spine, the head and upper limbs could not move evenly, smoothly, or support the loads imposed
upon them

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
The flexible vertebral column is balanced upon its base, the sacrum. In the erect position, weight is
transferred across the sacroiliac joints to the ilia, then to the hips, and then to the lower extremities. In the
sitting position, weight is transferred from the sacroiliac joints to the ilia, and then to the ischial
tuberosities
SPINAL LENGTH
About 75% of spinal length is contributed by the vertebral bodies, while 25% of its length is composed of
disc material. The contribution by the discs, however, is not spread evenly throughout the spine. About
20% of cervical and thoracic length is from disc height, while approximately 30% of lumbar length is
from disc height. In all regions, the contribution by the discs diminishes with age.
ACTION AND BRAKE MECHANISMS
 Flexion.
 Extension
 Rotation.
 Lateral Bending.
 Coupling and Related Effects.
VERTEBRAL BODY LOADING
Core Strength. The cancellous core of the vertebral body provides 55% of its vertebral strength, and the
cortical shell provides 45% of its strength up to the age of 40. This core strength sharply decreases after
the age of 40 to about 35%, with 65% provided by the cortex.
Core Deformation. The cancellous core of a vertebral body can undergo up to 9.5% deformation prior to
fracture, as compared to only 2% for the cortical shell. Thus, it is unlikely to have compression fractures
of the core without fractures of the shell.
Nerve root pathways: Each spinal nerve has motor and sensory nerve roots. The sensory nerve roots enter
the back of the spinal cord to join fibers that lead to the brain. Nerve fibers carrying signal from the brain
join motor nerve roots leaving the front of the cord.

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer converts
a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.[1]
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems,
where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light,
motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
 Transducers may be classified according to their application, Method of energy conversion Nature of the
output signal and so on.

Readings or measurements that are produced by the physiological process of human beings,
 heart-beat rate (electrocardiogram or ECG/EKG signal),
 respiratory rate and content (capnogram),
 skin conductance (electrodermal activity or EDA signal),
 muscle current (electromyography or EMG signal),
 brain electrical activity (electroencephalography or EEG signal).

Some of the charateristics for designing medical equipment are:

 Accuracy
 Frequency response
 Hysteresis
 Isolation
 Linearity
 Sensitivity
 Signal to noise ratio
 Simplicity
 Stability
 Precision
Selection of the transducer among the many available mainly depends upon:
1. Input characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics
3. Output characteristics
The following points must be considered, while selecting a transducer for any application or a particular
application
 Input characteristics
This is one of the most important characteristic, while selecting a transducer. By considering input
characteristics we can determine the type of input is needed for that transducer, the operating range for
that transducer, the loading effect on that transducer.
1. Type of input
2. Operating range
3. Loading effect
Transfer characteristics:
Transfer characteristics also plays very important role in selection of transducer. Transfer characteristics
means, the effects on the signal when it is being processed. Errors and hysteresis also occurs when the
signal is being processed. Following are some major transfer characteristics which we should keep in
mind while selecting a transducer for any special purpose:
1. Transfer function ( input output relation)
2. Error and hysteresis
3. Accuracy and precision
4. Response of transducer to the environment influences
5. Calibration

Output characteristics:
. Some of the output characteristics are summarized below:
1. Type of output
2. Output impedance
3. Useful range
4. Life span: It determines how long the selected transducer will work.
5. Availability: While selecting a transducer we should think about its availability.
6. Cost
7. Stability and reliability
8. Purpose: indication, recording or control

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
A transducer can be anything which converts one form of energy to another. Piezoelectric material is
one kind of transducers. We squeeze this material or we apply force or pressure on this material it
converts it into electric voltage and this voltage is function of the force or pressure applied to it. The
material which behaves in such a way is also known as piezoelectric sensor.
The electric voltage produced by piezoelectric transducer can be easily measured by voltage measuring
instruments, which can be used to measure stresses or forces. The physical quantity like mechanical stress
or force cannot be measured directly. Therefore, piezoelectric transducer can be used.
Piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen arranged in
crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating unit) of all crystal is symmetrical but in
piezoelectric quartz crystal it is not. Piezoelectric crystals are electrically neutral. The atoms inside them
may not be symmetrically arranged but their electrical charges are balanced means positive charges
cancel out negative charge. The quartz crystal has unique property of generating electrical polarity when
mechanical stress applied on it along certain plane. Basically, There are two types of stress. One is
compressive stress and other is tensile stress.
When there is unstressed quartz no charges induce on it. In case of compressive stress, positive charges
are induced in one side and negative charges are induced in opposite side. The crystal size gets thinner
and longer due to compressive stress. In case of tensile stress, charges are induced in reverse as compare
to compressive stress and quartz crystal gets shorter and fatter.
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS

Ultrasonic sensors (also known as transducers when they both send and receive) work on a principle
similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or
sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo
which is received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between sending the signal and
receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object.

This technology can be used for measuring: wind speed and direction (anemometer), fullness of a tank,
and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction a device uses multiple detectors and
calculates the speed from the relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure the amount
of liquid in a tank, the sensor measures the distance to the surface of the fluid. Further applications
include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms, and non-destructive testing.

A patient’s body temperature gives the physician important information about the physiological state of
the individual. External body temperature is one of many parameters used to evaluate patients in shock ,
because the reduced blood pressure of a person in circulatory shock results in low blood flow to the
periphery.A drop in big-toe temperature is a good early clinical warning of shock. Infections, on the other
hand are usually reflected by an increase in body temperature, with a hot flushed skin and loss of fluids.
Increased ventilation, perspiration and blood flow to the skin result when high fevers destroy temperature
by depressing the termal regulatory center. In fact, physicians routinely induce hypothermia in surgical
cases in which they wish to decrease a patients metabolic process and blood circulation.

 THERMOCOUPLES
 THERMISTORS
 RADIATION

THERMOCOUPLES

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical

conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a
temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted
to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

THERMISTORS

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so than in standard
resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush
current limiter, temperature sensors (Negative Temperature Coefficient or NTC type typically), self-
resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements (Positive Temperature Coefficient
or PTC type typically).
Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:
 With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used as a
temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current limiter.
 With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC thermistors are commonly
installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable
fuses.

RADIATION:

An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal
radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are
sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact
thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a
distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's
temperature can often be determined within a certain range of its actual temperature. Infrared
thermometers are a subset of devices known as "thermal radiation thermometers".

Fiber-optic temperature sensors are based on the light absorption/transmission properties of gallium
arsenide (GaAs). At the measurement end of the fiber-optic temperature sensor is a GaAs crystal.

As the crystal’s temperature increases, its transmission spectrum (i.e., the light that is not absorbed) shifts
to higher wavelengths. At any given temperature, transmission jumps from essentially 0% to 100% at a
specific wavelength. This jump is called the absorption shift The relationship between the temperature
and the specific wavelength at which the absorption shift takes place is very predictable.
Fiber optic temperature sensors operate on the absorption / transmission properties of gallium arsenide
crystal semiconductors. Increase in the crystals temperature have the effect of shifting its transmission
spectrum to higher wavelengths, jumping from essentially 0% to 100% at a specific wavelength. The
three temperatures shown here are in 0C.

To understand why the absorption shift occurs, it is necessary to look at the variation in the
semiconductor’s energy band gap. This band gap refers to the energy required to bump the electrons in
the material from a relaxed, steady state into an excited state. As more energy in the form of heat enters
the crystal, the band gap becomes narrower—less additional energy is needed to excite an electron. The
photons entering the crystal are what actually excite the electrons.

If a photon is carrying enough energy to get an electron across the gap, it will be absorbed. If it is not
carrying enough energy, the photon will be transmitted. The shorter a photon’s wavelength, the more
energy it carries. Because the band gap narrows as the crystal’s temperature increases, and less energy is
needed to jump the gap, photons with less and less energy (longer and longer wavelengths) are absorbed
by the band.

CONSTRUCTION:A fiber-optic temperature probe must be in contact with the material it is measuring.
The more intimate the contact, the faster the crystal will respond to the temperature changes. A tiny
crystal of GaAs with a dielectric mirror is bonded to one end of a cleaved optical fiber .Teflon is then
used to cover the entire assembly, serving as an excellent buffer.

At the opposite end of the probe is a stainless steel ST-type connector, through which white light is
injected into the probe. The light travels down the probe’s optical fiber, where some of it is absorbed by
the GaAs crystal. The dielectric mirror reflects unabsorbed light, which returns down the probe to the
coupler and is directed to a spectrometer

A white light source injects light into one of the branches of the coupler. This light travels down the
probe’s optical fiber to the gallium, arsenide, which absorbs some of it. Unabsorbed light is reflected by
the dielectric mirror and returned down the probe to the coupler, where it is directed to a spectrometer.