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UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION
FOR AFRICA
E/ECA/POP/TP/95/3(b)/3
POPULATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

WITII PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO LINKAGES
AMONG ENVIRONMENT, URBANIZATION
AND MIGRATION IN ECA
MEMBER STATES
November 1995
PREFACE
In Africa, the issues of widespread and worsening poverty,hunger and disease; rapid and
intensifying urbanization; drought; desertification and refugee movements; deforestation and fuelwood
crisis; and land dereliction through mineral exploitation are among the numerous environmental problems
that have brought the issues of population and environment inter-relationships to the fore. This paper
focuses on the environmental causes and consequences of migratory/urbanization changes and vice versa
in Africa by presenting a general review as well as case studies of Ghana, Gambia, Nigeria and Sierra
Leone. The developmental implications of these causes and consequences has also been discussed.
Man in Africa often remains in very close symbiosis with the physical environment, hence, it is
not surprising that numerous migrations are caused or motivated by needs to adjust to this environment.
The study has clearly demonstrated that throughout Africa environmental factors such as rural population
pressure; drought; famine and desertification; insects, diseases and soil erosion; and natural disasters have
been responsible for the numerous migrations and environmental refugeeism in the continent. This study
on the linkages among population, development and environment has also revealed that on the other hand
factors such as population concentration/urbanization; population redistribution/resettlement; refugee
movements; pastoralism/nomadism and tourism all impact negatively on the environment.
Population and environmental linkages have assumed a significant position in the development
process in Africa. It is in this respect that the tenets of the Dakar/Ngor Declaration, Agenda 21 and the
Programme of Action of the 1994 Cairo International Conference have to be rigorously and faithfully
implemented by African governments. The integration of population and environmental issues into
development planning and programmes is a "sine qua non" to the achievement of sustainable development
in Africa. This has been basically a synthesis of the disparate information on population-environment
interrelationships in Africa with particular reference to environment and migration/urbanization processes.
The general analysis and country case studies have made it possible for policy recommendations to be
offered for consideration by national, governments, non-governmental organisations, international bodies
in order to promote population and sustainable development with particular reference to linkages among
environment, urbanization and migration.
The paper is a revised version of a draft prepared by Professor John S. Nabila of the University
of Ghana. as a consultant for ECA.
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF APPENDIXES viii
L INTRODUCTION: PERSPECTIVES ON LINKAGES AMONG

POPULATION, DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT LINKAGES
A. Introduction: The Scope of the Study .
B. Perspectives on Linkages among Population,

Development and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
C. Perspective On Sustainable Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
II. MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION IN ECA MEMBER STATES 10
A. Migration, Urbanization and Environment

Interrelationships: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
B Patterns of Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
C. Patterns of Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
III. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATORY

AND URBANIZATION CHANGES 17
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
B. Land Degradation, Deforestation and Desertifi-

cation (including soil erosion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
C. Drought, Famine, Insects and Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
D Natural Disasters:Floods, Bush Fires and Earthquakes 30
E. Rural Population Pressure-Land Shortages, Tenurial Systems 28
iii
IV. THE IMPACT OF MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION ON THE
ENVIRONMENT 34
A. Population concentration/Urbanization
and Environment 34
B. Population Redistribution and Resettlement 37
C. Refugee movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40
D. Pastoralism/nomadism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
E. Tourism and Environmental Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
V. COUNTRY/REGIONAL CASE STUDIES 54
A. Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
1. Introduction . 54
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory
and Urbanization Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
3. Migratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences of

Environmental Changes 59
4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
B. Gambia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory

and Urbanization Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68

4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
C. Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and

Urbanization Changes 73
iv
4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
D. Sierra Leone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
2" Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and

Urbanization Changes 83

Environmental Changes 8S
4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
VI. DEVELOPMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF MIGRATION-URBANIZATION

PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN
AFRICA ;................ 89
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . 89
B. Development Problems of Population Environment

Inter-relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9Q
C. Policy Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
VII. CONCLUSION......................................... 99
SELECTED BffiUOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
APPENDIXES ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107
v
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES TITLE PAGE
2.1 Typology of Internal Migration

with African examples 15
3.1 Manifestation of Drought 20
3.2 Balance of Migratory movements by regions 28
3.3 Age structure and reasons for migration,

district of Bamako, 1985. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
4.1 Main countries of Asylum and

Origin for Africa's Refugee
Population. Early 1991 43
4.2 Statistics of Rwanda and Burundi

Refugees by Camps .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ...... 44
4.3 Refugees by Asylum, 1987,1988, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
4.4 Tourist Arrivals and Receipts, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
5.1 Summary of Environmental Costs for

Ghana for 1989-90 56
5.2 Population Density by Districts for

1963, 1974 and 1985 in Sierra Leone ................• 87
vi
UST OF FIGURES
FIG. TITLE
1.1 Population - Environment Dynamics

Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
3.1 The Desertification Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 21
3.2 Food: The Population Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
3.3 Drought - Affected Countries in Africa . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .. 25
3.4 The Burden of Disease 32
4.1 Population Redistribution in Ethiopia

Through Post-Revolution Settlement
Schemes (1974-1980) '. . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
4.2 Refugee settlements in Eastern Sudan,

Botswana and Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
4.3 Distribution and sites of Rwanda and

Burundi Refugees - 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .. 49
4.4 Savanna Areas in Africa where

pastoral ism is carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ... , ... :.. 50
5.1 Onchocerciasis and Displacement of

Population in Upper East Region,
Ghana , 57
5.2 Upper East Region showing Population Densities. . . . . . . . . .. 60
5.3 Population and Environmental

Degradation in Upper East Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
5.4 Fuel use and charcoal supply in Ghana , 64
5.5 Approximate month of arrival and Departure of Tourists . . . . .. 67
vii
LIST OF APPENJ)JJ{f'li
Appendix 1 Examples of migrations in Africa which are

in considerable measure related to pressure
on the land 107
"
2 Percentage of urban population, 1950-95 . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. 109
3 Annual rate of urban population growth 112
4 Total population and population density, 1970,

1980 and 1989 114
5 Total land degradation, type and cause

of degradation, 1989 116
viii
I. PERSPECTIVES ON LINKAGES AMONG POPULATION, DEVEWPMENT
AND ENVIRONMENT LINKAGES
A. Introduction: The scope of the study
I. The basic goal of any development policy is to improve the quality of human life which
is invariably linked up with the quality of the environment. Since the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, it has become increasingly clear that
problems of the environment cannot be fully addressed without first considering population-development
linkages. The plat, of action of the Conference, Agenda 21, was a clear response to major environment
and development challenges including the economic and social dirn.ensions of sustainable development
such as poverty, consumption, demographic dynamics, human health and settlements. The population
dimensions of these concerns were clearly stressed in the final document of the United Nations
International Conference on Population and Development (lCPD) held in Cairo in September, 1994:
Pressure on the environment may result from rapid population growth,

distribution and migration especially in ecologically vulnerable ecosystems.
Urbanization and policies that do not recognize the need for rural development
also create environmental problems.'
2. This broad view of the linkages between population and the environment has oftea not been the
focus of studies on population -environment (PE) inter-relationships in the past. Previous studies of
population-environmental linkages concentrated on the size and rate of growth, rather than the
concentration and distribution of population. For instance, drawing from the Malthusian paradigm,
Population Concern (1989) has hypothesised that "one fundamental reason for the damage being done to
our planet, whether by pollution, deforestation, destruction of plant and anillilal life or by other factors
is due to rapid population growth." 2
3. Yet the demographic causes and consequences of environmental stress could be provoked, directly
or indirectly, through either morbidity, mortality, fecundity, fertility, or by population concentration and
distribution as well. This fact notwithstanding, the emphasis on research in developed and less developed
countries has been on fertility and mortality:
...the environmental effect on mortality in developed countries ... , is undoubtedly
United Nations International Conference on Population and Developrn.ent, Cairo, 1994.
2 Population Concern, Population and development, Washington, D.C., 1989

2
the most thoroughly researched area; voluntary fertility control in developing

countries, because it is so widely believed to be the key to safeguarding the
global environment in the future is the mechanism highest in the population
imagination; whereas migration processes, of prime importance in small
populations, are most widely ignored.'
4. In this connection, there are problems in attempting to identify the causative interconnections
between population and environment. With reference to migration and urbanization the difficulties are
compounded by factors such as data not regularly collected on the phenomena compared with those on
fertility and mortality, along with complications in delineating causative factors in long-term migratory
flows.
5. Yet in many African countries, migration/urbanization processes such as P?pulation concentration,

dispersal and displacement, refugee movements, settlement, resettlement and tourism have been both
causes and consequences of environmental stress. Examples include, urbanization and urban
environmental degradation, refugee population and environmental degradation of settlement areas, and
the detrimental effects of tourism on fragile coastal areas.
6. . As well, environmental.processes have been causes and consequences of migratory/urbanization

changes. Examples include, rural population pressure on limited resources leading to rural out-migration;
drought, famine and desertification triggering population movements; migration as a result of insects,
diseases, and soil erosion; and environmental refugeeism.
7. The above argues for studies to enhance understanding of the linkages among population,
development and environment, a prerequisite for the integration of population and environmental concerns
in development strategies, planning, decision making and resource allocation. ~is was a theme
underlined by the Dakar/Ngor Declaration and the Programme of Action of the 1994 Cairo International
Population Conference.
Basa,Z., and J. Clarke, "Introduction: current directions in population-environment research", in

3
Z.Basa and J. Clarke (eds) Environment and Population Change (liege: IUSSP, 1994), p.14
3
Objectives
8. The paper explores the migratory/urbanization (defined to include, processes such as population
concentration, dispersal and displacement, refugee movements, settlement, resettlement and tourism)
causes and consequences of environmental stress, on the one hand, and the environmental causes and
consequences of urbanization/migration, on the other.
9. To this end, the paper concentrates on three main questions:

(a) What are the environmental causes and consequences of migratory/urbanizIdoa dllqes7 (b) What
are the migratory/urbanization causes and consequences of environmental cbllllles7l11d. (c) WIIIIl . . lhe
development implications of these causes and consequences?
10. In order to present a balanced picture of the linkages, the global analysis would be supplemented
by country case studies on Ghana, Gambia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.
II. The study would draw upon available data and literature in the environment and
migration/urbanization fields on the topic. Its main contribution consists of synthesizing the disparate
information on this subject in an attempt to unravel the population-environment (PE) linkages. It is hoped
that the general analysis and country case studies would provide a firmer basis for the formulation of
policy recommendations from its findings.
B. Perspectives on Linkages among population, development

and Environment
12. Human activities pertaining to production and consumption directly or indirectly have an impact
on the natural environment. The impact arises from the ways natural resources are utilized along with
the emission of pollutants into the ecosystem, the source of human substance, the 'sink' for waste
products arising from human activities, and the genesis of climatic changes, all of which affect humankind
in diverse ways.'
"Basa, Z., and Clarke,J.!., "Introduction: current directions in population-environment research",

in Z. Baba and 1. Clark (eds) Environment and Population Change (Liege: IUSSP, 1994)
4
13. The total environmental impact (I) aimed at capturing the various consequences has been assessed
from a decomposition model proposed by Ehrlick as the multiplicative result of three factors, namely -
population size (P); affluence (A) (as measured by income per capita); technology (T) (as measured by
energy use per capita. That is, I = PAT.'
14. The decomposition model has enhanced understanding of populanon-environment (P-E) linkages
by delineating population size, the rate of consumption and pattern of resource use as factors connected
with environmental degradation and natural resource depletion at national and global levels. It has,
however, been observed that for smaller population units, such as communities, the application of the
model could be problematic because of difficulties in designating their sizes, incomes and technology
while taking into consideration factors such as migration and international trade.'
15. Moreover, past analyses utilizing the decomposition model have failed to take account of the
existence of mutual interdependenceof population, affluence and technology. One example of such mutual
interdependence is population growth triggering or dampening technological changes. Another example
is population growth slowing growth of per capita income.
16. Recently, interest in P-E linkages has focused on comprehending not just the role of population
size and growth, but also spatial population distribution and concentration (i.e, population concentration,
dispersal and displacement, refugee movements, settlement, resettlement and tourism). A number of
writers have proposed linkages between demographic processes broadly defined to include not only
population size but also distribution and concentration, on one hand, and socio-economic change, on the
other, in the context of P-E harmony! disharmony. At the centre of the debate is the relationship among
population growth, population densities and technological progress in rural agricultural systems.
17. According to Davis, a multiphasic response occurs as a reaction to high population density in
rural areas, involving postponement of or reduction in fertility in marriage and!or out-migration by
families. Boserup, on the other hand, has postulated that high population densities are catalysts for
technological innovation in peasant agriculture by engendering intensification and potential increases in
, Ehrlick, P. The Population Bomb (New York: Ballantine, 1968)
6 Basa and Clarke, QU. cit.

5
yield.' Bilsborrow and Geores have observed that historically, agricultural production expanded through
a process of extensification, that is, by farmers bringing into cultivation more land, acquired through
migration and appropriation of new lands.'
18. The concern in the Malthusian Theory is with the relationship between the potential growth of
food supply and population growth. Malthus noted that since potential growth in food supply occurs-at
an arithmetic rate and population growth at a geometric rate, the growth in the former would not keep
pace with the growth in the latter. He, therefore, cautioned that if preventive checks were not instituted
population growth would be checked by poverty, disease, famine and war"
19. The Club of Rome in its influential report, Limits to Growth, based on a computer model, has
presented a modified version of Malthus' views. The study predicted that if world population growth and
resource depletion at the time of the report continued unabated, the limit. to growth will be reached
within the next 100 years."
20. An emerging research preoccupation pertains to investigation of whether P-E linkages among
some rural populations are in tune with multiphasic or Boserupian or extensification paradigms on the
one hand or Malltusian theory on the other. II Stated in another way, in situations where population
growth provokes environmental degradation and/or resource depletion depressing traditional productivity,
does per capita output consequently decline resulting in diminution on welfare and the outset of increase
in mortality? Or do technological innovations engender productivity increases or stability along with
population growth?
-----------
Davis, K., "The theory of change and response in modem demographic history.", Population Index,
7
vol. 29, no. 4 (October 1963) pp. 345-366.
• Boserup, Ester, The Conditions of Agricultura!:Growth (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965).
9 Bilsborrow, Richard and M.E, Geores, "Population, land use and the environment in developing
countries: what can we learn from cross-national data?" In, The causes of Tropical Deforestation, D.
Peace and K. Brown (eds) London: University College London, 1993).
10 Malthus, T. An Essay on the principle of PQlI"lation, A. Field (ed.) (Harmondsworth: Pelican,

1970).
II Zaba and Clarke, "Introduction", Ql!. Ql.

6
21. Authors such as Gleave" and Eele, Duncan and Lawson," who have done quantitative
assessment of this issue concluded that among the rural communities they studied, agricultural
intensification entailing improvements in soil quality was related to population density. However, given
time constraint, the authors were unable to assess the impact on productivity and nutrition.
22. On the Maltus/Boserup debate, Gould, in a study of Western Kenya, detected Boserupian changes
involving, substantial population growth during a 50-year interval- extremely high in the last 25 years-
without marked progressive environmental degradation. He surmised that it was apparent that population
pressure was a stimulus to intensification of farm production and facilitated changes in the social sphere
that further sustained production increases."
23. Gould, however, observed that both the Maltusian and Boserupian paradigms had a fundamental
shortcoming for his study namely: "neither can adequately consider the impact of population growth on
farming systems, where circular migration is one of the major accompaniments of population growth".
This is because off-farm income and remittances were the main factors responsible for intensification and
income growth in the small-farm economy in the area studied.
24. Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development which contains
a chapter on demographic dynamics and sustainability maps out strategies for sustainable development
for the coming years.
25. The African Common Position on Agenda 21 puts emphasis on spatial population distribution
rather than population growth rate, noting that the main objectives of integrated population development
planning should be to enhance the availability and distribution of basic needs as well as widen the range
12 Gleave, B. "Population density, population change, agriculture and the environment in Tropical
Africa", in B. Zaba and J. Clarke (eds), ll1h ill..
13 Eele,G., A. Duncan and A. Lawson, "Environmental change and response by small ~older
farmers: some evidence from Tanzania", in B. Zaba and Clarke (eds) ll1h ill..
" Gould, W. "Population growth, environmental stability and migration in Western Kenya: from
'Malltus to Boserup? In B. Zaba and J. Clarke, ll1h ill..
Fig.1.1 POPULATION- ENVIRONMENT DYNAMICS CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
POPULATION TRANSFER FACTORS ENVIRONMENT

(+ /-) (t/-) (+/-)
Births Technology / Knowledge Land
Deaths Economic Activities Water
Size Government Policies/Action Air
Composition Socio- Political Boundaries Biological Resources
Distribution. Culture/Customs Ecological Systems
Migration (Natural Boundaries)
Climate
OUTCOMES/CHANGE
(t/-)
Land Use Patterns
Human Carrying Capacity
Human Health and Well- Being
Economic Wealth
Environmental Change
Technological Innovations
Culture/ldeas/ Knowledge
Population Growth/Decline
Population Density
Source: Ness, Brechin and Drake IEds.) 1993

8
of economic and social choices of individuals."

26. The Dakar/Ngor Declaration of the Third African Population Conference of 1992 which
buttresses the Kilimajaro Programme of Action on Population, urged African countries to
integrate population policies and programmes in their development plans, programmes and
strategies .and implement measures to locate the underlying causes of environmental degradation.
27. At the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in September 1994,
governments were urged to ensure that population, environmental and poverty eradication factors are
integrated in sustainable development policies, plans and programmes.
C. Perspectives on sustainable development
28. The 1980s witnessed a resurgence of interest in the interlinkages among population and
environment, the consequences of population growth for natural resource depletion and environmental
degradation along with the relationship among environment, poverty and economic change. A decade or
so back, at the 1972 UN Conference on the Environment in Stockholm, the developing countries ranked
development as a higher priority, over concern with the environment." The argument then was that
although economic growth without the benefit of environmental quality control causes degradation of the
natural environment, it could also reduce poverty and poverty-related pollution. In any case, during the
pre- Stockholm Conference period, hardly any African country had developed comprehensive national
programmes for integrating environmental factors in development planning.
29. Since this period, perceptions have changed. A watershed on the changing attitude worldwide
about population, environment and development was the 1987 World Commission on Environment and
Development or the Bruntdland Commission which first clearly articulated sustainable development. In
the Commission's Report, Our Common Future, it defined sustainable development as follows:
is UNECA, African Strategies for the Implementation of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, E/ECA/CM.19/8/Rev. 1, Conference of Ministers of Economic Planning
and Development Nineteenth Session, 3-4 May, 1993.
16 Sou8san,J.G. "Sustainable Development", in A.M. Mannion and S.R. Bowlby (eds.)

Environmental issues in the 1990s (New York: John Wiley, 1992).
9
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their needs."
30. The conceptualization brings together concerns about the environment, economic development
and quality of life. More specifically, the Brundtland Report called upon countries to adopt policies and
programmes that foster economic growth which take into account the special needs of vulnerable persons,
while at the same time not compromising the viability of the resource base in their development effort.
The Report also underlined the role disparities in the economic and social spheres play relative to
differential access to infrastructure and social amenities, resource depletion and environmental stress.
31. In November 1989, at the International Forum on Population in the Twenty-first Century, the
Amsterdam Declaration was promulgated, which also underscored the inextricable links among
population, resources and environment."
32. The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) held in Cairo in 1994 is
a Programme of Action that builds on considerable international consensus developed since the World
Population Conference at Bucharest in 1974 and the International Conference on Population at Mexico
1984. The main thrust of the Action Programme was underlining the broad interrelationships between
population, resources, environment, and sustained economic growth.
33. ICPD defined sustainable development as not just long-term sustainability in production but also
in consumption patterns relating to all economic activities. The Plan of Action observed that to achieve
sustainable development governments should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production
and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.
34. In various country reports for the ICPD, prominence was given to the interrelationships between
17 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford'
University Press, 1987.
18 UNFPA, Report of the International Forum in Population in the Twenty-first Century,

Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 6-9 November 1989 (New York, 1990).
10
population, development and environment. 19 A number of African countries pointed out the negative
impact of population growth on the environment. The linkages between urban migration/population
density and environment in African countries was stressed, with attention drawn to such adverse
consequences of urbanization as pollution of adjacent rivers and degradation of the urban environment.
35. For example, the Nigerian report states that high population growth rate has fustrated efforts at
attaining sustainable development. Relative to population distribution and redistribution the government
considers current patterns as being unsatisfactory. Similarly, the Ethiopian National Report on
Population and Development explicitly expressed the linkages between population and development when
it stated among others, that "the attainment of such important national goals as food self-sufficiency,
universal primary education, raising the status of women, improvement of health conditions, expansion
of opportunities for productive employment, improvement of housing conditions, ... are difficult in the
face of rapid population growth"?' Clearly, the achievement of sustainable development cannot be met
when population growth and densities are not moderated.
II. MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION IN ECA MEMBER STATES
A. Mi~ration. Urbanization. and environment inter-relationship: An Overview
36. The major environmental problems facing African countries include enviromental degradation,
depletion of natural resources, overcultivation, overgrazing, overfishing, deforestation, excessive
commercial logging and industrial pollution. 21 These environmental problems are exarcebated by a
number of factors like rapid population growth, poverty, uneven spatial distribution of the population,
destruction of protective vegetative strip alongside water bodies and urban centres, extensive firewood
foraging, land dereliction through mineral exploitation, rapid and essentially unplanned urbanization,
19United Nations Population Division, "Governments' Views on the Interrelationships between

Population and Environment", Population Newsletter, June 1995, pp.15-16
'" Ethiopian Government, Ethiopian National Report on Population and Development for ICPD,
1993, p. 50.
Moyo, Sam et alia, The Southern African Environment (London: Earthscan Publications, 1993);
21
and Timberlake, L., African Crisis (London: lIED, Earthscan, 1985)

11
inadequate and/or lax enforcement of environmental and occupational health legislations and the economic
crisls."
11, 'These environmental conditions are not unrelated to migration and urbanization. Arrica is in the
early stages of urbanization and hence migration becomes the most important factor in the process of
urbanization. The relationship between migration, urbanization and the environment is well presented
by Benneh when he noted that, "fleeing from population pressure, rural-dwellers migrate to cities, which
result in reduced agricultural holdings, environmental degradation, ravages of ethnic conflicts and rural
poverty, "23
38. In all Africa, areas that are better endowed with natural resources such as forests, rich soils,
minerals, etc., tend to have higher population concentrations. Attraction of migrants to these areas is
usually on a large scale. In these areas, the interplay of large volumes of migrants and natural population
increase especially in the agricultural producing regions leads to high population pressure over land.
Continuous pressure on land and its consequent exhaustion, eventually drives rural dwellers to look
beyond their immediate surroundings for new agricultural frontier areas. In recent times however, few
of such new frontier areas exist due to increasing population. Consequently, due to perceived economic
differential between the rural and urban areas", migration from the rural areas into the urban centres
becomes common resulting in rapid urbanization that is currently being experienced in Africa.
39. In the urban centre, over-crowding especially in the slum areas leads to many environmental
problems including waste management and sanitation problems, air, water and noise pollution, traffic
congestion and the development of squatter settlements or slums with all their associated environmental
problems. As these 'environmental problems increase, there is the tendency for people to relocate
'" ECA, Achjevim: our development goals through the environment: the African environment and
develOJlment agenda.ECAIENVIUNCEDCAII9I1Rev.1. Addis Ababa, 1991.
23 Benneh, G., "Environmental Consequences of Different Patterns of Urbanization" in U.N.

Population. Environment and Development, Proceedings of the U.N. Expert Group Meeting on
Population, Environment and Development, 20-24 Jan. 1992, New York, 1994, pp.159-165.
24 Todaro, M.P., "Urban Job Expansion, induced migration and rising unemployment", Journal of
Developing Economics, YoU, No.3, September 1976, pp.211-255.
12
themselves in areas away from the city centre. Thus, the level of urbanization lind environmental
problems that emanate therefrom could further redirect migration throughout the continent.
40. Environmental damage is recorded to have reached crisis stages due mainly to rapidly growing
. ,
population and poor agricultural and environmental practices. For example, in the Sahel regions of
Africa, "expanding populations and accelerated deforestation have triggered a cascading decline in
biological and economic productivity and have created what is now the world's largest area threatened
by desertification"." The rate of reforestation is far outrun by the rate of deforestation in many places.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimates indicate that about 80% of Sub-Saharan
Africa's dry lands and rangelands (about 1500 million hectares) already show signs of desertification.'"
The resultant widespread hardships from deteriorating environment in the Sahel regions are providing
adequate incentives for massive migration into the cities. This process has, in turn, increased the rate
of urbanization and its consequent high population concentrations which have led to environmental
pollution and degradation due to increasing dependance on firewood, charcoal and sticks as the main
sources of domestic energy requirement.
B. Patterns of migration
41. Studies on patterns of migration within countries of Africa have tended to emphasise rural-urban
migration as against all other types of movements. This is perhaps due to the magnitude of the problems
that uncontrolled rural-urban migration creates not only at the urban destination areas but also in the rural
places of origin. It is thus not uncommon for most African leaders to occasionally admonish rural
residents to stay back and help with the development process in the hinterland. Yet, intra-rural
movements continue to be the most common of the four major directional types of movement in
Africa." Thus, in most developing countries, especially in Africa, a substantial share of migration takes
place between rural areas.
zs McNamara, R.S. Africa's DevelopmentCrisis: Agriculture Stagnation, Population Explosion, and

Environmental Degradation. Global coalition for Africa, Washington, D.C. April, 1991.
26 !llliI.
27 Oucho, J.O., and Gould, W.T.S., "Internal Migration, Urbanization, and Population
Distribution", Demographic Change in sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Foote, K.A., Hill, K.H., and
Martin, L.G., National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 1993.
13
42. In spite of this observation, Oucho and Gould" argue that rural-urban movements continue to
be the most significant form of movement for the long-term trend of spatial redistribution. For example,
the 1978-1979 Botswana National Migration Survey indicated that 36% of all people surveyed in the four
largest towns were rural-urban migrants." Consequently, rural to urban migration continues to be a
key population movement that is of major interest to administrators and policy makers alike in Africa.
43. Rural-rural migration in Africa is undertaken mainly by farmers and pastoralist. These range
from seasonal to permanent movements. In West Africa, particularly Ghana, where share- cropping is
quite a common practice, it is normal for migrant farmers to move from impoverished lands to new
agricultural frontier areas to work as tenant farmers mostly on share-cropping basis. On the other hand,
pastoralism or nomadism is important in particularly in Eastern Africa notably Northern Kenya, Northern
Mainland Tanzania and North-eastern Uganda. ln South-western Africa, nomadism occurs mainly in
Botswana and Namibia. In Nigeria, rural to rural migration "reflects the diversity of ecological features
and the varying local resources and opportunities, land tenure arrangements and the cyclical demand for
labour in various parts of the country". 30 The main streams of labour migration in Africa have been
from the interior savanna to the forest belts in West Africa. Recent growth and development of towns
and other economic opportunities within the savannas region in addition to improved transportation system
have altered the pattern of migration slightly from long distance seasonal migration to short distance
movements. This is particularly the case in northern Nigeria. The creation of landlessness in parts of
Kenya, Ghana and La Cote d'Ivoire due to population pressure has also led to permanent migration of
the landless to the cities. The Kikuyu area of the Central Province in Kenya experiences such movements
by the landless into Nairobi. These are however, landless migrants engaged in circulation rather than
permanent migration."
44. A major dimension of migration in Africa especially in Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola and
" Ibid.
29 Ibid.
'" Adepoju, A., Rural Migration and Development in Nigeria, Department of Demography and'
Social Statistics, University of Ile-Ife, 1986.
,. Gould, W.T.S., "Population Mobility", Tropical African Development, edited by Gleave, M.B.,
Longman Scientific and Technical Co-published with John Willey and Sons Inc., New York, 1~92, p.290.
14
Mozambique is resettlement of areas firmly reserved for European settler farming. Land resettlement
schemes have been developed in these countries, although with different mix of structural change from
the extensive plantation to simple change of ownership." Table 2.1 is a typology of internal migration
, in Africa. It illustrates the migration streams in relation to their direction, durations and highlights the
types of persons involved in the process. It is important to note here that whatever the direction of
migration, the length of stay, the nature and type of migration there are definite inter-relationships
between the migration process and the environment, both negative and positive. Both causes and
consequences of migration do have definite linkages with the environment, especially in Africa where as
already noted, man remains in very close symbiosis with the physical environment. Hence many types
of geographical needs to adjust to the environment. Problems of land tenure in Africa are complex and
internal migration exacerbates these problems. The movement from one rural area to another to occupy
"free" lands for cultivation and colonization have brought serious conflicts in the receiving communities
and sometimes degenerated into ethnic conflicts. 33
45. In such circumstances the consequences may be very devastating including the destruction of
property, the loss of life and the environment as was experienced during the ethnic conflicts between the
Komkomba, on one hand and the Dagomba, Nanumba and Gonjas on the other, in Northern Ghana.
Many settlements, farms, livestock and other properties were destroyed by the deliberate bush fires while
more than one million I ives were lost. The districts involved are yet to recover from these consequential
social, economic, political and environmental "shocks". Similar conflicts related to migration between
long settled migrants and receiving communities are constant occurrences throughout the continent.
46. It must be explained that there have been situations where many areas of major out-migration
notably Western and Nyaza Provinces of Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Southern highlands of Tanzania and
" IIlliI. p. 292.
33Wogugu, M.O., "Internal Migration and the Nigerian Rural Sector: Solutions and Policy
Recommendations", Problems of Migration in Nigeria in Odumosu, L., Aluko S.A .• and Adepoju A. ed.
Ibadan, National Council of Social Work in Nigeria 1976 pp.96-104.
Also Coulibaly, S., ~. al.. Les Migrations Voltaigues. Tome Importance et ambivalence de la
Migrations Voltouque Ottawa OUAGADOUGOU, INSD-CVRS, IDRC-147f 1980.
15
Malawi are better watered and in general environmentally more benign than many areas of in-
migration." This suggests that environmental conditions are not always the major considerations for
migration in certain parts of Africa.
TABLE 2.1. Typology of Internal Migration with African Examples
Direction Periodic Seasonal Long Term Definitive Migration
Rural-Rural Movement of Pastorial Labour migration Agricultural land

dealers in displacement to agriculture colonization, resettlement
produce and due to wage sector, economic needs and
livestock environmental mining, and other consolidations; over spill
hazards rural. into marginal of
spontaneous migrants
from population pressure
areas
Rural-Urban Movement of Movement of Spontaneaous migrant in
dealers in employed and slums, shanty towns and
agricultural underemployed suburbs
produce persons
Urban-Rural Movement of Return "Repatriation" of Return migration of
dealers in migration of unemployed retired persons and
urban urbanized persons' labour unsuccessful urban
manufactures during "peak" migration to rural migrants (the latter can
(eg. soap, agricultural agro-industrial and be rural-urban migrants
foods, seasons mining modes later)
medicines)
Urban-Urban Movement of Movement of Prospective migration of
self-employed transferred second-or-Iater generation
persons workers; self- migrants out of touch
employed persons with ancestral home.
(traders and
business people
relocating
elsewhere
Note: Excludes daily movements such as cultivating, vacationing. and commuting.
Source: Oucho, J.D. and Gould, W.T.S., "Internal Migration, Urbanisation and Population Distribution", Demographic
Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, Edited by Foote, K.A.~. !y., National Academy Press, 1993. p. 259.
34
Gould, W.T.S., ~., p.296.
16
47. On the whole, migration has been mainly towards the urban areas in recent times. Hitherto,
rural-rural migration used to be more common due to the much required labour force for agricultural
activities in many African countries. The current trend is characterized by an increase in the rate of
development and expansion of the few primate cities hence the rate of urbanization as propelled by
migration has not been evenly spread throughout countries of the continent.
48. The consequences of quite recent rapid migration resulting in rapid urbanization include labour
shortages in the hinterland which in turn, have led to decreasing food production in the sending areas.
On the contrary, in the urban recelving areas and countries of destination, problems encountered have
been increasing resource scarcity. potential outbreak of epidemics resulting from environmental stress,
environmental degradation especially when migrants are herders. Increasing under employment and
unemployment are equally challenging problems within large in-migrant urban centres forcing people into
all kinds of activities including illegal sand winning which eventually have negative consequences for the
urban environment.
49. Migration has not only occurred within individual countries but has cut across into national
boundaries. West Africa has witnessed a long period of interchange of migrants at various periods in
time. During the early 1960s Ghana was a host country for many migrants from Upper Volta (Burkina
Faso), Mali, Togo and the Ivory Coast (La Cote D'lvoire). For example, it was reported that by 1960,
7.8% of the Ghanaian population was made up of immigrants from other African countries particularly
Togo, Upper Volta and Nigeria"
50. In recent times, the trend has changed with Ghana reported more as country of emigration to
other African countries. Similarly, South African mines have attracted much migrant labour from
neighboring countries particularly Lesotho, Zambia, Angola and Zimbabwe. There has however been
more frequent migration with the subregions such as within West Africa, East Africa and South Africa
than inter-regional exchanges.
C. Patterns of Urbanization
" Gil, B., "Immigration into Ghana and its contribution in skill, World Population Conference
Report, 1965.
17
51. Among the salient features of the evolution of urbanization in Africa are the low levels of
urbanization and the high rates of urban (as well as total) population growth. By 1994 the level of
urbanization was 34 percent, compared with 74 percent in Latin America, 34 percent in Asia and 73
percent in Europe. se Among world's major regions, Africa's level of urbanization is only comparable
to those of East and South Asia.
52. With respect to urban population growth, the rate was around 4.64 and 4.38 per annum during
1965-70 and 1990-95 respectively, compared with 2.60 % for Latin America and 3.68% for Asia, in
1990-95.
53. Of the two components of urban growth, natural increase (i.e. the difference between births and
deaths) and migration including the reclassification of localities, migration (i.e., urban-urban and
especially rural-urban inflows) has been shown to be the most important component in the 1960s and
1970s in most countries. However since the 1980s natural increase has been making a growing
contribution especially to the expansion of older and bigger cities.
54. Unlike Europe, North America, Asia and Latin America where many large urban agglomerations
exist, Africa has not many large urban centres. For example, Africa had only two major cities, namely
Cairo and Lagos which had 8 million or more population in 1990. The rate of population growth in
Cairo has been estimated at 2.6% and 2.7% for the 1980-1990 and 1900-2000 periods respectively. For
the two periods, the estimates for Lagos are 5.6% and 5.1 % respectively. Clearly then, Africa is made
up of several rural settlements..witlrrew primate cities usually comprising the capital cities and industrial
enclaves
55. The urban population of Africa is projected to experience remarkable increase within the next
few decades, in view of in-built momentum of high population growth, a result of high fertility and high
but declining mortality. From an estimated population of 201 million in 1990, the urban population is
expected to reach 468 million in 2010. By 2020 the urban population is projected to increase to 681
million, an almost threefold increase from 1990. By 2025 half of the population of Africa, about 55
36 United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 1994 Revision, ST/ESA/Ser.A/150 New York,
1995.
18
percent, would be living in urban areas.
56. At the city level, dramatic increases in mega-cities are also expected, with Cairo/Giza and Lagos
in the forefront, whose population sizes would surpass the 10 million mark by the turn of the century.
During this period, Alexandria and Kinshasa would also have population sizes of around 5 million. Other
cities projected to have very large populations in the next few decades include, Casablanca, Algiers,
Abidjan and Tripoli.
57. These future expansion of the urban population and bigger cities is bound to aggravate urban
problems unless sensible urban policies are put in place.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATORY

AND URBANIZATION CHANGES
A. Introduction
58. In most parts of Africa large numbers of people have been forced to leave their home areas or
usual places of residence because their lands have become uninhabitable for various reasons or are no
longer able to support them. In many instances the cause is a natural disaster; in others it is human.
Regardless of the cause, however, there are clear links between environmental degradation and mass
movements of people and urbanization. The deterioration of natural resources, coupled with demographic
pressures (especially on arable land) and chronic poverty in most parts of the continent has led to
migration.
59. Hance identified the following types of migration involved in environmental change, namely: (a)
migration of pastoral nomads; (b) migration in response to insect and disease infestation; (c) migration
resulting from drought or flooding; (d) migration resulting from drought or flooding; and (e) migration
to relieve population pressure."
60. Where (and when) populations exceed the critical carrying capacities of such ecologically fragile
37 Hance, W., Population. Migration and Urbanization in Africa (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1970).
19
areas, under economic practices that are deleterious to the environment, the consequences of
unharrnonious population-environment relationships such as land shortage, land degradation, deforestation,
deserti fication, soil erosion, environmental health hazards and a vicious cycle of environmental
degradation and poverty begin to emerge. For many people in Africa, particularly in the rural areas, an
important way to break the cycle is to emigrate.
B. Land degradation deforestatiOn and desertification (including soil erosion)
61. The degradation of extensive land areas in Africa has occurred as a result of overgrazing of
vegetation by ever-increasing numbers of livestock, cutting of forests and woodland and improper land
management practices such as the slash-and-burn method of land preparation for cropping. The effects
of land degradation in Africa are compounded by recurrent droughts which often result in the mass
exodus of people, At the peak of the crisis, in 1984 and 1985, an estimated 30-35 million people in 21
countnes in Africa were affected, of whom about 10 million people were displaced and became known
as "environmental refugees"38
62. In Africa as in all parts of the world, the degradation of forests is caused by a combination of
natural and anthropogenic factors the chief of which has been the conversion of forest lands to agricultural
land and the intensive land use thereof. Between 1950 and 1983 the area of Africa's woodlands and
forests declined by 23% from 901 to 690 million hectares." Between 1981 and 1985 tropical African
countries such as Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Sudan and Zaire were losing their forests at annual rates of
4.0%. 2.6%, 5.0% and 3.7% respectively." In absolute terms, tropical forests in Africa are being lost
at the rate of 3.7 million hectares a year with over half of the deforestation in West Africa alone. Over
30% of the original forest cover in Cote d'Ivoire has already disappeared. The situation is becoming
--_._-----
" EI-Hinnawi, E, "Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in the Near East", Regional
Document No.4, FAO/Netherlands Conference on Agriculture and Environment, FAO, Rome, 1991.
39 FAO., Production Yearbooks, 1950-82 (FAO, Rome,1951-53).
40 IBRDlWorld Bank, "Development and the Environment", World Development Report, Oxford,
1992, p.282.
20
Table 3.1: Manifestation of Drought
Ecological/environmental/climatic
ecological deterioration, including vegetation, soils, water resources;
feedback effects, declining rainfall;
energy shortfall (hydroelectric wood, ... )
Economic production and consumption
unemployment and underemployment;
agricultural shortfalls, effects and procedures and consumers;
livestock deterioration, effects on producers and consumers;
changes in pasturing practices;
decimation of wildlife;
declining craft production;
declining incomes.
Health, nutrition and morbidity
malnutrition, famine;
deteriorating health.
Migration
out-migration;
displacement;
accelerating urbanisation;
sedentarisation.
Cultural - Stagnation
Political - Instabil ity
Source: J. W. Gregory, Drought, comparative views from Tombouctou, In IDRC, Drought in

Africa (Ottawa: IDRC, 1990).
21
Fig. 3.1 THE DESERTIFICATION THREAT
KE'(
De'Qree of desertification
haz ard :
~
7~
/,' / Moderate
//
00]] Hillh
1m Very Hillh
r;%/':L:::d
?-l Existin'il
d e ser t
e~treme
SOURCE: DesertificaTion Map of the World, FAa/UNESCO, 1977.

22
critical in southwestern Cameroon, southeastern Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Tanzania and Zaire."
Deforestation and forest degradation affects millions of people through increased flooding, soil erosion
and silting of waterways, drought, shortages of fuelwood and timber and the displacement of societies
and cultures." For instance, in Somalia people have responded to
heavy soil erosion, overgrazing, forest depletion and fuelwood scarcity by migrating to the cities."
63. Desertification, defined as land degradation in drylands resulting mainly from adverse human
impact," is common in many areas in Africa (Fig. 3.1). It is attributed in part to climatic conditions
including droughts, overgrazing, and wood cutting for various purposes. Desertification is one of the
continent's most pressing environmental concerns and its most serious threat hangs over the Sahel, the
most severely hit countries being Burkina Faso, Sudan, Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Ethiopia and
Chad." According to Harrison," it has been estimated that as much as 742 million hectares in Africa
- 26 per cent of the total land area - was undergoing moderate or severe desertification, and this
represents about 85 per cent of the continents's dry land area. A total of 108 million people lived in the
affected zones in 1983.
64. Land degradation, deforestation and desertification diminishes the ability of affected communities
to produce food. For ECA member states the economies of which are largely agrarian and subsistent,
this results in a tendency towards famine; and consequently, a tendency for people to migrate to better
lands or to cities to engage in non-agricultural wage employment.
'I Nwanganga, G.S., "Sustainable Human Development in Action: UNDP's Partnership with Africa,
Regional Bureau for Africa. Occasional Papers, Feb. 1995, p,29.
'2 UNEP., Saving Our Planet. Challenges and Hones, Nairobi,1992, p.43.
" Kane, H., "What's Driving Migration?", World Watch, Vo1.8, No. I, Jan/Feb, 1995, p.31.
" UNEP., Qn. Cit. 1992, p.43.
" Harrison, P., The Greening of Africa. Breaking Through in the Battle for Land and Food,
Collins, Glasgow, 1987.
.. Harrison, P., Ibid.
23
C. Drought. Famine. Insects and diseases
65. In recent years widespread drought has been cutting a swathe through many ECA countries killing
a considerable number of people and destroying the livelihoods of millions of the population. It also
threatens to undermine the already difficult economic reform efforts" as it usually triggers off mass
movements of people in search for better conditions of living. For instance, EI-Hinnawi has found that
in the Sahel, repeated droughts have driven many pastoralists southward to take menial jobs and swell
shanty towns."
66. In an attempt to cope with the situation many refugee and transit camps have been established
which had to rely heavily on assistance from the international community. First,
these camps are supposed to be temporary dwellings; hence this does not augur well for long-term and
sustainable development. Second, assistance from the 'international community' may not be forthcoming
when it is most urgently needed for development.
67. The African droughts of the early 1970s affected many areas in Africa and were reported in terms
of starvation, large-scale movement and death. 49 According to Caldwell, Tropical African population
is unusually mobile and this mobility, encouraged by the fact that land tenure is communal rather than
freehold, provides a substantial degree of protection against natural disasters (implying that it is often a
leeway for many people in the face of drought). Caldwell also asserts that although no count was made
of population flow by either government or individual inquiry, the droughts of the 19708 greatly increased
the migrant population as was clearly apparent on the roads and in the receiving areas. Destinations were
of two types. The first type were movements often of whole families, to better watered agricultural
areas, '.H to countries with a stronger economy (eg. the movement within Hausa areas from southern
Nigerto northern Nigeria). However, the great majority of men sought jobs in the richer coastal
countries, with a far greater proportion going to the large towns, especially Lagos and Abidjan. Caldwell
further states that the chief defence against the drought disaster was a demographic one, namely the
" l.aishley, R., "Drought dims hope for faster recovery", Africa Recovery, Vol. 6, No.2, August
1992, p. L
48 El-Hinnawi, Ibid.
49 Caldwell, J.C., "Demographic Aspects of Drought: An Examination of the African Drought of

1970-74", African Environment Special Report 6, Dalby eral. (eds.), 1977.
24
Fig.3.2 FOOO:THE POPULATION PRESSURE
KEY
-
Zones unable. to support
.th
1975 population WI
n
~ Low
C3
~
inputs
Intermediate Inputs
Hillh inputs
SOURCE: Land, Food and People, FAO , 1984.

25
Fig.3.3 DROUGHT-AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
REPEATEDLY DROUGHT-AFFECTED
COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
[I]l] More critically afflct.~
~ Leu critically oftec.tld

1':::·~~:1 Lor\, Lake.
'ND-tA"IOCEAN
o soo 1000 I~OO Km
I I I !
Based on M.H. Glantz and R.W. Katz (1985)

26
movement of people and animals. The movement was always towards moister areas,
and this usually meant southward. Many nomads made for the towns and sought work there, while others
took their families to refugee camps. In farming communities it was usually the adult males who moved,
and this means the loss of manpower for development. Mortimore views augmented off-farm production
and labouring at home or away as an indigenous insurance against drought. so
68. Droughts in Africa have often brought in their wake spells of famine and starvation to the affected
communities as it happened in 1975 when many zones were unable to support the population with the
needed food supply and inputs as depicted in Figure 3.2. In early 1984, for instance, drought drove over
150 million people in western, eastern and southern African nations to the brink of starvation (Fig. 3.3).
In .eastem Africa, Ethiopia and Somalia were the most seriously hit. Kane reports that in Ethiopia there
is some famine even in years of good rain. This has resulted in large flows of refugees seeking relief
from a vicious circle of famine and civil war. At the end of 1993, nearly 230,000 Ethiopians were
refugees, mostly in Sudan, and at least half a million were internally displaced."
69. Writing about drought and migration in Africa, Sadik states: "The total number of 'environmental
refugees' is impossible to calculate, but it is known for example that during the first half of the 1980s
at least 10 million Africans were forced off their land, largely by extended drought.. Most of the
survivors ended in urban squatter settlements or refugee camps"."
70. Thaim who analyzed the spatial population redistribution consequences of drought and
desertification in Mali by 1987 showed that most of the migration flows were from north to south, that
is, from the very arid zones to the relatively humid zones (table 3.2)." More specifically, only two
"
regions, namely the district of Bamako and Sikasso region made gains in exchanges of migrants with
so Mortimore, M., "Shifting Sands and Human Sorrow: Social response to drought and
desertification", Desertification Control Bulletin, No. 14, 1987, p.8.
" Kane, H., QJ2. Qt. p.30.
" SadiJc, N" Safeguarding The Future, UNFPA, (undated), p.14.
". B. Thaim, "Environmental impact of migration and on the spatial distribution of the population" .
In UN Population, Environment and Development. Proceedings of the UN Expert G~oup Meeting on
Population, Environment and Development, New York, January 1992.
27
other regions. As the location of the capital, Bamako, the district of Bamako was, the major destination
location for migrants, receiving 236,000 migrants, representing about 36 percent of' its resident
population, compared with Sikasso's 63,000 migrants or 4.8 percent of its resident populadon.The other
six regions registered, overall, losses in exchanges of migrants with other regions. Among the big losers
was Tombouctou, located in a very arid zone, which lost 68 000 of its inhabitants constituting i'4.7
percent of its resident population.
7 I. Information from a 1985 demographic survey provides insights on the reasons for migration and
the importance of drought among those reported (table 3.3)." The results revealed that for the sample
population as a whole reasons related to the drought accounted for 51.5 percent of the responses,
compared with 45.7 percent pertaining to other factors (work and/or study, 45.7 percent; and 2.8 percent
for family and other reasons). However, marked differences in the reasons given for migration by age
was discerned, For the younger population, essentially those up to age 35, alongside those aged, that is
60 and over, drought was overwhelmingly the major reason they gave for the movements. On the other
hand, for those in age group, 35-60 years, employment was the major reason given for movements.
72. Among the mobility outcomes of drought and desertification in semi arid and arid areas of Africa
are sedentarization of nomadic herdsmen and the concomitant addition to the population of neighbouring
areas where this occurs." Such population concentrations have resulted in adverse environmental
consequences. An example is Northern Kenya where the vegetation around new settlements for drought
victims resulted in the destruction of forest covers by the cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal
burning. house construction and by the livestock of the settlers.
73. At a general level, Thaim has proposed the following scenario when migration occurs from
drought/desertification affected areas to new destinations with relatively more
conductive climatic and economic conditionsr"
" Thairn, idem
" R.M.K. Silitshena, "Some environmentally motivated population displacements in Africa, South
of the Sahara", in papers, UAPS, Conference on Population and Environment in Africa, Gaborone,
Botswana, 1992.
.16 . '01' id
. alm,.!Qrn!.
28
Table 3.2: Balance or migratory movements by regions, Mall, 1987
Region Net migration
Number Rate
Kayes -8,516 .0.8
Koulikoro -28,257 2.4
Sikasso +62,713 4.8
Sl!gou -22,935 1.7
Mopti -1,693 0.1
Tombouctou .(j7,697 14.7
Gao -10,217 2.7
Bamako +236,092 35.9
Source: Ihaim. 1992
Table 3.3: Age structure and reason ror migration. district or Bamako. 1985
Age Reason ror migration

group
Drought Work or Family or Total
study other
15-19 68.1 29.4 2.6 100.0
20-24 58.8 39.6 1.6 100.0
25-29 49.5 46.9 3.6 100.0
30-34 52.4 44.7. 2.9 100.0
35-39 41.5 55.2 3.3 100.0
40-44 ~.7 49.9 3.4 100.0
45-49 48.9 49.6 1.6 100.0
50-54 44.3 53.1 2.6 100.0
55-59 44.1 53.5 2.4 100.0
60.()4 59.5 32.7 7.8 100.0
65.(j9' 59.3 40.7 .. 100.0
70-74 66.2 33.8 .. 100.0
75-79 68.5 31.5 .. 100.0
80 or over .. 100.0 .. 100.0
Total 51.7 45.7 2.8 100.0
Source: Mali. Enquete demographique du Mali. 1985, vol. 11; Project PADEM (Bamako,
1988)
29
a) Extra demand for cultivable land by reclamation of additional land; reduction of
follow period for land; cultivation of burnt-over land;
b) Extra pressure on pasture land by livestock of ecologically displaced migrllllts
especially nomads;
c) . Extra demand on the water resources of the destination; and
d) Population growth pressure on urban centres receiving the migrants.
74. Insects cause various kinds of afflictions on the populations of ECA members countries. They
either attack humans directly or destroy their food and protein sources. Principal among these insects
are tsetse fly, locusts, mosquitoes and the black fly (or simulium damnosum). Some 10 million
square Kilometres of Africa is dominated by the tsetse fly (which transmits trypanosomiasis or
sleeping sickness). The tsetse belt coincides roughly with the humid and sub-humid tropics, with a
southward extension into Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique." In all these countries
apart from the deleterious effect of the disease on both humans and livestock, it has often forced
families to abandon their settlements for fear of the disease. There exist today many such abandoned
sited throughout the tsetse fly endemic regions.
75. Another spectacular instance of insect and disease occurrence and consequent emigration is the
invasion of some fertile riverine areas in Sub-Saharan Africa by the black fly (simulium damnosum)
the vector which transmits onchocerciasis (river blindness). Before 1974 when the Onchocerciasis
Control Programme was embarked upon by the World Health Organization, United Nations
Development Programme, FAO and World Bank the only solution was to flee the river basins. Many
of these, 'environmental refugees' emigrated to settle on higher, safer grounds but where land is less
fertile. According to the World Health Organization, in West Africa alone:
by eliminating the threat of blindness and other onchocerciasis manifestations,

Oucho Control Programme has opened up the way for resettlement in fertile
areas along the rivers, previously deserted through fear of the disease. It is
thus estimated that a total of 250,000 kID 2 of riverine land will be available for
settlement and cultivation essentially as a result of OCP operations".
" Timberlake, L., Africa in Crisis, The Causes. the Cures of Enyjronmental Bantrupti;Y, Earthscan
Publications I,.td, London, 1985.
S' World Health Organization, Oni;ho!;ercjasjs Control Programme, 1974 - 1994, "Geneva, 1994.
30
76. The above statement illustrates clearly the impact of onchocerciasis on migration, often
involving whole settlements, in the past in the West African sub-continent.
77. Bilharzia, malaria and guinea worm are some of the diseases that plague people in Africa
especially in the rural areas. Analysis by Griffiths (1985) clearly illustrates the areas in the continent
that have the burden of malaria and bilharzia (Fig. 3.4). It can be discerned from the map that much
of sub-Saharan Africa is saddled with a host of tropical diseases which more often than not result in
the displacement of people either through voluntary or involuntary mobility as clearly illustrated in
the study by Prothero on malaria and migration in Northern Nigeria."
D. Natural disasters: floods. bush fires and earthquakes
78. The most significant natural disaster that has triggered off population movements in Africa is
flooding. It takes place either as a result of heavy rains as occurred in Mozambique and Madagascar
in 1994. In the same year, 1994 unusual heavy rainfalls led to flooding in many areas in the Sahelian
region including Mali, Niger, Northern Nigeria, Burkina Fasso and parts of Northern Ghana leading
to displacement of people and the destruction of farms and property. Accra, the capital of Ghana,
experienced very serious flooding in July, 1995 leading to the death of 22 people, displacement of
over 50,000 residents and heavy losses of property. In August, 1995 it was reported that some
sections-of coastal areas of Monrovia were flooded by sea water, rendering several people homeless.
79. In the early 19808, bush fires razed through 'extensive areas in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1983
the West African sub-eontinent witnessed widespread bush fires that not only destroyed cash crop
farms in the forest regions and cereal farms and barns in the northern sectors, but also a number of
villages leading to the forcible migration of the affected communities.
80. Major earthquakes are infrequent in Africa but a few tremors have occurred which led to the
displacement of many people. For instance, the suburb of Mamprobi in Accra, Ghana, was built to
accommodate victims of an earthquake in 1939 which made many people homeless.
81. Some indications of relative population pressure in African countries is the disproportionate
.. Prothero, R.M., Migrants and Malaria in Northern Nigeria,Longman Press, London, 1965.
31
concernration of population through an uneven rural population distribution and the annual rate of
population growth. eo Ohadike states that one of the spill-over effects of rapid population growth in
Africa is reflected in the general level of the man-land ratio. This has more than doubled over the
195d-I'~80 period, and he asserts that there are high prospects for this to escalate in the future.
According to UNECA There are striking pockets of very high population density in countries such as
Egypt (with 1515 persons per square kilometre of arable land), Cape Verde (839); Ghana (1038);
Liberia (1597); Burundi (376); Mauritius (943); Mozambique (358); Rwanda (664); Lesotho (409)
and Swaziland (361).61
82. Over the 1971-80 decade some African countries recorded negative growth rates of arable
land and land under permanent crops per economically active population in agriculture: Algeria (-
0.2%), Benin (-0.4%), Angola (-0.9%), Egypt (-1".7%), Ghana (-0.6%), Lesotho (-3.7%), Somalia (-
4.5%), Djibouti (_5.7%)'" This results in landlessness and very high land prices and rents
especially in rural communities. The ultimate effect is that many people, especially males, migrate in
.search for land elsewhere or non-agricultural wage employment in big towns and cities. Morocco,
Algeria and Tunisia all face serious problems of population pressure, marked by serious
unemployment, overuse of extensive rural areas, low rural standards of living, excessive migration to
cities, etc. In Algeria, for instance,
thousands of landless peasants have flocked to the cities." In Ghana the Nandom, Jirapa, Lawra
and North Mamprusi areas are among the areas that face serious population pressure on the land. The
situation is particularly serious in northeastern Ghana where the Nangodi area with a total land area of
eo Ohadike, P.O., Development in Africa, RIPS, Legon, 1988.

61 UNECA., Demographic Handbook for Africa, Addis Ababa, 1980, pp.17-19.
6' FAa., Economic and Social Development: Socio-Economic Indicators relating to the Agriculture
Sector and Rural Development, Paper No.40, Table 3, p.14.
" Hance, W., Population, Migration. and Urbanization in Africa, Columbia University Press, New
York and London, 1970, p.394.
32
Fig.3.4 THE BURDEN OF DISEASE
KEY
II Areas with malaria
. [ITJ
......
.... .....
:::.'.:::-: Areas with bilharzia
~ Areas with both malaria

~ and bilharzia
SOURCE: leuan Griffiths, An Atlas of African Affairs, Methuen,1965.

33
3,400 square miles was carrying a total of 469,000 persons in the early 1970s.... Out-migration was
found to be a safety valve for rural-urban migrants from areas with very high population densities and
pressure on the land.'" According to Prothero "population/land relationships, particularly in
Northern Sokoto, are beset with many problems of overpopulation and land hunger. Movements of a
considerable proportion of the population are a manifestation of these problems"."
E. Rur<):1 population pressure - land shortages and tenurial systems
83. Efforts have been made to define and measure several concepts and variables in the
population-environment relationships. These include (i) carrying capacity of the land, (ii) threshold
population size (iii) optimum population size and (iv) population pressure. These are not mutually
exclusive rather (ii), (iii) and (iv) results as a consequence of exceeding the carrying capacity.'"
Numerous attempts have been made to quantify these in different countries, the work of Allan being a
pioneer in this area."
84. Population pressure relates to places where, under existent land use and technology at the
present stage of development there is pressure on the land or in the urban environment, an~ with the
population inhabiting these places. Because there is existing pressure, it does not mean that there is
overpopulation or that there will always be pressure. It does, however, suggest that attention needs to
be given to such activities as soil protection, intensification, increasing production, and creation of
diversified employment opportunities."
... Hance, W., Ibid., p. 399.
es Nabila, 1.S. "Decision to Migrate - The Frafra of Ghana" in Udo, Kg. aI., Population Education
Source Bpok for sub-Saharan Afr;ca: Africa Social Studies Programme, Heineman, 1976.
"" Prothero, R.M., Migrants and Malaria, London, 1965.
67 Ajaegbu H.I., "Population and Environment Interrelationships In Africa: A Review" in Union

for African Population Studies Conference on Population and Environment In Africa, Gaborone,
Botswana, 1992, p. 16.
68
Allan, W., The African Husbimdman, 1965.
(f} Hance W., QQ. Cit., p. 387.

34
85. There will be a better understanding of this section if we take note of the fact that population
pressure can be caused by many factors. These include (i) rapid population growth as experienced in
many countries of Africa with over 3 % annual rate of growth, (ii) colonial policies which did not
only disrupt tenurial systems but also restricted populations within political boundaries (iii) internal
and international migration i.e. population redistribution and settlement (iv) drought (v) pastoralism
(vi) unemployment and under-employment (vii) environmental degradation involving soil erosion and
desertification (viii) rapid urbanization and development of primate cities and (ix) rural poverty.
Appendix 2 gives examples of migrations in Africa which are in considerable measure related to
pressure on the land.
IV. THE IMPACT OF MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION ON TIlE ENVIRONMENT
A. Population concentrations/urbanization and environment
86. High population concentrations occur throughout Africa namely, in areas of high resource
endowment, economic activities and the administrative capitals and centres of the countries within the
continent. These population concentrations have varying degrees of implications on the urban
environment including housing, population, health, sanitation and urban proliferation. The
International Labour Organisation (lLO) reports in 1994 that in most cities in Africa, large
proportions of the population live in slums and informal settlements. JO These have the highest
proportions of the urban population living in slums. The estimates vary from 34% population living
in slums and informal settlements in Nairobi (Keriya) in 1986, 58% in Lagos (Nigeria) in 1981, 60%
in Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) to as high as 84% in Cairo (Egypt) in 1984 and 83-% in Addis Ababa
(Ethiopia) in 1980.
87. High population concentration either as a result of migration or natural increase has been
identified as the major cause of environmental change in Africa." In an earlier study, Ajaegbu
International Labour Organisation (lLO), Cited in ILO, "Environmental Implications ef Rapid

'10
Urban Population Growth, Unemployment and Poverty: The Large Metropolis in the Third World",
Proceedings of the UN Expert Group on Population, Environment and Development, 20-24 January,
1992, New York, 1994, p. 249.
" Ajaegbu, H.I., Ql!. Qt.

35
concludes that in all population environment crisis areas in Africa, population impact has been very
striking with population growth cited as the most responsible population component in operation."
In his review of studies on the population-environment interrelationships he estahlishes a general
conclusion by most of them that "as human populations increased, the effects of the imbalance in the
population - environment interrelationships become more and more noticeable and worrying". 73
88. The environmental impact of a population over a wide area may be largely determined by its
degree of clustering, rather than overall density. 71 Clustering in rural areas may have
environmentally beneficial effects: it can be argued that intensification and mechanization of
production on prime agricultural lands, and the accompanying de-population of rural areas, allows the
re-generation of wilderness and maintains species density. 7S
89. One current problem of urbanization is the poor siting of residential structures. According to
Zaba and Clarke "the unsuitable siting of dwellings has long been recognised as one of the principal
reasons for catastrophic environmental impacts on population through floods, landslides and
earthquakes"." This situation is aggravated by choked gutters and poor drainage. For example, a
heavy downpour of rain in Ghana (July 4-5, 1995) resulted in flooding of many parts of the city of
Accra causing extensive damage to lives and property. About 50,000 people were reported to have
been rendered homeless. However, instead of outright relocation from their original places of
residence, affected people usually go back to resettle at their old dwellings after the floods have
subsided'. This no doubt is the result of rural urbanization which is concentrated in few cities (urban
primacy) in Africa leading to uncontrolled competition over limited space for constructional purposes.
90. In most African cities experiencing rapid in-migration and urbanization, vast lands that
n Ajaegbu, H.I., Population and Environment Ouality. Population Education Monograph 10,
Nigerian Education Research and Development Council, Lagos, 1985.
73 Ibid.
74 Zaba, B. and Clarke, J.I, QIl. Qt. p. 249.

15 Thill.
76 Zaba, B. and Clarke, 1., QIl. Qt. p. 23.
36
hitherto were agricultural producing areas are rapidly being used for residential purposes. The rush
with which such residential developments are taking place implies that little or no attention is paid to
the landscape planning of the cities. The result is the disorganisation of an otherwise productive
environment.
91. Another dimension of the effects of a fast expanding urban area in most African countries is
the issue of sand winning activities, most of them illegal either within the city or close to it. This is
in direct response to the many construction works that are taking place in these areas. Most of the
illegal sand winning activities lead to land degradation, soil erosion, drainage obstruction and a
general destabilisation of the ecosystem.
92. Slums are increasingly becoming a common feature of rapidly growing cities in Africa. The
slums are usually the places of residence for the large number of migrants who are drifting to
sprawling cities. Most residents of slums are unemployed and, or earn low incomes which make it
quite prohibitive for a large number of them to acquire decent accommodation within the city. One
feature of slum areas is the poor sanitation, poor drainage and waste disposal practices. There is also
often the absence of some basic amenities such as public places of convenience on account.of the
spontaneity with which these slums spring up. It is thus, not uncommon for such shanty town
residents to use the open spaces within the built up areas as places of convenience, a source of
environmental pollution that affects the health of not only residents in the slum areas but also a large
segment of the population in the city. Thus most African urban centres and cities are characterised by
over-crowding, congestion and poor environmental management, rampant crime and unbearable
pressure on social and physical services. The energy requirements of urban residents in the form of
charcoal and firewood from rural areas further puts pressure on environments throughout Africa.
93. Endangerment of the environment by the pressure of population is further transmitted in other
ways, especially through the demand for products derived directly or indirectly by the bio-physical
environment. The demand originates from both rural and urban areas within a country itself, and
from other areas outside the country. In response to meet urban demands in the form of agricultural
products, forest products, minerals, industrial raw materials of all forms and the like all lead to the
endangerment of the environment in the hinterlands of these cities.
37
B. Population redistribution and resettlement

94. Population distribution and redistribution have been on-going processes in Africa in spite of
the relatively small population as compared to other regions of the world. The distribution of sub-
Saharan Africa's population has lacked uniformity and varies from country to country. Five main
populauon density zones have been recognised within sub-Saharan Africa namely:(i) Areas of urban
concentration; (ii) very density settled rural areas, usually over farmed; (iii) heavily farmed medium
density areas; (iv)Low density fertile agricultural districts; and (v) very sparsely settled and virtually
uninhab ited areas. n
95. The distribution has been very much associated with spatial resource endowment and
economic activity. The result has been that anytime an area is over-farmed and or become
environmentally degraded, it triggers off further redistribution out of the ecologically impoverished
areas to other regions which may be better endowed.
96. Population redistribution has been both voluntary through migration and planned through
resettlement schemes. Whichever way it has occurred, population redistribution in Africa has
important relationships with environmental problems. For example, the resettlement schemes
undertaken hy the Ethiopian government after the revolution and nationalisation of rural .lands was
primarily an attempt to relocate people affected by long periods of drought in the highland areas
particularly in the Wollo and Tigre provinces. Figure 4.1 shows where settlement schemes were
established and the areas from where people were relocated. However, most of the smaller farm
units with the social aim of accommodating landless. farmers, were rejected as incapable of
contributing to increased
n Udo, R.K., "Size, Distribution and Characteristics of Population in Africa", Population Education
Source Book for Sub-Saharan Africa, Edited by Udo, R.K., Heinemann Educational Books, Nairobi,
1979, p. 63.
38
Fig.4.1 POPULATION REDISTRIBUTION IN ETHIOPIA THROUGH
POST-REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT SCHEMES (1974 -1980)
LEGEND
- i • Settlement scheme
_ _ Movement of 'Lumpen' 10
Scheme (L)
__ • Movement of Landless Formers
to Scheme
•••••• MovemenT of Postorolists to
Scheme
16° N
C Charcaalers
km Settlement of Hunters and

Gatherers
100
! pi Planned for 1980 but not
implemented
LJ Land over 1500 metres
Note: Where le t re r clone is shown

resettlement Involved little
movement.
.......
j <,
,-...-..,r"
i
-, ........
-.
\.
\..
\
\
\ ."
\HtG
.......
\
",...-' -'_.
4°N
/,--,
.
'-',,_.-,,' _._.
42"E
./
r'
4"N
36"E
Source; Wood. A. P. "Population Redistribution and Agricultural Sa"frlement Schemes In Ethiopia,

1958-80" in Clarke. J. I. e t 01 (editors) Population and' Dey. Projects in 'Africa CombridQe
University Press 1985 p. 99.
39
agricultural production." It can be inferred from this that the redistribution achieved by the
resettlement schemes led to environmental pressure and consequent deterioration in the productive
capacity of the land as one of-the disadvantages of resettlement schemes, hence their unattractiveness
to the landless farmers who were relocated.
97. Another case in point is the Tanzanian villagization population redistribution policy which is
acknowledged to have contributed to land deterioration. According to McCall, there have been
"general environmental losses due to population concentration without adequate adaptation; soil
compaction, erosion and gullying, damage to water sources and loss of shade trees and communal
space" .79 Uncontrolled and poorly managed population redistribution, whether planned (settlement
schemes) or voluntary, has therefore had negative environmental consequences at certain points in
time throughout Africa.
98. Migration and rapid urbanization result in overcrowded settlements, creation of new
settlements and resettlement of otherwise abandoned settlements or areas that may, under normal
circumstances not attract large numbers of people. At early stages of urbanization, people are
selective in their choice of place of residence even within the urban environment. At this stage, the
spatial planning of the city may not be affected. With time however, it may suffer from.
encroachments from unauthorized structures built for settlements.
99. Resettlements often become necessary as a result of natural and man-made disasters. This is
especially the case with the establishment of a dam, occurrence of drought, flooding or the outbreak
of a disease. For example, the construction of the Volta dam in Ghana in 1962 resulted in the
resettlement of about 800 villages scattered along the Volta river. Resettlements of this nature and
magnitude obviously, lead to deforestation on account of vast areas of vegetation that have to
accommodate the settlements. Apart from this, flooding for example, that may precede the
" Wood, A.P., "Population Redistribution and Agricultural Settlement Schemes in Ethiopia",
Population and Development Prospects in Africa, edited by Clarke, J.I., ~. al., Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1985, p.93.
79 McCall, M., "Environmental and agricultural impacts of Tanzanian's villagization programme"

Population and Development Prospects in Africa, edited by Clarke, J .1., et.a1., Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1985, p. 131.
40
resettlements could bring about environmentally-borne health problems, particularly, the creation of
breeding grounds for malaria carrying anopheles mosquitoes and bilharzia.
100. Problems of population redistribution and resettlement schemes with regard to the
environment have been vividly documented in numerous articles in major books of the subject in the
continent." What is very clear from these numerous articles in these two books and also in others is
the fact that population redistribution and resettlement do have negative consequences. These
redistribution and migration policies are not likely to be relevant or effective unless they are
conducted within the framework of general socio-economic development in a comprehensive national
planning effort, including considerations of the environment.
4.3 REFUGEE MOVEMENTS

101. Refugees settlements are gradually becoming characteristic features of the economies of most
African states. Refugees may be grouped into three: (a) environmental refugees fleeing land that is
impoverished as a result of persistent drought which has made famine a more or less permanent
phenomenon of their counties of origin, (b) "political refugees" fleeing wars, civic strife and
repressive governments, (c) "economic refugees" in search of greener pastures outside their home
countries under the guise of being persecuted at home. All the three groups are however interrelated
in one way or the other. The creation of refugees due to civil wars frustrates efforts at environmental
management; land degradation sets in and famine becomes widespread resulting in the upsurge of
more refugees. At the
,., Clarke, J.1. et. aI. (eds.), Redistribution of Population in Africa, Heinemann, London 1992.
Also Clarke, J.1. er. M. (eds) Population Development Projects in Africa, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1985.
Fig.4.2 REFUGEE SETTLEMENTS IN EASTERN SUDAN, BOTSWANA AND TANZANIA
~ ~ 1",__ ,_,
o~o...0'). ._'.A~il"'\
.•- " " .... ~ . , , ,~_ " ·1C\.f, ,UGANDA
.' /<'--
Sf,
Lond nttlements cSQ
"9.... ',_ ." "........... . .,j.." \ ............. KENYA
• Wove eornino settlements 0. -. r - • ShOkowe\..I' "
RWANDA
V ....
C Semi-urban "ttlement ........
ET5HA" Okavango \ .. A .... ....
rn Irrll;totlon Schemu )~'.
, ..J
tJ SETTLEMENT ~'~ \ • U ....i .... v ....
4-++ Railway NEW :·:::::··rt,==~,-----, SCHEME ,,~'" Swamp x ", BURUNDI
I ArUlho - l )
HALFA '::~~:: Kano ; I - Moun~ <, ZIMBABWE I
SCHEME ":::': \ I ~ '"
.'
I
\.,I /
• ULYANKULU ",
NAMIBIA! Froncistown
~" SUDAN 'I
.-fl~ I
., I I M o k o r l k o r l · ',-
Salt Pons -"\
V
"MISHAMO
~_J
Indian
I Serowe j>_ .. V &KATUMBA .Oodomo ".
Showok,
AA , 1 KA L A H A R J • r- Oor t'.' ....
o Saloom
n Gedaro.' / : BOTSWANA /
J
> I DESERT r" - ,-" (~
TANZANIA OC~CJn
J ) -,
J"l
J
Iii:
0
I
I,
Gaberones /
I.-
SO U T H
ZAMBIA '- ....
.... ,-
1?/"t!r
I
J
r
f--
I"
:
I
\
/r:»:
I~-
..... L --1
I AFRICA .. Lond settlements '. ~
for Burundi RefuQees._">
~ o 50Km
.::::: w V Other RefuQee ,...~ ~ ~r
~ L-.....J :;' / 0 200Km settlements . .s ~
I I I ..... _J'" / r ..... " ....
'" o
1 I I
,2qo Km ,';- _r__ ..r --MOZAMBIQUE
Source' RO<JQevohn R. "Africa's Displaced Population: dependency or Self-sufficiency?"

in Clarke,J. t. et 01 (editors) Population and Development Projects in Africa , 1985.
42
same time, land degradation may stir up conflicts and wars that could force people out of their native
lands as refugees.
102. Indeed, many countries in Africa are both the source and destination of large number of
refugees. Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, the Sudan and Uganda were considered first asylum countries
for 1.5 million refugees in 1987. At the same time, these countries were the source of about 2.3
million refugees to other African countries." Similarly, the Central African Republic, Djibouti,
Malawi, Somalia and the Republic of Tanzania had a total refugee stock of over million in early
1987. On the other hand Chad was a source country for about 165,000 refugees that same year. The
extent of refugee settlements in Sudan, Botswana and Tanzania in the 1970s is clearly illustrated in
Fig. 4.2. Most of these settlements were completely new sites which invariably had some
consequences on the environment. However, Rogge argues that in countries like Botswana refugee
settlements had positive effects since the government had simultaneously brought into production a
track of potential fertile land that might otherwise have remained under-utilized and indeed might well
have been re-invaded by tsetse fly. Thus, by mid 19752,500 of the 4,000 refugees had opted for
Botswana citizenship."
103. The World Population Monitoring Report in 1993 also provides more information on the
African refugee situation. The breakdown is shown in table 4. I. It is clear that Africa's refugee
problem has been worsening since 1985. For example, the number of refugees in Africa during
1985-1991 increased from 2.9 million to 5.4 million (85%).
104. Civil wars have been widespread in Africa and have caused much environmental degradation
particularly in Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad, Angola, Mozambique, especially in the 1980s and in more
recent times Rwanda, Burundi, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia. A large number of refugees have
been born out of these civil crises and wars.
" United Nations, 1991, Ql1. Qt.

l<2 Rogge, I.R., "Africa's displaced population: dependency or self sufficiency?" in Clarke, J.I. ~.
l!!. (eds.), Population and Development in Africa, Cambridge University Press, 1985, pp. 68-83.
43
105. In 1985 alone, Timberlake" indicated that about 300,000 refugees entered the south eastern
region of Harage from Djibouti and Somalia following over 20 years of civil war in Ethiopia which
affected Eritrea, Tigre and Wollo mainly. That same year, over one million refugees were reported
to have: entered into Sudan from highland Ethiopia and Chad. Mozambican refugees also sought
refuge in Zimbabwe and vice versa. The Angolan civil wars also resulted in refugees fleeing to Zaire
particularly, in the Shaba Province. Liberian refugees are scattered allover West Africa, some of
them having permanently settled in the host countries of Sierra Leone, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and
Burkina Faso.
Table 4.1 Main Countries of Asylum and Origin for Africa's Refugees Population, Early 1991.
Country of Asylum Number Country of Origin Number
Malawi 927,000 Mozambique 1,239,043

1---'
Ethiopia 772,764 Ethiopia 796,362
Somalia 600,000 Liberia 614,747
Sudan 390,000 Somalia 446,251
f----
GUInea 439,171 Sudan 460,251
f----
Zair,,: 356,435 Angola 407,242
1----
La Cote d'Ivoire 272,284 Rwanda 400,857
Source: UN; World Population Monitoring, UN. New York, 1993
106. Apart from lives and property that are lost in such conflicts, refugee camps or settlements that
are created therefrom have effects on the environment. Even in the conflicts themselves, the
instruments of war have some destructive effects on the environment.
107. The presence of refugees requires that camps are established in order for relief aid to be sent
to them under proper supervision. The creation of the refugee camps also means the cutting down of
an otherwise productive vegetation and hence may constitute environmental destruction. This
" Timberlake, L., Africa in Crisis: The causes. the cures of environmental bankruptl;Y, Earthscan
Publications Ltd., London, 1991, p. 163.
44
becomes more serious when judged against the background of the large numbers that may be involved
and the hurried manner in which refugees may be received on account of the spontaneous manner by
which civil wars break out resulting in untimely refugee movements and settlements.
108. According to Mpinga and Puget 84 the "big influx of refugees" into Nouakchott, Mauritania
was the result of the advancing desert (sand dunes). Clearly, these were environmentally-borne
refugees. Mpinga and Puget are reported to have shown that the influx of refugees into the city
resulted in a ten-fold increase of the city's population within a period of ten years from about 40,000
to 300,000. The effect of this large influx was that of "massive over-population (and) total
disappearance of natural vegetation in the surroundings of the town". Trees and bushes were said to
have been "eliminated to make way for makeshift buildings and for use as firewood". Besides, the
vegetation suffered from over-gracing from the herds of livestock belonging to the refugees and
eventually sand dunes emerged (as a creation by the very large numbers of the refugees in the city).
109. Ethnic clashes in Rwanda prompted a massive civilian exodus of the Hutu population at large
who, afraid of repraisals from the Tutsis, took refuge in neighbouring countries like Uganda,
Tanzania, Burundi and more particularly Zaire. The impact of such mass movement on the
environment is eminent (Table 4.2 and Fig. 4.3).
Table 4.2: Statistics of Rwandan and Burundi Refugees by Camps
Refugee Camp Country No. of Refugee

Ngozi, Kirungo
and Muyinga Burundi 200,000
Benaco and Ngara Tanzania 460,500
Goma Zaire Over 1,000,000
Bukavu Zaire 250,000
Uvira Zaire 350,000
Kabale and others Uganda 10,500
Source: Times Magazine, August 1., 1994.
110. It is therefore not surprising that the Zairean government recently started forcibly evacuating
84 Mpinga, J. and Puget, B., "World's Desert People Revisited", Ecoforum Vol. 9, No.1, 1984
pp.6-7 & 21.
45
the refugees in view of the fact that they are degrading the environment and there has been a stress
on the limited resources of the area. For example, before the refugee crisis, Goma was home to
80,000 residents, but in 1994 it had more than a million sick and starving new comers. Further, the
numerous corpses which were thrown into River Kagera contaminated its waters as well as those of
Lake Victoria into which it flows. The Kivu lake to the west of Rwanda was not spared either. The
result was an outbreak of a cholera epidemic in July 1994 which claimed lives at an alarming rate and
unimaginable in the history of human suffering. Other diseases which affected the refugees included
dysentery, malaria, bubonic plague and measles.
Ill. Generally, in almost all refugee camps, sanitation is a problem and often order breaks down
such that environmental management is difficult. It is not uncommon to observe various health
problems such as skin diseases which are environmentally borne among the refugees. Again, to the
refugee, what is of concern is survival, i.e., what to eat and drink. In such a circumstance, little
regard is paid to sound environmental management practices at the camps. This is intensified when
the refugees consider that the refugee camps are temporary place of residence and that they would
sooner or later go back to their home countries.
112. Other ecological consequences of mass refugee movements are demonstrated by a case study
of Somalia and Sudan, two countries that have hosted large refugee populations noted for their
delicate ecological balance, located as they are, in arid and semi-arid zones. '" Refugee settlements
have usually being located in these two countries in the more unfavourable areas, with low population
density.
113. An assessment made in Somalia where a large Ethiopian refugee community (about 700,(00)
were settled in 35 camps in 4 regions (North-west, Hiran, Gedo and Lower Shebelli) by 1978-1980
found that it had resulted, after a few years, in the complete clearance of all trees and shrubs and
progressive destruction of surrounding woody vegetation. This occurred largely because the
requirements of the settlements for hut construction, cooking and other activities in no time exceeded
the resource base of the areas. In addition, the livestock of the refugees in the vicinity of the camps,
" Makannah, Toma, J. "Evaluation of the Socio-Economic Consequences of Refugee Movements

With Particular Reference to Africa", IUSSP, International Population Conference, Vo1.9, No.3, 1993,
50-{;() .
46
placed hindrances on natural regeneration of the woodland and institution of programmes of

reforestation.A recent review states:
In environmental terms, Somalia has paid a heavy price for its welcoming
attitude towards refugee. Over the past decade, the land around the refugee
camps has been stripped of vegetation, leaving extensive areas of barren,
sandy soll."
114. By 1983, refugees in Sudan from neighbouring countries:

Ethiopia, Zaire, Uganda and Chad numbered about 630,000, settled mainly in the major cities of
Eastern Sudan and in 22 organized settlements in rural areas on the border. In order to make these
organized settlements self-sufficient in food production families were allocated 10 feddans in Eastern
Sudan and 2 to 4 feddans in the South. Ecological problems in the forms of deforestation and soil
degradation cropped up especially in the South because of a number of reasons. Firstly, in the South,
the allocation of land per household was insufficient to grow food to support an average family.
Secondly, the soils in the area are fragile. Thirdly, in both East and South, intensive agricultural
practices did not provide the soil with time for regeneration, a situation that eventually resulted in
declining production per fedan.
D. Pastoralism/nomadism
115. The vegetational map of the world shows that Africa possesses the largest percentage of
savanna. Africa again has the highest diversity of savanna types. This advantage which Africa has in
respect of rich savanna makes pastoralism and nomadic activities quite widespread in the continent
(see Fig. 4.4).87 Most pastoralists in Africa depend largely on natural pasture to feed their flock.
This situation has encouraged pastoralist notably, nomads to move from one place to another in search
of pasture. According to Timberlake "the problems of nomads, and the way in which they are
forced to over-graze the rangelands, is a distinct and separate component in Africa's growing
environmental bankruptcy". Timberlake estimates that between 15 and 24 million people in the
African dry lands, namely, the Sudan-Swahilian strip, large areas of Botswana and South Africa, and
the drier areas of Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe have animal-based economies. Pastoralism also
'" UNHCR, Refugees, no.81; vol.21, November.
87 Solbrig, o.r., Sustainable Savannas", Environment, Vol.34, No.3, April, 1992, p. 10.
47
occurs in countries within the middle belt of Africa - Mali, Mauritania, Senegal and Niger. It is
common to have nomads from one country driving their livestock across international boundaries and
staying up to one year or more outside their home countries."
116. It should be noted however that due to high population pressures, poverty and resource
degradation in nearby agricultural areas people are being forced to move into Africa savannas and use
key grazing areas including valley bottoms, the edges of water courses, virgin forests and ridge soils
in higher rainfall areas for agriculture. Such a practice is creating over utilization of remaining
savanna lands. In Kenya and Tanzania for example,
high population densities in the highland areas have reduced their maximum lands. The resultant
effect is that local peasants are forced by such circumstances to move down onto the plains used by
the Maswi and Basabais nomads." Clearly then, the savanna lands
Table 4.3. Refugees, by Asylum Country, 1987, 1988, 1990
Asylum Country 1987 1988 1990'

Western
Benin 3,700 3,000 800
Burkina Faso 180 200 300
Cote d'[voire 600 800 270,500
The Gambia - - 800
Ghana 140 100 8,000
Guinea Bissau - - 1,600
Guinea - - 325,000
Liberia 110 200 -
Mali - - 10,600
Mauritania - - 22,000
Niger - - 800
Nigeria 4,800 5,100 5,300
Senegal 5.600 5,200 55,300
Sierra Leone 200 200 125,000
Togo 1,700 500 -
" Timberlake, L., Ql1. Qi., 199\.
.. I!lli!.. p. 10.
48
Middle
Angola 92,000 95,700 11,900
Cameroon 7,300 4,700 6,900
Central African 6,300
Republic 5,100 3,000
Chad 100 --
Congo 1,200 - 3,400
Gabon 100 2,100 800
Zaire 338,000 100 370,900
325,700
Eastern and Sudan
Burundi 76,000 76,000 90,700
Djibouti 13,500 2,000 67,400
Ethiopia 220,000 700,500 783,000
Kenya 9,000 10,600 14,400
Malawi 420,000 630,000 909,000
Mozambique 500 400 700
Rwanda 19,000 20,600 21,500
Somalia 430,000 365,000 358,500
Sudan 817,000 693,600 726,500
Tanzama 266,000 266,200 266,200
Uganda 120,000 125,500 156,000
Zambia 151,000 149,000 133,950
Zimbabwe 150,000 I 171,500 186,000
Southern
Botswana 5,200 2,700 1,000
Lesotho 2,000 4,000 1,000
Namibia . - 25,000
South Africa 180,000 180,000 201,000
Swaziland 67,000 70,700 47,200
Total 3,408,430 3,914,800 5,215,250
Note - : no refugees reported.
• Include 6, 500 that are not accounted for in Tables 8-10 through 8-13 because their source
countries are unknown.
SOURCE: Sharon S. Russell, "International Migration": In Karen A. Foote et alia. Demographic

Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993), table 8-9.
49
Fig.4.•3 DISTRIBUTION AND SITES OF

RWANDA AND BURUNDI REFUGEES-1994
KEY
UGANDA
. . SAFE ZONE ro.soo
_._ Internotional
Boundary ..
II:
, ...oo
GOMA >
ZAIRE
LAKE KIVU
BUKAVU
200,000
TANZANIA
UVIRA
350,000
oI
SO Km.
!
Source: Times Magazine, VoI.14:'!. No.5, London (Au(J.lst, 1994)

50
FigA,4 SAVANNA AREAS IN AFRICA WHERE PASTORIALISM IS CARRIED OUT
Tropic of
- - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --"t.~
Concer
Equotor
~ Savannas
Source: SolbriQ. OHO T. "Sustainable Savannas" In Environmenl Vol. 34 No.3 April 1992.
51
are being competed for by both peasant farmers and pastoral nomads leading to land deterioration
which could propel further movements from improvised areas.
117. The cultural practice of large scale keeping of livestock for prestigious purposes has also led
to widespread destruction of vegetation in various parts of Africa. For example, at the time
Tanzania was carrying out villagization as a population redistribution policy, there was an implicit .
assumption of destocking and consequently, the resource requirements of livestock were largely
neglected, There was however no destocking and this led to serious environmental pressures as
overgrazing and even damage to seasonally-flooded alkaline, sandy grasslands commonly referred to
as "mbugos" in East Africa.'"
118. Nomadism in some East African countries notably Kenya and Uganda is occasionally plagued
with raiding and ethnic feuding over grazing grounds. These raids and counter raids often invite
government intervention. On account of these raids, it is characteristic of nomadic communities to
keep many animals at areas they consider safe in respect of pasture. Often too, it is a cultural
practice to own large herds of livestock as a symbol of one's wealth and prestige. Such a practice of
keeping large herds of animals accelerates environmental degradation. The environment-destruction
aspect of pastoral nomadism is deepened by the inadequate number of wells and other watering points
throughout the year mostly in the Sabelian African countries. This results in the long trekking of
pastoralist and their Iivestdck in search of water. The large numbers of animals that are involved in
these treks have constituted a big threat to the environment. In extreme situation food crop farms
along the routes of the trekking animals may be completed destroyed, the result of which may be
conflicts between pastoralist and nomads. Much destruction of food crops by cattle belonging to
Fulani herdsmen from Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali was visited on Ghana amidst repeated feuding
between farmers and the herdsmen in the late 1980s. This led to the official repatriation of the
herdsmen and their livestock to their countries of origin. Thus, apart from the negative effects of
pastoral nomadism on the environment, the practice could lead to conflicts not only between cropland
farmers and nomads but more importantly between the countries of origin of the nomads and the
countries of destination.
'" McCall, M., QIl. Cit. p. 131.

52
E. Tourism and environmental stress
119. The relationship between tourism development and sustainable environment is considered to
be circular and cumulative." This is explained in terms of the additional pressures that tourism
development imposes on environmental resources. In their zeal to promote tourism, most African
countries overlook the crucial requirement of building and protecting the positive links between
tourism and the environment.
120. Tourism has become a major source of revenue for many African countries. Table 4.3 shows
that of the 476 million tourists estimated for the world in 1992, 17 million arrived in Africa and was
higher than the Middle East and South Asia. On the other hand, Africa ranks third in order of
magnitude of percentage change in arrivals after East Asia and Pacific and South Asia. However,
Africa had the highest percentage change in respect of receipts from tourism indicating the rate at
which tourism is growing in the continent.
Table 4.3: Tourist Arrivals and Receipts, 1992
Area Arrivals Receipts Change 1991-1992

(Millions) (US$m) Receipts (%) Arrivals (%)
Africa 17.0 5,167 +7.2 + 12.5

America 102.1 76,567 +4.7 + 6.3
East AsialPacific 58.3 43,291 +8.2 + 7.4
Europe 287.5 147,205 +3.5 + 6.5
Middle East 7.2 4,356 +6.9 + 9.7
South Asia 3.5 2,119 +7.6 + 8.1
World 476.0 . 279,000. +4.6 +6.8
Source: Cater, E., "Environmental Contradictions in Sustainable Tourism", The Geographical

Journal. Vo1.J61, No.1, March 1995, p.21.
., Cater, E., "Environmental Contradictions in Sustainable Tourism", "The GeogriIPhicai Journal,

Vo1.l61, No.1, March, 1995, p.21.
53
121. It is estimated that aviation contributes about 3.0 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions
from fossil fuel worldwide" It follows then that with increased tourist arrivals in Africa, air
pollution from carbon dioxide emissions from aircraft will increase. Mass movement of tourists to
Africa aggravates the spate of deforestation. Most European tourists to Africa have much interest in
wood carvings. African countries have accordingly responded to this high demand and have
expanded the wood carving industry which, in turn, is causing deforestation as more and more timber
is cut for sculpture of all kinds. Already, much of Africas' forest is cut for fuel wood and charcoal
preparation.
122. Tourism also affects the preservation of certain African bird species such as the parrot which
are of interest to particularly European tourists. This sparks off a high tendency for some recalcitrant
local inhabitants (through poaching of natural parks and forest reserves) to illegally trade off these
birds which when not checked could lead to their eventual extinction from Africa.
123. Another major area where uncontrolled tourism could be of damage to the environment is
coastal tourism development. Examples here include the destruction of coral reefs through the use of
coral for building materials. This practice is associated with coastal erosion, difficulties with water
supply and salt-water intrusion, pollution from inadequate and poor waste disposal.
124. As pointed out by Wall," tourism in many respects has environmental, economic and social
consequences. Collection of rocks, fossils, plants, some species of snakes such as the African python
and the like by tourists can be detrimental to the environment and biodiversity. The influx of tourists
to certain fragile ecosystem may therefore be disruptive. Environmental pollution through littering,
especially along the beaches and in its hinterland is one of the negative impacts of tourism especially
where the industry is not well managed. Services and industries set up to support tourism may lead
to serious negative environmental impacts, including medical and health related problems.
125. It is obvious then that the benefits of tourism to development should not only be assessed with
reference to the beautiful landscape development such as hotels and resort centres and their attraction
92 Cater, E., 00. cit. p.23.
" Wall, G., "Ecotourism: Old Wine in New Bottles", Trends, Vol. 31, No.2, 1994.
54
for foreign exchange. Rather, its impact on the environment needs to be considered and a balance
struck between the positive and negative effects.
V. COUNTRYIREGIONAL CASE STUDIES

A. Qh.illli!
I. Introduction
126. Over 70% of Ghanaians are farmers who ljve directly on the land for their sustenance.
Ghana's population has been increasing and the demand for food to feed its people is ever expanding.
Increasing population therefore makes the primary goal of improving the quality of life difficult as
existing as well as newly acquired wealth will have to be distributed among greater numbers.
127. Colonial and post colonial development patterns have accounted for gross spatial inequalities
and economic disparities among communities in Ghana. Such unequal opportunities and disparities in
life-enhancing amenities have led to movements of people and the concentration in few areas. Such
areas of concentration have been overwhelmed by people and the ability of such centres to house,
employ and provide services for the population has been brought into question.
128. Though Ghana adopted a population policy as early as 1969, efforts at achieving both a
balanced population growth and spatial distribution is yet to be attained. Practical but rigorous policies
are, more than before, needed to address serious problems associated with migration and
urbanization, which in turn are significant forces of environmental deterioration.
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and Urbanization Changes
129. Environmental problems that beset the development efforts of Ghana are many and varied.
They range from those associated with natural dictates such as drought, famine, floods, and pest
attacks; through aspects of unsustainable land use practices resulting in land degradation
(deforestation, desertification and soil erosion), rural poverty and resource pressure, tenurial systems
and landlessness; to that of socio-political instability; and problems associated with mining and
industrial displacements and pollution. These often cause mass rural-urban movements. In Ghana,
while a general southward movement of people for better economic opportunities is observed, other
short and long term movements can be in various directions depending on the specific case.
55
(a) Lan!!~ Degradation, DeForestation and Desertification
130. The extent of deforestation is not specifically known, but it is believed 70% or more of it
occurs :". a result of shifting cultivation. This, coupled with exploitation of wood for fuelwood and
timber have reduced the total forest area in 10 years from about 74,000 km' in 1977 to about 18,500
krrf in 1987. Out of this, forest reserves occupy about 15,790 km'." Pressures such as lumbering
activities. woodfuel harvests, and agricultural activities have reduced forests areas into bare ground,
exacerbating the rate of soil erosion and land impoverishment.
131. There are no completely desertified areas in Ghana, but the total area at risk of desertification
in Ghara is approximately 83,489 km' - that is 35% of the total area of Ghana. os. The risk is
particularly high in the north-eastern corner of Ghana where population densities are as high as 200
persons per krn', hut in an area with poor soils, low rainfall, intensive cultivation and overstocking of
livestock (Fig.5.l). Even versatile crops such as cassava no longer thrive in such eroded lands found
in the Lpper East Region of Ghana.
132. Desertification also results in land degradation. As the grass density hecomes lower due to
overgrazi ng and human activities on land. soils are most often hare or compacted due to uncontrolled
hurning and especially where animals follow definite tracts.
133. Chana embarked on an Economic Recovery Structural Adjustment Programmes which

included creating a good investment climate to attract foreign capital as well as local enterprise
development. Incentives offered to hoth producers and consumers is raising their livelihoods, hut at a
cost least desired as it has resulted in degradation of the environment. The gross annual costs (1989-
90) imp.i.ed on the Ghana economy as a result of environmental degradation has heen summarised as
in table S.1.
94 Agyeman, Y.K., & J. Brookman-Arnissah, "Agroforestry as a Sustainable Practice in Ghana".

in EPC l':{;ltional Conference on Resource Conservation t()f Ghana's Sustainahle Development. Conference
Papers v.r. 2,1987, pp.131-140.
" Benneh, G. & G.T. Agyepong, Land Degradation in Ghana. Commonwealth Secretariat, Pall
Mall, 1990. p. 77.
56
Table 5.1 Summary of Environmental Costs for Ghana for 1989-90
Category Gross Annual Costs Percent of Total

(Millions US$)
Soil Erosion 80.0 63

Land Degradation (Overgrazing) 8.6 7
Forestry (wood loss) 33.3 26
Health 5.1 4
Total 127.0 100
ource: Frank J. Convey (1995), Applying Environmental Economics In Africa. Africa Technical
Series.
Technical Paper No. 277. Washington D.C.: World Bank..
134. Internal movements of people in all the various forms (rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural
and urban-urban) are taking place in Ghana. Most of these migrants are young farmers who are
migrating not just in search for social amenities that they lack, but most important to look for job
prospects and income opportunities as the resource base on which they earn their livelihoods gets
threatened .
(b) Drought. Famine. Insects and Diseases (Food and Nutrition)
135. The savanna areas of Ghana experience periodic food shortages. People migrate from food-
scarce areas into areas where food is readily or relatively available. The trypanosomiasis fly is a
major factor of migration in Ghana. Fig.5.1 shows the prevalence of onchocerciasis in the Upper East
Region which led to the abandonment of fertile lands. This has resulted in severe pressure of
populations on the land as farmers migrated into very limited oncho-free areas.
136. Guinea worm, malaria and diarrhoeal diseases as well as measles are very common in rural
farming communities of Ghana. These diseases and pests/insects reduce human productivity and in
some cases cause ill health and death to both humans and animals. Several farmers escape these
problems by migrating to urban areas where life enhancing amenities are available. These problems in
a large measure account for rural-urban migration and the
57
Fig.5.1 ONCHOCERCIASIS AND DISPLACEMENT OF

POPULATION IN UPPER EAST REGION, GHANA.
Settled Lands and Empty Lands,1960

30'
BURKINA
'" rASo
O· !O'E
II" II·
\
30' 30'
m Area of Settlemen'
D uneeeuet e d A r. (2
I--------'--------r
In t erne tte not Boundory
Rev10nal Boun.dory
o
..........................' ~OKm
BURKINA rASO
-II" -'I"-~'
. 0
. ~. '-'"" . II·
UPPER" 0 6. 0 0
e
eo·oo •• o 0
l,\:~. 0 0 /.r\
30' • 0 0 0 0 .)' 1_
3d
~ 0 0./ ~ • H10n endemicity «70 '!I/o)
."'~ORTHe:RN 0 Medium Ilndemlelfy«40 G / . - < l O l t / . , _
l.-. 0 LoW endemIcity «IO G/ . -<40°/,,)
6"Sporo,dlceo3u ( 00/.-<10 8 / . '
Prevalence of Onchocerciasis in
Upper East Region ,1973
30'
'" 30'W 0" 30'[
Scu r e e : 8ENNEH G t 19815

~
58
serious urban problems associated with pressure on urban amenities.

(c) Natural Disasters: Floods. Bush fires and Earthguakes
137. Floods as natural disasters are not new in Ghana. In 1989, flooding in the northern city of
Tamale displaced over 10,000 people. Recently, Accra experienced the worst flooding in Ghana
where over 50,000 were displaced. Bush fires occur widely in Ghana but are more extensive in the
savannas.
138. The landscape of human settlement changes during natural.disasters as people migrate and
change location. Many of such disasters occur in rural environments where very little state support is
given. The affected people finally end up in cities and towns. In Accra, there has been a temporary
voluntary decongestion of population in the worst flood affected areas of Odawna, Madina Firestone,
Teshie-Nungua, and Alajo. Those affected migrated to save themselves from further floods.
(d) Rural Population Pressure - Land Shortages. Tenurial Systems
139. The natural grasslands of Ghana are commonly utilised by growing food crops and the rearing
of ruminant livestock. For instance, in the Upper East region of Ghana, population density in many
parts is in excess of 200 per km' as shown in Fig.5.2. With population increases communal strips of
land have become fragmented with reduced fallow periods. Land scarcity and soil impoverishment has
initiated migration of farmers to seek cropping avenues elsewhere -preferably in the forest zone of
Ghana.
140. The pattern of land ownership and tenure are beset with problems. Communal lands are no
longer a guarantee for family members as rapid population growth has rendered many family
members landless. Several examples are common in Ghana where share cropping have been so
exploitative that those given use-rights are sacked from the lands they work on. Hard working fartners
are often forced by circumstances beyond their control to migrate in search of farmlands to make their
living.
59
3. Mi gratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences

of Environmental Changes
(a) PQpulation Concentration and Urbanization
141. While 'the population of Ghana in relation to the land area cannot be described as exerting
pressure, distribution of economic activities and natural limitations necessarily lead to pressure on
land resources in some parts of the country. As shown in Fig. 5.3 population concentration leads to
environmental degradation as more resources are needed to serve the populations. In urban areas such
as Accra-Tema Metropolitan Area, densities are as high as 500 persons per krnz.", Population
concentration in the central coastal plains, the southeast and the central forest areas where agriculture
is very promising has brought serious environmental problems such as soil erosion, deforestation and
pollution of water resources by the use of chemicals in farming and fishing activities.
142. The pressure of population on resources is experienced in rural areas by the degradation of
farmlands due to shorter fallows and soil erosion thus resulting in lower yields. In urban areas,
overcrowding, solid waste piles, pollution, and poor sanitation are environmental problems associated
with population concentration.
143. Ghana's urban population rose from 23% in 1960 to 31% in 1990, the result of increasing
rural-urban migration combined with high fertility. Rapid urbanisation, particularly the growth of
large cities have enormous environmental implications for development and call for massive increase
in financial resources to cope with problems of unemployment, housing, health, sanitation and other
related problems of urban proliferation.
144. Urban degradation in Accra has reached such serious dimensions that the city centre is choked
with informal trading activities and structures that conflict with pedestrian and vehicular traffic. In
slum areas such as Nima, Maamobi and Sukula, residential and market places are crowded places of
Ghana Population Census Report, 1984.
Also Benneh, G. & G.T. Agyepong, Land DegradatiQn in Ghana, Commonwealth Secretariat,
Pall Mall. 1990. pp.69-72.
60
Fig.5.2 Upper East Region Showing

Population Densities
1
30' '0 30'W 0°
8URKINA FASO
0
-11 11°-
UPPER
WEST
30' .' 30~
\ \
1960 "-:j - . - International Boundary
- " - Reolonal Boundary
- - - Local Council Boundary
, 1°
WEST
30' \; .- V
.. 30'
.' P.,r.aon. per SC1.Km.
1970 ~ I-~+U nj l h- a 40
b ll e d
41 -
80
tm=,", 81 -
1.20
121- 140
141-200
FA S 0
I
_11 0 flO-
WEST _TOGO
-30' ,"" 3d'

'< »:
19 8 4 .,.-.-, o ,
40
g I
30' '0 30''''' 0°
SOURCE: 1960,1970 ANO' 1984 Cnn s us Report.

61
filth, noise, squalor and seasonal mud. Drains are broken and choked. Refuse is often piled up and
such many uncontrolled private dumps further create high risks for rodent infestation and disease
outbreak. In Accra, an
estimated 1,200 tonnes of household waste is produced daily, only 60 % of this total can be
collected."
145. A study of household environmental problems in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
(GAMA) in 1991 by Bennehand others," clearly shows the environmental problems that beset
urban households in their everyday life. The main problems identified pertain to household water
supply, sanitation, facilities, solid waste disposal systems and practices, urban pests, food
contamination, air pollution and housing. It was quite evident from the study that these household
environmental problems are largely underscored by urban poverty and the ineffectivenes of the urban
management machinery vis-a-vis the teeming urban population to be serviced. This was evident in
another study, the Urban II Accra Residential and Market Upgrading Study which found that
infrastructural facilities in the city have been stretched beyond their limits due to population pressure
on them These problems have contributed to serious health problems including malaria, diarrhoea,
respiratory infection, skin diseases, heart diseases, acute eye infection, and anaemia among others.
Fig. 5.4, shows the proportion of urban households in Ghana who use various fuels and the
percentage of the country's total charcoal supply which is obtained from the various ecological zones.
Given the country's rapid urban population growth, the large proportion (about 69 percent) of urban
households using charcoal as fuel, and the fact that more than two-thirds of the charcoal supply comes
from the Savanna rather than the closed forest zone which has more trees, indicates the nature and
extent of environmental degradation resulting from the dependence of a growing population on
marginal environment resources for development.
Benneh, G., QJ!. Cit., 1994, p. 162.
.. Benneh, G. ~. al., Environmental Problems and the Urban Household in the Greater Accra
Metropolitan Area (GAMA) - Ghana, Stockholm Environment Institute, 1991.
62
Population Redistribution and Resettlement
146. Ghana's population is generally distributed into small sized settlement communities. About
one third (32.4%) are scattered in over 40,000 settlements with populations of less than 500 persons.
Over half (56.6%) of the country's population are scattered in villages of less than 2,000 people."
This somewhat voluntary distribution is highly resisted when redistribution in the form of
resettlements are initiated.
147. There are some socio-economic as well as environmental problems that result from population
relocation. The disruption of lives of several villagers and urban dwellers, and the lack of
maintenance for some of the projects have resulted in pronounced environmental degradation. Many
social conflicts have arisen between settled people and the indigenes of the areas. Settlers have often
been accused of caring very little for the environment through their inappropriate land use practices.
This is particularly true in settlements where very little service facilities are put in place.
148. The Volta Resettlement Scheme which preceded the Akosombo HEP dam resettled fishermen
in the hinterland as farmers. This shift in occupation led to serious abuses of the environment.
Frontier settlements in Ghana as in the Afram Plains and Western Region are having a heavy toll on
the environment since the farming activities of settler farmers are often not environmentally
friendly. 100
(b) Refugee Movements
149. For a very long time, Burkinabes, Malians, and Chadians have been in Ghana as
environmental refugees. Following the drought of 1983/84, the numbers of refugees and migrating
nomadic herdsmen increased. The cattle almost grazed the vegetation, without discrimination, to bare
ground.
.. EPC., Ghana Environmental Action Plan, Vol. 2, 1994, pp. 117-118.
100 Aidoo, J.B., "Effects of Sponstaneous Settlements in an Agrarian Economy: With Special
Reference to Migrant Farmers in Wassa Amenfi District", (Unpublished M.A. Thesis), Department of
Geography, Legon, 1989. '
63
Flg.5.3 POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN

UPPER EAST REGION
RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

AND HIGH DENSITIES
INCREASED DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL LAND,
URBAN LAND AND FUEL WOOD
PRESSURE ON THE LAND OR

ENVIRONMENT
II'
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
[ SOIL
EROSION
POOR QUALITY OF
ENVIRONMENT
LOSS OF RELIABLE
WATER SUPPLY
,
.
I. Decreased A II ric u I t u ra I Productivity.
2. Environmental Health Hazards.
3. poor Water Supply.
4. Nutrition and Health Problems.
5. out- Mlllratlon.
SOURCE: N.abila, J. S. "PoPulation and Land Dellradatlon in the

Upper East Re qion of Ghana" presented at Seminar
on Population, Resources and Land Manallement in
the Upper East Region or q c niz ed by the Ghana
Forestry Commission, Nov.1994.
Fig.5.4 FUEL USE AND CHARCOAL SUPPLY IN GHANA
Savannah
79%
Charcoal
68.8% Rain forest
6 0/0
. .
., .
. ..
' ··..
"
.
.. .
.... . Semi-
'"""
. . .. . . . .. .. .
Elecfrlclty "
2.8~0 Deciduous
. , ... .. . 15%
. . ..
...
". . ....
. .
· .':'::-:-:-:::::. ..-::::
16.8 %
....... -: -: .
•
. .J •
. ..
• • •
.
. . ...
.
Stalks 1.2 ~o
Types of fuel used in urban households Charcoal supply levels by ecological zone
Source: The Charcoal Cycle in Ghana - A Baseline Study. Final Report. November 1988. UNDP/NE8. Ghana Project.
65
150. Food crops, trees, and water sources were at the verge of total depletion. Armed clashes
between Ghanaian farmers and the nomads ensued as the traditional agricultural and environmental
safety valves had been destroyed. Food crops were gone, soils degraded, animals dead, and water
sources dried up. Hunger, poverty, and migration of farmers from Northern Ghana to other parts of
Ghana were witnessed.
151. Togolese refugees at Kliko, and Liberian refugees at Gomoa-Budunburam have occasionally
clashed with Ghanaian residents over farmlands and other economic resources. Lands and vegetation
around refugee settlements are markedly degraded due to pressure on resources for fuel, fodder, and
food.
(c) PastQralismlNomadism
152. Except for periodic invasion of the country by Nomadic tribes of Western Africa, no known
Ghanaian tribesmen wander about with livestock. The activities of alien Fulani herdsmen during the
droughts of 1968-74 and that of 1983184 on the environment were immense. Overgrazing had
reduced biodiversity and soil cover, led to erosion and subsequent loss of soil fertility and
productivity, Besides these Fulani herdsmen had serious clashes with local farmers over many issues,
hence the government of Ghana had to expel them from the country under an exercise code named
"Operation Cow-leg" in 1987.
153. In the Northern part of Ghana, cattle, sheep, and goats are kept by many families. Animals
are a source of economic security in times of crop failure. But overstocking is becoming an
environmental hazard as animals overgraze pastures within routes that they ply. Most herders set fires
to facilitate early regrowth of grass. Such bush fires cause huge losses in crops, animals and forests.
154. Environmental degradation resulting from pastoral activities are more pronounced in the
savanna lone. Besides destruction of crops by some animals, they trump the ground bare, make it
hard and not easy for water seepage. The effects of overgrazing results in loss of riverine vegetation
which helps to regulate the flow of water, and slowing of erosion during rains. This leads to flooding,
an environmental hazard very common and severe to the national economy.
66
(d) Tourism and Environmental Stress
155. The Economic Recovery Programme has made efforts at inducing direct investment into
Ghana. The tourist industry, in response to such economic policy, has boomed and earned the
country several millions of dollars. The environmental effects of tourism has been disastrous on
fauna and biodiversity. The high demand for furniture and wood products, especially beautiful wood
carvings are very wasteful of cane and wood. Many tourists buy wood carvings as souvenirs and
gifts. Ghana is therefore losing several cubic meters of round wood and cane 'each year as tourist
visits increase.
156. Environmental pollution along the beaches as a result of increased tourism is a current
common problem. Service and small scale industries which support tourism in one way or another
pollute the environment especially between June and September when tourism is at its peak (Fig. 5.5).
4. Conclusion
157. The intricate relationships between human activities and the quality of environment to further
enhance survival efforts must be given priority attention if development in Ghana is to be sustainable.
As majority of people live directly on the land. Thus, any activity that does not consider the net
effects of such activity on the environment only seeks to ruin mankind.
B. The Gambia
I. Introduction
158. The Gambia like many other African countries South of the Sahara is experiencing serious
environmental damage due to demographic factors. It is a very small nation both in terms of land
area, and population size. Gambia's total population stood at 493,499 at the time of the 1973
population. The United Nations estimate of the population for 1995 is 1,118 thousand. In 1985
Zachariah and Vu projected Gambia's population to be 748,000 with a 3.13% population growth rate.
The country is 30% jirban, with an urban population growth rate of 6.5%'01.
101 Gambia, Republic of, Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development. 1981/82-1985/86,
.Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, Banjul, April, 1983.
61
Fig. 5·5 APPROXIMATE MONTH OF ARRIVAL AND
DEPARTURE OF TOURISTS
350 350
- - Month of Arrivol of IneominQ Tourists
- - Month of Departure of OUIQoinQ Tourists
A
300 /I 300
1\
I\
I\
250
I \ 250
I \
\
if)
l-
I \ (/)
if,
ct:
-, 200
I \
200
I-
(/)
ii
~
0 I \ ::>
l-
I \ 0
l-
u,
0 I I u,
0
a:: I \ a::
w \ w
CD
::;:
150 I \
150 CD
::;:
::J
z I \
::>
z
I \
I \
108 I \ 100
I \
I \
50
I
I
\\ 50
I \
I \
I \
\
0 0
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
MONTH
Source: Hoff and OverQoord Consulrs: Tourism in Ghana: Development

Guide 1975 -1990. Denmark. 1974.
68
159. In 1985, as estimated from the national census, the Gambia experienced a net migration of
15,000, and the proportion of the population constituted by immigrants was 11.05%. Immigration and
emigration are mainly between Senegal and the Gambia. Guinea is also an important source country
for Gambia.
160. A study of migration in Gambia brings out two main points. The first is the population flow
from region to region and to destinations abroad. The second is that from the rural areas to Banjul.
Towns in the hinterland have served as transition points for migrants headed for Banjul from the
hinterland. Migration has therefore aggravated the population explosion in the coastal zone and the
groundnut basin in general, as well as urban Banjul in particular. The city's problems attendant on the
rapid pace of urbanisation - housing, provision of social services etc. - have become extremely
serious.
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and Urbanisation Changes
Land Degradation. Deforestation and Desertification
161. In the Gambia, commercial agriculture is the principal economic sector in terms of labour
employment. Agricultural migration occurs from the savannah hinterland to the groundnut schemes of
the Gambia valley. Since the country has very few economic resources excluding agricultural potential
and tourism, there is a long-standing tradition of immigration of people from the highland areas and
Senegal to the schemes along the Gambia river. This movement of people flocking the thin strip of
land along the banks of the river Gambia has serious environmental consequences such as land
degradation, deforestation and desertification.
162. The large and growing demand for fuel-wood is contributing to rapid depletion of the nation's
forest resources. Programmes to curb the above, initiated by the Government of Gambia include the
introduction of village woodlots and establishment of plantations of fast-growing species of trees;
promoting use of energy-efficient stoves and of fuel-wood substitutes. So severe is the problem and
the governments commitment as stated clearly in the country's five year development plan below:
...the environment, both national and social, constitutes the actual and
potential wealth of the nation; it provides the potential and creates the
69
constraints for economic development and the welfare of the people. The
natiun has the responsibility not only to use the environment effectively but
also to preserve it for future generations. I(}O
163. An acute shortage of arable land in the groundnut growing areas of Serrekunda and Bakanu,
has f irced farmers to reduce the length of fallow periods and plough up land previously reserved for
grazing. These practices have led to declining yields, soil depletion and further impoverishment'".
Degradation of the environment is strongly linked to household food insecurity and lack of fuel. Much
of the fragile forest cover has been destroyed by poor rural peasants in the search for grazing land
and fu elwood.
(a) J;)Iought. Famine. Insects and Diseases

164. The Gambia, lies in the Sudano-Sahelian zone. This zone has recently experienced severe
drought that have contributed to a large extent to a decline in agricultural production. The country
relies on three main sources for its water supply - rain water, ground water and the river Gambia and
its tributaries. During the harmattan season some of these sources dry up and results in drought for
parts of the country. It is during this period that occurrence of bush fires both natural and those
arising from farmers eleariug land for cultivation result. At times such fires are so destructive as they
can spread to consume farms and even villages.
165. Other problems related to the environment such as rainfall regime and the general terrain also
influence settlement patterns and migratory movements to some extent in the Gambia. During the
rainy season, poor drainage in the low lying riverine areas, renders these places water-logged giving
rise to the number of water borne diseases, whilst the better drained high lying areas are less affected,
forcing families to move uphill during this part of the year. I",
I(}O Gambia, Republic of, QJ:l. Cit.
103 FAO, Rural Development No. 15, January, 1994. pp.IO-11
104 Billewicz, W.Z. and McGregor, LA., "The Demography of Two West African (Gambian)
Villages, 1951-1975", Journal of Biosocial Sciences, 1981.
70
(b) Rural Population Pressure - Land Shorta~enurial Systems

166. In Gambia firewood accounts for over 80% of total primary energy consumption. In the past.
the unwise cutting of trees for firewood has contributed to the depletion of forest resources and a loss
of bio-diversity.
167. Energy demand come from two main sub-sectors; traditional and commercial About 75% of
total firewood consumption is by rural households, and the remaining 25% by urban households.
168. It must also be pointed out that Gambian agriculture is still largely based upon a traditional
system of production characterized by slash and burn cultivation and by the existence of a large
number of small independent farming units. The hand-hoe remains the basic tool, and despite recent
progress, the use of animal drawn equipment, fertilizers and other agricultural inputs is not
widespread.
3. Migratory and Urbanisation Causes and Consequences of Environmental Changes

Population Concentration
169. Like most other SSA nations dependent on one major primary source of income for economic
development. and a developmental strategy based on the growth pole concept, Gambia's population is
today found in belts and cells. The main belt of population concentration being along the river
Gambia valley, wbere fertile soils support large agricultural schemes growing groundnuts. The cells
of population concentration are mainly the cities i.e., Banjul the administrative and political capital
and the cotton growing areas up north.
170. The country's population is projected from 1,118,000 in 1995 to 1,456,000 by the year 2005.
The rapid population growth is reflected in proportionally rapid increases in aggregate basic needs for
goods and services. Consequently, the average share per citizen of goods and services will fall unless
the economy grow faster than the population. In the long-run, the effect on society and the economy
will be aggravated by the deterioration of the physical environment. The Sahara desert is slowly but
steadily advancing south. As long as the process continues, it will negatively affect per capita natural
resources, not only as implied by the population increase but also by the depletion of natural
resources.
71
(a) UrbanisatiQn and EnvirQnment

171. Rapid urbanisation is fast becoming a pressing problem in the Gambia. The population growth
rate of Banjul and Kombo St. Mary is more than twice that of the rest of the country, and this rapid
growth has made it apparent that urban planning must have a well-balanced approach that integrates
rural and urban development,
172. Urban development has effects on surrounding areas and their environments. The forests and
woodlands are of major importance in Gambia as primary source of fuel and construction materials.
Increases in urban population puts stress on these resources and consequently the environment. Again
with urbanisation and more mouths to feed, there is greater need for increased agricultural production
putting pressure on the land resources, The relatively high urban population growth, absence of
effective forest production and management systems, the unwise cutting of firewood, the uncontrolled
bush fires, and the unplanned encroachment of cropping and grazing on forest lands have all
contributed to the environmental degradation of lands bordering urban settlements.
173. Land tenure conflicts have also developed between the cities and surrounding rural
communities, The accelerated pace of urbanisation has bloated towns beyond their statutory confines.
so that the urban areas now necessarily encroach upon land belonging to the rural communities.
Conflicts inevitably arise, as testified by numerous cases of litlgation in the highly populated zones of
Banjul and Kombo St. Mary.
(b) TQ\!][ism
174. Tourism has been one of the fast-growing economic activities in the Gambia, contributing
sQme6'Jt of the GDP and employing an estimated 3,000 persons. Of these 1,200 persons are directly
employed in hotels, while indirect employment in restaurants, handicrafts, transportation, and other
services is estimated at about 1,800 persons.!"
175. In addition to employment generation, direct tourism-generated gross foreign exchange

earnings accruing to the Gambia calculated on balance of payments basis come to the tune of close to
"" Gambia, Republic of, Qn. Cit.

72
D 10 million in 1974/75 and D 32 million in 1979/80.
176. Generally the linkage of the tourist industry with the rest of the economy is weak and one of
the weakest links is with the agricultural sector. Apart from the food storage and marketing
component of Tourism and Infrastructure Project, no other large agricultural projects were developed.
177. As regards environmental stress, the influx of tourists puts pressure on the environment both
natural and man-made. One of the natural environments is that of water. The large number of tourists
demand an equally large consumption of potable water. Again the Gambia's tourist industry causes
some environmental stress especiall y in the wood industry as trees are cut down for carvings and
other artifacts.'?"
178. Other visible effects of tourism on the environment is the pollution of beaches and other
tourist sites, the illegal trade in exotic wildlife which is rendering some species extinct and the
extraction and export (legally/illegally) of cane products thus putting pressure on the mangrove and
swamp areas.
4. Conclusion
179. Gambia like other sub-Saharan nations is facing problems of rapid population growth and
environmental stress. However bleak the situation looks, the deterioration is largely of human origin
and can yield only to human remedy. How the Gambian populace as a people tackle the problem will
reveal much about their resolve to halt the process in its tracks. Many solutions are long-term, but
there is also an urgency to strengthen the kinds of policies and action programmes that will make a
difference, and to do so now. Some of these policies have been outlined in the text above and are
being implemented much more rigidly after the toppling of President Jawara's government by the
military junta. These steps if executed well, will go a long way to help the Gambia achieve
sustainable development.
Wuyts, M.~ ...Jl! (eds.), Development Policy and Public Action.

106 Oxford University Press,
London, 1992.
73
C. Nigeria
1. Introduction
180. Population movements and concentrations arc related very much to environmental conditions
and economic opportunities that are physically available. While environmental deterioration could
lead to massive out-migration, areas of heavy and uncontrolled in-migration could, in turn create
environmental changes that may have negative consequences on the nation's development.
181. The extent to which environmental changes affect and are affected by migratory and
urbanization patterns are not easily understood. This section is therefore an attempt to bring to the
fore the interrelationships between environmental changes on one hand and migratory and urbanisation
processes in Nigeria.
182. Migration in Nigeria has been in response to environmental stress and differential socio-
economic opportunities. It is also true that spatial incidence of government expenditure and regional
inequality in income distribution do exert some influence on the decision of people to migrate from
one location to another."?
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and

Urbanization Changes
(a) La!!." Degradation. Deforestation and Desertification
183. Deteriorating land quality resulting from over-cropping has led to movement of people from
one area to another in Nigeria. A large proportion of rural out-migration ending in urban destination
areas has been propelled by natural resource depletion in most rural communities. Adepoju records
that intra-rural migration in Nigeria has taken place mainly from resource poor to resource rich areas
107 Mbanefoh, G.F., "Population and Development, strategies in Africa: The case of Nigeria",
Internal Migration and Regional Development in Africa, RIPS Monograph series, No.2, June, 1987,
p.414.
74
or from densely over-farmed to sparsely settled communities. lOS
184. Deteriorating environmental conditions are again cited together with problems of housing and
other social facilities as major deterrent factors for massive influx of migrants to the cities.'?"
Population pressure has contributed immensely to shortening of fallow periods and land fragmentation
in most rural Nigeria. Consequently, perceived income differentials between the rural and urban
areas have become more pronounced as farmers incomes have stagnated relative to urban wage
employment. The exodus of young active persons from the rural areas also affects the development
of these areas resulting in further out-migration to the cities.
(b) Drought, Famine. Insects and Diseases
185. During the last three decades, Nigeria has been afflicted by four major droughts, those of
1972/1973, 1983, 1988 and 1991. Mortimore has provided an account of the migratory consequences
of the 1972/1973 drought in Northern Nigeria."? He noted that permanent migration at the height
of this drought and the resulting famine climbed from 26 to 43 percent in the villages that were the
subject of his study, followed by a fall in the popularity of affected destination areas: Kana State
including even urban Kano, north west Barno, Niger and Chad. The rate of in-migration to these
localities declined from 21 to 11 percent. Mortimore made note of two major distinguishing features of
the spatial mobility that took place. The first was the preference for circulation over other types of
movements. The second was the dominance of inter rural movements.
186. In connection with the preference of circulation as a mobility option vis-a-vis other forms of
mobility especially permanent migration, Mortimore enumerated the following advantages: its
flexibility with respect to distance, commitment of time and money; and its adaptability to the life
10' Adepoju, A., "Internal Migration, Population Distribution and Regional Development in Africa:
Emerging Issues and Policy Consideration", Internal Migration and Regional Development in Africa,
RIPS Monograph Series, No.2, June, 1987, p.5.
H)9 Adepoju, A., QIl. Cit. 1986, p.20.

no Mortimore,M. Adopting to Drought: Farmers. Famines and Desertification in West Africa.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
----------'--------------
75
cycle of the migrant. Moreover, circulation facilitates the safeguarding of access to land and labour
resources along with rights of community membership in the origin source rural areas.
187. Afolayan has distilled the following information about the migration consequences of the
droughts of the 1980s and 1991 from local newspaper reports."! With respect to that of 1987, the
Dail~~fimes of November 1987 reported that a majority of villagers of Kachalleiri, Dangwaneri,
Dinguisa and Ungwa migrated to other areas of the Hadeija Local Council area of Kano State. The
~.milm of IS November 1987 noted that people had migrated from Murde and neighbouring
villages that suffered total crop failure to areas with water and green postures.
188. The Guardian of July 2, 1991 provided an account of the consequences of the drought of
1991, which affected seven Sahelian States in northern Nigeria: Kano, Borno, Katsina, Bauchi,
Gongola, Kaduna and Sokoto. The paper observed, that one of these consequences involved the
movement from and/or abandonment of many settlements such as Kumsi, Kumangabum, Karaswaa
and Kaska, located closed to the Niger border.
189. Hepper also recounts that extensive out-migration became a normal feature of drought-affected
areas In Northern Nigeria.'? He adds that some of the nomads sold off their cattle in large numbers
and moved further down as environmental refugees and job seekers in Southern Nigeria.
190. Population distribution is largely affected by the occurrence of onchocerciasis within parts of
the Sahelian belt of Nigeria. This is mainly the case within the middle belt where the prevalence of
trypanosomiasis resulting from tsetse fly infestation is a disincentive to cattle rearing as a major
economic activity. This explains the low population density within the belt relative to northern
Nigeria where Sokoto, Katsina and Kano are located.
til. Afolayan,A.A. "Environmentally Induced Population Mobility in Nigeria." In UAPS, papers on
Conference on Population and Environment in Africa, Botswana, 1992.
112 Hepper, F. N., "The Practical Importance of Plant Ecology in Arid Zones", Drought in Africa
~, African Environment Special report 6, edited by Dalby, D., Harrison, C and Bezzaz, F., International
African Institute, 1977, p.121.
76
(c) Rural Population Pressure - Land Shortages, Tenurial Systems
191. In his assessment of the Nigeria situation, Igben argues that over-population in a
predominantly rural and agricultural population is the major cause of subsistence agriculture. 11' As
a result, in a situation where the supply of land for agricultural activities is relatively inelastic" an
unchecked population brings about immense pressure on the available land", the obvious result being
"low land-man ratio, low productivity, diminishing returns and a general decline in income" .114
Available records indicate that even as far back as 1980, over 85% of food crop farmers had in Oyo
State for example less than one hectare. us The situation today could be worse and is very much
due to increasing rural population pressure.
192. Population growth and its effects on shortage of land for agricultural in the rural areas are
further worsened by the land tenure system in operation. Like many other African countries, Nigeria
practices the communal type of land ownership where the family, rather than an individual is the
custodian of large proportions of land in rural communities. The tenurial system prohibits the holding
of land in larger sizes by one particular person. This leads to the perpetuation of peasantry which
becomes more pronounced with rapidly increasing rural population.
193. Under such conditions, most rural farmers particularly the young and active ones in their
frustration to acquire large plots of land for themselves have been migrating mainly to the cities to
look for industrial wage employment. What happens at the rural areas is succinctly described by
Igben, as "a skewed rural population made up of children, women and number of relatively senile
males who are left in the rural areas to produce enough food to feed the entire national
population" .'16 The obvious consequence of this is shortage of labour in most rural communities,
decline in food production and supply and, a general stagnation in the development of these rural
na Igben, M.S., "Population Growth, Land Tenure and Food Production", Population and
Development in Nigeria, edited by Orubuloye, 1.0. and Oyeneye, O.Y., Nigeria Institute of Social and
Economic Research, Ibadan, 1983, p. 127.
114
115 Ministry of Economic Planning, Statistics Division,Oyo State Government Report of the Rural
Agricultural Samole Survey, 1980.
116
Igben, M.S., Qp. Cit., p.13!.
77
communities and further out-migration.

Environmental Changes
(a) Population concentration/urbanization
194. Urbanization has been quite rapid in Nigeria. Lagos has so far been the fastest growing
urban centre in Nigeria. So rapid was the rate of expansion that there has been pressure on social
infrastructure and services. Environmental pollution reached levels unprecedented in the history of
the city and that forced the Federal Government of Nigeria to opt for the creation of a federal capital
at Abuja as the most rational option.
195. Apart from Lagos, Nigeria unlike many African countries where urban primacy is the norm,
has many other large towns including Ibadan, Zaria, Kano, Kaduna, Aha, Port-Harcourt and Enugu.
Growing urbanization in Nigeria has been attributed to sectoral and spatial disparity in the growth of
the economy which has over the years intensified the growing migration from rural to urban
areas. I" This factor becomes increasingly important following the stagnation in rural agricultural
economies due to rapid population growth, land fragmentation and decline in incomes in the rural
areas.
196. Natural increase in the urban population has also contributed to rapid urbanization in Nigeria.
The other factor that has equally contributed to urban growth but perhaps to a lesser scale, is
occasional boundary adjustment or reclassification.
197. The high concentration and rapid increase of population in urban areas has been described as
both a cause and effect of the strain placed on the few and inadequate social services in the
towns.'" These relate to housing, water supply. health and educational services. Congestion has
117 Adepoju, A., "Population Growth and Urbanization", Population and Development in Nigeria,
edited by Ombuloye, 1.0., and Oyeneye, a.Y., Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research,
lbadan, J983, p. 21.
II' Adepoju, A., 1983, Qn. Cit., p.34.

78
become a corrimon feature of most urban centres in the country. Currently, urhan sprawl has
frustrated long-range planning for most of the large towns. Not quite surprisingly, slums with heavily
polluted environments have become health hazards in most urban centres. In fact, these slums have
become breading grounds for anomie activities including armed robbery particularly in Lagos where
the situation could have been very chaotic if Abuja had not been created as a new Federal Capital in
its stead.
198. The rate of urbanization in the country has also intensified rural-urban imbalance in spatial
development. This is because, the Nigerian government has always been concerned about the
deteriorating conditions in the urban areas and has been making efforts to improve infrastructure as it
relates to provision of essential facilities as health and education. However, this has denied many
rural communities similar infrastructure and hence has encouraged further rural out-migration into the
cities. What is needed is to strike a linkage between the rural and urban economies in respect of
spatial development.
(b) Population Redistribution and Resettlement
199. Population redistribution is a response to the kind of development strategy that is being
implemented at any point in time. There has however not been any explicitly formulated policy to
influence directly migration flows in the country.!" It is worth noting that policies including the
new town development policy, land colonization policy, resettlement schemes, administrative reforms,
rural and urban development programmes have in diverse ways had unintended consequences on
population distribution and environmental deterioration in Nigeria. The influx of people into the
Lagos-Kano-Port Harcourt area has exacerbated the problems of congestion and crowding,
unemployment and high house rents.'?'
200. The nature of population distribution has been shown to relate with the soil type and its
119 Adepoju A., "Development Programmes and Population Redistribution in Nigeria", Population
and Development Projects in Africa, edited by Clarke gt. al.. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1985, p.195.
120
Ibid., p.198.
79
capabil ity to support the population. lt was found for example that within the Kano Province,
migrant farmers have migrated from overcrowded districts with deteriorating agricultural land
conditions to relatively less dense areas in searcb of new farm lands.'?' By inference, in many rural
areas in Nigeria, the potential to attract migrants will depend, to a large extent on the availability of
rich and agriculturally productive land which depends on the density of the population. The
observation that most farming districts in Nigeria are over-crowded and will be facing some food
supply problems!" is still relevant today. This is on account of Nigeria's estimated population
growth rate of at least 3.1 % per annum as at 1994. 123
201. In spite of the established pattern of movement out of over crowded settlements, there is more
urban-rural migration in Nigeria today. This trend has had much impact in respect of pollution of the
urban environment. It was estimated in 1983 that solid waste generation in Ibadan amounted to 1.09
million kilograms. For the whole of Nigeria, the projections indicate that 63.9 million kilograms of
solid waste would be generated by the year 2000 in the urban areas atone.?' This constitutes a
serious environmental and health hazard especially when considered against the backdrops of the fact
that the institutional capacity for environmental protection is overtaxed. Thus, due to inadequate
funds, equipment, personnel and technology, it is increasingly becoming almost impossible to cope
with the health threatening menace of poor environment in most urban areas which have benefited
much from voluntary population redistribution in Nigeria.
(c) Refugee Movements

202. Refugees in Nigeria can be classified into three as environmental refugees, economic refugees
and refugees fleeing civil wars. These refugee movements have had both direct and indirect effects on
121 Mortmore, M.T., Population Distribution, Settlement and Soils in Kano Province, Northern
Nigeria, 1931-62, The Population of Tropical Africa, edited by Caldwell, l.C. and Okonjo, C.,
Longmans, 1968, p.306.
raa Dema, I.S., "Some Reflection upon the nutritional problems of dense farm populations in parts
of Nigeria", The Population of Tropical Africa. edited by Caldwell, J .C. and Okonjo, C., Longmans,
1968, p.307.
123
Population Reference Bureau. Population Data Sheet, 1994.
124 Olaore, G.O .. "Population Growth and Environmental Pollution". Population and Development
in Nigeria. edited by Orubuloye and Oyeneyc. Inrec Printers Limited, Ihadan, 1983.
80
the environment.
203. Following the outbreak of the Nigerian civil war between 1967 and 1979, many Nigerians
particularly from the Eastern part of the country (Biafra) became refugees. The war had a devastating
effect on the environment: food crops withered in the fields, water courses dried up and a general
period of famine was evident everywhere. The result was the mass exodus of Nigerians mainly from
the Eastern parts to other areas in the country. Several others also fled to neighbouring African
countries particularly Cameroon and Ghana. So large was the volume of such movements that by
1969 the number of Nigerians resident in Ghana, was one of the reasons for the implementation of the
Aliens Compliance Order which led to the repatriation of several Nigerian immigrants in Ghana.
204. Nigeria has been a receiving country for many refugees from neighhouring countries namely
Chad and Niger. The Chadian civil war for example displaced a lot of Chadians who fled to Nigeria.
Although many of the refugees did not go there as official refugees and hence it is difficult to estimate
how many of them actually moved, there is no doubt that many people fled from both civil war and
prolonged drought in Chad and Niger.
205. Another period when Nigeria was a major recipient of economic refugees from almost the
whole of Africa was during the Nigerian oil boom in the late 1970s and early 1980s. For example, in
1981 and 1983 when Nigeria sacked illegal immigrants from the country, over I million Ghanaians
were reported to have returned from the then oil-rich country.
206. The effects of these economic refugee movements into Nigeria on the environment are not far
fetched. The bulk of the economic immigrants increased the already overcrowding situation in Lagos
and other urban areas. What was more, most of them lived in the slums and contributed much to the
urban filth due to generation and poor disposal of both liquid and solid waste. For example, most
Ghanaians were living in Agege, a slum but commercial centre in Lagos. It was largely on account
of the economic and environmental problems that the refugees were perceived to pose to the Nigerian
economy that led to their eventual expulsion from the oil rich country.
207. Nigeria's experience with environmental and economic refugeeism has thus demonstrated the
effects of refugee movements on the environment. This may be mainly due to most refugees' sense
81
of not belonging to their host countries and hence their environmental managementpractices may not
be adopted in the interest of the home country.
208. Occasional flooding in parts of Nigeria has also led to movement of people from one place to
another !IS temporary refugees. The floods have again been responsible for much environmental
destruction in Nigeria. Flooding has been common occurrences in most towns in Nigeria due to poor
drainage, a situation which has been made worse by rapid urbanization and poor planning typical of
not only Nigeria but almost all African countries.
(d) Pastoralism/Nomadism
209. Pastoralism happens to be a major economic activity in Nigeria. Pastoralism is common

mainly in Northern Nigeria and in the middle belt especially in Sokoto, Kano, Katsina and Bornu
provinces. It is undertaken mostly by the Fulani who have traditionally established themselves as
nomadic pastoralists.
210. Nomadism has been seasonal in Nigeria like any other country in Africa and such movements
are usually from well-drained upland sites in the rains to river-side pastures in the dry season.!"
Their seasonal movements have also been in response to disease risks. Thus, during the raining
season, nomadic pastoralists concentrate their activities on highlands above 1200m to avoid tse-tse fly
attack in the plains close to the rivers notably the Niger and the Benue. At the same time where to
find adequate and nutritious pasture while avoiding diseases and pests has been the first priority of the
Fulani pastoralist wbo rear large herds of animals notably cattle and sheep.
211. The danger of such nomadic practices rests largely on the number of animals involved in the
movement at any point in time. This has constituted a big hazard to the environment in respect of
over-grazing as they move from place to place. They cause soil erosion as they expose the land to
environmental pressures, high rainfall and temperatures leading to extensive evaporation.
125 Grove, A.T., Africa. South of the Sahara, second edition, Oxford University Press,
London, 1971, p.55.
82
212. Linked 10 over-grazing activities of the nomads is their practice of burning of grass to
facilitate early regeneration of pasture. The frequent bush fires that are deliberately set by the Fulani
nomads both in Northern Nigeria and the middle belt have been partly responsible for the increasing
deforestation and the threat of desertification in those parts of Nigeria.
(e) Tourjsm and Environmental Stress

213. Nigeria received large volumes of tourists during the early 19805 when the country was one
of the economic giants in sub-Saharan Africa as a result of the oil boom. The period 1984-1986
marked the peak of the tourist industry in Nigeria and during this period, between 700 and 900
tourists arrived in Nigeria each year. Nigeria's attraction to tourists has since declined due to
economic stagnation.
214. Overall, the country's attraction for tourists has included her oil wells, fine coastal scenery,
dense forests and the rich diversity of her arts. The Kainji Dam, natural parks, the Niger and Benue
rivers also offer good opportunities for tourism development in Nigeria. The Niger delta is for
example an important attraction for tourists.
215. Like many African countries, the interest of tourists in Nigeria's arts has increased the
exploitation of forest products for arts and craft. The development of beaches as tourist centres also
constitutes a major source of coastal erosion. Sustainable development in tourism could be achieved
only when its negative environmental effects have been controlled.
(f) Conclusion
216. The large concentration of population in the urban centres is creating serious environmental
and pollution problems which require urgent attention. Although rapid urbanization is not a bad
thing, its concentration in selected centres tends to increase the imbalance in spatial development. This
requires a comprehensive and integrated rural development policies with a family planning component
in order that population growth will be in conformity with available resources.
2I7 . The influx of economic and environmental refugees most of whom were illegal immigrants
into Nigeria especially during the peak of oil production has increased slum development and
83
sanitation problems in the towns. Measures should be found to regulate the influx as well as control
their activities so as to reduce their negative impacts on the environment. In all, it will require a
complete exploration into the ramifications of the population - environment interrelationships to
facilitate the prescription of corresponding measures to counteract the negative consequences so far
observed.
D. Sierra Leone
1. Introduction
218. The major environmental problems facing Sierra Leone include the following:inadequate
sanitation and access to safe drinking water,health, education and housing; land degradation; forest
degradation and deforestation; environmental degradation as a result of mining, unplanned and
uncontrolled urbanization
219. As the quality of the environment reduces, it is unable to provide the necessary resources for
human survival. Migration, preferably into urban areas results. Urbanization further leads to
majority of people having little access to life-enhancing amenities. Sierra Leone is no exception to
these problems, and there is increasing realization that policies are needed to integrate population and
environment in development planning.
2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and Urbanization Changes
(a) Land pegradation. Deforestation and Desertification
220. The total land area of Sierra Leone is about 7.2 million hectares. Seventy-five percent of
which, around, 5.4 million hectares is considered suitable for cultivation.In 1965, only 20% of the
total land area of Sierra Leone was under cultivationrThis increased only slightly to 25% by 1987.
Though many lands lie idle, they are unsuitable for cropping due to heavy degradation.'?"
Deforestation is only around 0.8% annually. For while an average of 28% of total land area of Sub-
Saharan African countries have their lands under wilderness, Sierra-Leone has no wilderness \eft as
126 McNamara, RS., Ql2. Qt.

84
all virgin areas have been encroached.!" Demands for fuelwood and charcoal are fast depleting
vegetation cover. Besides, shifting cultivation and overgrazing of lands by overstocked livestock herds
have led to soil impoverishment. Important sources of food, fodder, fuel, and medicines have been
lost, and with no fresh lands to turn to, rural environments have become less productive and can no
longer support its populations. Migration to the major cities and towns to escape the depressed state
has left cities packed with people who chase few existing jobs.
(b) Drought. Famine. Insects and Diseases

221. The gap between food needs and domestic production continue to widen in Sierra-Leone.
Periodic water shortfalls in agriculture in the predominantly rain fed cropping routine creates seasonal
stresses, and the ranks of ahsolute poor and malnourished people continue to rise. Maize, rice,
cassava, and pulps as well as vegetables all suffer pest infestations. Post-harvest losses are particularly
high leading to food shortages.
222. As majority of the population is rural, lacking basic health and sanitation facilities, malarial
infections, intestinal worms are high and this impede productivity as weak persons cannot effectively
till the land. The picture is more depressing when note is taken of the fact that while the average
infant mortality for Sub-Saharan Africa was 103 per 1,000 live-births in 1990, that of Sierra-Leone
was 148.
Again child mortality (ages 0-5) was 251 compared with an African average of 154. Life Expectancy
at birth as at 1988 was 42 years compared with a Sub-Saharan average of 51.12&
223. Rural environments have only farming as the main activity. When conditions restrict the
success of food production, poverty and hunger cause migration of labour, especially the youth. In a
survey on migration patterns in Sierra-Leone, Tommy found out that about 34% of migrants into the
Greater Freetown were the youth less than 16 years of age. 129 They were also front rural areas, and
127 World Bank, World Development Report: Development and the Environment, The World Bank,
Washington, D.C., 1992.
'" McNamara, R.S., Qn. Qt., p. 62.

129 Tommy, J. L., "Migration, Employment and Income Distribution: The Case of Sierra-
Leone", National Seminar on Population. EmplQyment and Development Planning in Sierra-Leone. April
28-1st May, 1980. pp. 197-222.
85
the situation has not changed much today.
(c) Rural Population Pressure, Land Shortages and Tenurial Systems

224. Table 5.2 gives an overview. of population distribution by districts in Sierra-Leone. An
overall national population density of 49 persons per square kilometre was observed for 1985
implying a 63% increase from the 1963 density of the country. Indeed, Jarrett noted as early as 1957
that Sierra-Leone had acute problems with its tropical soils as the 10 years fallow period desired for
soil regeneration had been reduced to 3. 130
225. With an average annual population increase of 2.5%, the pressure on cultivable soils have
become very precarious. For instance, the area with the highest rural population density is the Old
Colony area between Songo and the Peninsula mountains. lJl Because the area is capable of giving
high yields of swamp rice, many ethnic groups migrated there and land shortages, soil deterioration,
growing tension and land ownership confl lets among cultivators are on the increase. In addition, land
management practices are not capable of maintaining soil fertility and productivity. Evidences of
poverty and falling living conditions of farmers in these once fertile areas increasingly reveal the
extent of environmental degradation.
226. Such similar problems arising from land ownership beset production prospects in the granite
escarpments north of Makeni and the northwest to southeast stretch from Kambia district to Kasebu
Hills. These land conflicts have lowered productivity and initiated migration to other areas and urban
centres such Greater Freetown, Koidu-New Sembehun, Bo and Kenema.
3. Migl]ttory and Urbanization Causes and Conseguences of Environmental Change
(a) POPUlation ConcentrationlUrbanization

227. In fertile areas, especially around concentrated areas of the northwestern and southeastern
quarters of the country, high population and resultant land pressures has Jed to the virtual
130
Jarrett, R., "Sierra-Leone", Focus, Vol. viii, No. 4, December 1957, p.6.
131
Clarke, 1.1., Sierra-Leone in Maps. Hodder & Stoughton. London, 1976, p. 60.
86
disappearance of traditional systems of soil fertility maintenance.!" Increasingly therefore, marginal

lands and fragile ecosystems are created by means of survival. These further put into agricultural use
aggravates the already severe environmental stress.
228. The urban population of Sierra Leone grew at the annual average rates of 6.0 and 4.7 percent
per annum between 1963-74 and 1974-1985, three and two times respectively of the total population
growth rates. Freetown's share of the urban population increased from 31 % in 1963 to 41 % in 1985.
Also by 1963, Freetown's population was almost five times that of the second city, Bo; and by 1974
and 1985 was nearly four and six times that of second mos populous town, Koidu-New
Sembehun.!"
229. As urban dwellers are relatively well-off than their rural counterparts. Their tastes and
consumption patterns are higher and these place heavy stress on the environment. Several hectares of
land is degraded in the bid to produce enough food to feed the urban population. Increasing
urbanization and rising levels of poverty seem to correlate in many urban areas of Sierra-Leone. As
rural-urban migration continues, so has there been excessive pressure on existing urban facilities such
as schools, hospitals, and housing units. The ability uf urban areas to provide jobs and income
opportunities becomes difficult. The informal sector provides self-employment but at very low
wages/earnings.
132.Clarke, J.1., "Population Distribution in Sierra-Leone", Caldwell, J.C. and Okonjo, C. (eds.),
The Population of Tropical Africa, Longmans Ltd. London. 1968, pp. 270-277.
133 Makannah, T.J., and Bailey, M. "Sierra Leone",in James D.Tarver (00), A Handbook:
Urbanization in Africa (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994
87
Table <;.2 Population Density by Districts for 1963. 1974 and 1985 in Sierra-Leone
DISTRICT POPULATION DENSITY PERCENTAGE

(pER SQ. KM) CHANGE
I
.
1963 1974 1985 1963-74 1963-85
Bomhali 25 29 40 16 60
Kambia 44 50 60 14 36
Koinadugu 11 13 15 18 36
Port Loko 43 51 58 19 35
_.
Tonkoli1i 26 29 35 12 35
Bo 40 42 38 5 -5
Bonthe 23 25 30 9. 30
Moyamba 24 27 36 13 50
Puhejun 21 25 28 19 33
Kanema 36 44 56 22 56
--
Kono 30 58 69 93 56
--
Western Area 350 568 995 62 75
--
Sierra-Leone 49 27 63
30 38
SUUKCl:';: ...
AnnIW S"tic:al Oi \ 1989, p .'1 and Preli . R of Jl)S~
230. The stress urban areas endure leads to urban decay where environmental changes manifest
themselves in the form of filth, poor sanitation, unemployment, prostitution, violence, and falling
living standards.
(b) Refugee Movements

231. Sierra-Leone has witnessed refugee ami human displacement problems since 1982 when
outbreak of violence began. Inter-tribal clashes in the Southeastern part of the country displaced
manx people from the Pujehun district to other parts of Sierra-Leone, notably to the Western Area.
88
An estimated 125,000 Liberians took refuge in Sierra-Leone.'>
232. Environmental deterioration resulting from refugeeism is especially marked in Sierra-Leone

due to internal instability which makes concentration at specific locations very high. Most Liberian
refuzees moved with their animals and the pressure of both humans and animals on settled areas
resulted in depletion of grass, water, food crops, and massive tree removal for fuel purposes. The
continued military and civil strife in the country as a result of the rebellion by Cpl. Foday Sanker has
further led to displacement of population.
(c) Pastoral/Nomadism
233. Migratory practices of indigenous tribes such as Limba, Krim, Sherbro, Kono, Via, Gola,
Loko and especially the nomadic Fula keep large stocks of livestock whose fodder needs degrade
lands along routes. The practice of burning bushes during dry season to facilitate growth has often left
large tracts of burned and exposed land to wind, rain, and" the sun. Many streams and wells dry up
faster exacerbating water deficiency. Tracts of land are hardened by animals and erosion has become
pronounced on routes that nomadic herdsmen ply.
Tourism and Environmental Stress

234. Though relatively low in terms of tourist attraction, Sierra-Leone has witnessed gradual
interests in tourist attraction. The activities of tourists can often have various negative impacts on the
people. For instance, tourists are noted to generate much waste thus creating filth. Their demand for
wood products such as furniture and carvings has been very disastrous on the environment as it
contributes to deforestation.
4. Conclusion
235. Land degradation and deforestation are common features in areas currently experiencing
population pressure. Migration to the major cities continues to take place, one of the major reasons
being to escape from the depressed rural environments. Even the hitherto favourable fertile soils
between Songo and the peninsula mountains which attracted migrants for rice farming have been
134
Europa World Year Book, "Sierra-Leone", Europa Publications Ltd., London, Vol. II, 1994,
p.2598.
89
exhausted due to increases in population densities. The area is therefore currently experiencing a
reverse flow of migrants to other parts of the country.
236. For Sierra Leone, the major contributing factor now towards the displacement of population is
the on-going civil war. Civil strife has been one of the features of the political system in Sierra
Leone even before the overthrow of President Momoh's government. The stresses on the environment
both from the instruments of the conflicts and the displaced refugees are Quite serious, the most
affected area being the diamond mining district of Kenema.
VI. DEVELOPMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF MIGRATION - URBANIZATION PROCESSES

AND ENVIRONMENT INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN AFRICA
A. Introduction
237. In Africa, the issues of widespread and worsening poverty, hunger and disease; rapid and
intensifying urbanization; drought, desertification and refugee movements; deforestation and fuelwood
crisis; sand dune invasion, devastating gullying and coastal erosion; and land dereliction through
mineral exploitation, are among the numerous environmental problems that have brought the issues of
population and environment interrelationships to the fore.!"
238. The above discussion at both the continental and case studies levels has clearly demonstrated
that migration-urbanization processes have consequences on the environment and vice versa. These
multi-faceted linkages between population, in this case migration and urbanization, and the
environment have definite developmental implications, if sustainable development is to be achieved as
perceived in the framework of both Agenda 21 and the Programme of Action of ICPD (1994). This
section examines the developmental problems implied in these linkages on the one hand and the policy
options which can, in one way or another, help to ameliorate the problems on the other.
m Ajaegbu, R.I., Qn. Cit., p. 2.

90
B. Developmental Problems of Population-Environment Inter-relationships

I. Fragile Environments and Ecosystems
239. The natural environment in Africa is very sensitive to damage. The largely lateritic soils
deteriorate very quickly when the forest cover is removed especially through the slash-and-burn
method of land preparation for cropping. Again, the continent has extensive areas of sandy soils that
can hardly hold water, and its best soils happen to be in hil\y areas where erosion is a lot stronger.
Africa is very vulnerable to drought and if deforestation in coastal areas cuts rain supply to inland
areas marginal areas can become non-viable. »s Development initiatives in these environmental
settings in ECA member countries have necessarily entailed varying degrees of disturbance and
destruction of particular ecosystems. The contemporary environmental awareness and arguments for
environmental protection vis-a-vis the continent's rapidly growing population does have an adverse
effect on development. This is so in the sense that the lack of funds needed to take the necessary
precautionary measures such as environmental impact assessments may well mean that development is
,
not attempted at all where environmental laws are rigidly enforced.
2. Drought. Desertification and Refugee Movements
240. The occurrence of drought has been a serious setback for the largely agrarian economies of
the majority of ECA member states. Agriculture in Africa is heavily dependent on rain since
irrigation is little developed and/or ineffective in many countries. Given this state of affairs, the
occurrence of drought in the 1970s and 1980s has resulted in serious dislocations in the affected
countries' agricultural development efforts. An outcome of this has been acute food shortages and
consequent widespread hunger and mass movements. National governments as well as donors are
compelled to divert what may otherwise have been development assistance funds to obtain relief food
for famine victims. Such expenditure is terminal and has little or no multiplier effect. National
governments, particularly, are faced with mounting import bills and shrinking development funds:
neither augurs well for sustainable development.
136 Wolgin, J: "Sustainable Development in Africa", Proceedings of a Workshop on Sustainable

Develo.pment in Sub-Africa held in Baltimore. Maryland. May 19-21. 1993, p. 23.
91
241. Desertification in Africa, which is largely an outcome of droughts. tends to exacerbate the
effects of droughts for the affected areas and render them uninhabitable. Hence it tends to cause the
mass exodus of people. The developmental implications of this land degradational process and
dislocation of populations are varied and disturbing. While the former represents a process of loss of
vast areas of otherwise arable and grazing land by the agrarian economies of Africa to expanding
deserts, the latter leads to the abandonment of development infrastructure (however modest) in the
affected areas. At the destinations of these environmental refugees, there occurs serious imbalances
in the population-resource equations arising from the unexpected influx of large numbers of people
for whom no provision may have been -made in the development budget.
242. Often the problems of desertification and dune invasion transcend national boundaries and
hence demands that a regional approach be adopted to deal with it. Unfortunately, financial resources
are lacking for such grand operations and this slams the brakes on sustainable development.
Development in ECA member states can hardly be sustainable given these trying conditions which are
widespread on the continent.
3. Rapid PQpulation Growth and Pwlation Pressure
243. Annual population growth rates are high in the continent and due to this the population of
many of the countries is youthful, implying that a large proportion of the population is in the
dependent age braclcet. These are economically inactive and hence resources devoted to providing
their needs can only represent a long-term, uncertain human resource investment. Again, the vast
majority of the population is unskilled; and this is a major development tragedy, as the quality of
development is threatened by the limited skilled manpower available.
244. Worse still, whatever modest developmental efforts are made in the continent tend to be
overwhel med by the multitudes of people who must necessarily benefit from it. This represents
excessive demands on the fruits of development and tends to exert an entropic effect on development.
Clearly. then, sustainable development tends to elude ECA member states by virtue of the sheer size
of their populations. Problems of population pressure as clearly demonstrated above in the continent
have to he addressed if the stresses on the environment is to be checked.
92
4. Deforestation and Fuelwood Crisis
245. Deforestation denudes the land of its vegetative cover. and for rural communities in Africa
one of the immediate impacts has been an acute shortage of fuelwood - a very important energy
source. Women and children who provide a significant proportion of the labour force requirements
on family farms thus spend long hours travelIing great distances in search of fuelwood. The loss in
terms of man-hours to rural agriculture can be staggering. Additionally, the stock of forest resources
that may be harnessed for development are steadily depleted in the wake of deforestation often leads
to the drying up of water sources, disruption of ecosystems and drought - a1l these are detrimental to
sustainable development.
5. HjghLeveJ of Mobility of the African Population

246. An important prerequisite for sustainable development is the population for whom such
development is embarked upon be as stable as possible. This is to ensure that any development
process commenced is carried through. Unfortunately however, Africa's population is extremely
mobile. There are frequent waves of migrants in various directions and for various reasons cardinal
of which are the fleeing of harsh environmental as well as economic conditions, natural disasters, and
armed conflict zones. A disturbing aspect of this characteristic of the population is that the exact
data, especially statistics on it is woefully inadequate. This makes any meaningful projections
difficult and hence the planning of any development programmes is beset with over - or under-
estimations and a great deal of uncertainty about their sustainability.
6. Rapid and Intensifying Urbanization

247. Although rapid urbanization has a credit side for development, it does pose teething
developmental problems which tend to cause an unfavourable tilt in the scale. In the face of the
meagre resources and limited fund-generating capacity of most national governments in Africa, the
management of sprawling urban settlements with their ever-increasing numbers of people and
compounding environmental problems becomes very difficult. The consequence is that many essential
urban services are either poorly provided or not provided at all. The mal- or sub-optimal functioning
of the urban system due to inadequate operational funds vis-a-vis the rapid and intensifying
urbanization in many African countries implies that while the creation of an urban climate conducive
for sustainable development is an uphill task, existing conditions will be deteriorating because they
93
can hardly be maintained with the dwindling resources. The impact of this development decay is
being felt both in the urban centres and beyond the city limits.
7. J>owIIljon at Risk
248. 'lhe population at risk includes women, children, the aged, the disabled, refugees and persoiil
suffering various forms of disadvantage. The requirements of this vulnerable group. wbich constitute
a large proportion of Africa's population, is such that specialised resources bave to be devoted to
provid ing their needs.
8. Poverty, Uuniter and Disease

249. Poverty is a significant factor in sustainable development in Africa and its alleviation is of
paramount importance if any progress in development is to be made. This is because the vast
majority of Africa's population can bardly make ends meet let alone support financially any
development efforts by national governments or NGOs. Indeed the Urban Management Programme,
a partnership of the UNDP, UNCUS (Habitat) and the World Bank, recognises poverty alleviation as
a key issue in urban management with a view ultimately to achieving sustainable development. This
applies even worse so in the regional setting where poverty is generally more acute. Poverty as a
drawback to sustainable development in Africa is not limited to individuals; many ECA member states
are among the world's poorest nations. Governments of such nations are therefore severely
constrained financially in their development efforts, especially capital development.
250. Besides poverty, famine has been a common occurrence in many parts of Africa in recent
years. Perhaps Kane's!" assertion that in Ethiopia there is some famine even in years of good rain
applies 10 most other African countries. Hunger, a direct consequence of famine bas a damaging
effect 011 development and consequently may trigger off migration. Widespread hunger implies that
the work force which is an indispensable ingredient in development is generally physically weak. It
also reduces body resistance and thus renders people vulnerable to disease attack especially infections
diseases. So wbile hunger directly diminishes the work force for sustainable development, its health
impact dissipates an essential development input by diverting scarce funds to cure sick people. The
high frequency of occurrence of this phenomenon in Africa means, therefore, that the sustainable
137
Kane, H., Qll. .Qt.
94
development of the continent is being seriously hampered; and that no real progress or breakthrough
can be made so long as it lurks-in the background.
C. Policy Options
1. Introduction
251. Given that the developmenta1 implications of imbalances in the population-environment

interrelationships in concert tend to have a deleterious effect on sustainable development in the
continent, it becomes expedient to map out remedial actions with the view to arresting such entropic
tendencies. This may be achieved through the adoption of policies on various population-environment
related issues.
2. Population Policies
252. There is an urgent need for the adoption of national population policies that draw upon the
~o population and development frameworks, namely: the Dakar/Ngor Declaration (DND) and the
Programme of Action of ICPD.94, which stress sustainable development.The DND, for example,
proposed that regional population growth rates in Africa should be reduced from around'3% to 2.5%
by 2000, and to 2 % by 2010. Among strategies of DND and ICPD to promote sustainable
development are: reduction of the high rates of maternal mortality, integration of population and
environmental factors into the formulation,implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all socio-
economic policies and programmes, enhancement of female education, raising the status of women,
making family planning services accessible and promotion of family life education programmes,
improved health care, and AIDS prevention.
3. -Migration and Urbanization Policies
253. Urbanization and migration policies should be comprehensive, integrated strategies that tackle
the underlying causes and consequences,in particular, environmental, economic, social and
demographic.
254. Rather than attempt to control migration by way of mass deportation (such as Ghana's 1969
Aliens Compliance Order, Nigeria's expulsion in 1983 of illegal immigrants, or Zaire's current
95
forcible return of Rwandan refugees), policies should aim at moderating the adverse environmental
andlor economic conditions that tend to make certain areas less attractive for habitation and hence
generate waves of migrants. This calls, for instance, for ensuring a spatial balance in development
allocation. Care must be taken, however, not to discourage migration outright since some degree of
migration is necessary for the modern exchange economy to develop on a sustainable basis.
255. With particular reference to urban areas, "[a)s population growth will be virtually
synonymous with urban growth in the coming decades, the focus of efforts at sustainable development
must be on urban areas as that is where most of the world's population will live and work, where
most economic activity will take place." 1)8 Although African cities are a driving force for
sustainable development, they are threatened by pollution, congestion, and environmental hazards. As
the urban populations grow, so do the environmental problems. "Reversing the deterioration of the
urban environment without slowing economic development in Africa will require an environmental
policy strategy that takes into account a wide range of actors, difficult political and economic
tradeoffs, and a complex set of natural, social, and economic relationships. In particular such a
strategy must consider the nexus of poverty and environmental degradation." 139
4. Policy of Population RedistributionlResettlement
256. Due to the spatial inequalities in development, especially between the rural and urban areas in
the continent, there exists areas of heavy population concentration while other areas are virtually
empty and little developed. To ensure a balanced, sustainable development there should be a policy
of redistributing population in the continent. In this connection, the DakarlNgor Declaration places
the greatest emphasis on regional planning to achieve among African countries a more equitable
distribution of all development efforts as well as a better distribution of population.
257. The development of medium-sized towns or so-called regional growth poles bas been
131 UNCHS (Habitat): Working Paper on Human Settlements, Prepared for the Commission on
Sustainable Development, February, 1994, p. 2. '
139 Bartone, C a. a1-, Toward EnvironmenW Strillegies Wr Cities: Policy Considerations for
Urbm EnYironmental M;magement in Developing Countries, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994,
p.8
96
suggested as a way of decongesting the prime cities of Africa of their teeming populations. Besides,
these growth poles will represent development in the regions as opposed to the capital cities to ensure
a good degree of spatial balance in development.
258. As regards resettlement schemes, however, the sociological and cultural characteristics of the
people and areas involved must be carefully considered to avoid a flop as happened with many in
Africa. Their impact on the environment possibly, through environmental impact assessment before
their implementation should be undertaken as part of the planning process.
5. Population and Environment in Development Planning
259. Development planning in Africa in the post-independence era has stressed economic growth,
which was to be realized in the main through industrialization. This led to the conspicuous omission
of population and environmental factors from many development plans in the continent. It has been
shown that only a small part of economic growth could be explained in terms of the traditional inputs
of labour and capital; l<O important part of the residual pertained to the labour force. Again,
development takes place in an environment whether urban or rural and exchanges between such
environment and the development process need to be taken into consideration in development
planning. It is expedient, therefore, that relevant population and environmental factors are
incorporated into development planning as a matter of policy.
260. Ajaegbu states that the trend today is to have population policies and action programmesand
separately to have also environmental policies and action programmes. The two sets of policies and
programmes may not often consider the interface between them in the population-environment
interrelationships vis-a-vis development. While there is no clear consensus on the exact approach to
resolve this, concern has been shown in the search for policies for the following:
• integrative (population and environment) research studies (and modelling),
• environmental monitoring (data collection) at multi-national, continental and ecological

zones levels,
". Denison, E.F., WhY Economic Growth Rates Differ: Post-war El\Jlerience in Nine Western
Countries, Washington, D.C., Brookings Institute, 1967.
97
• data gathering policies (especially for population data) to enable the matching of
population and environment data sets in space and time,
• policies to ensure environmentally-sound development, sustainable environment, and

sustainable development for better quality of life of the population;
• policies to encourage and equip people to carry out primary environmental care for
local environment management in their comrnunities.!"
261. Additionally, there must be policies with respect to environmental assessment and action
plans, "ecologically friendly" tourism, and land management with the view to reducing landlessness.
262. These and similar concerns today guide the search for policies in population-environment
studies, and must be given careful consideration in development planning in the continent to ensure
sustainability of development. Fortunately, many African countries have established Environmental
Protection Councils or Agencies and at times ministries to ensure that environmental issues are
incorporated in development. It is needless to emphasise here that such national policies and
programmes must be developed and implemented within the tenets of such population-development
frameworks as the Dakar/Ngor Declaration, Agenda 21 and ICPD 1994.
6. Tuurism Policy
263. Basically. the various interests involved with tourism can be loosely grouped into four
categories: the host population, tourist guests, tourism organizations and the natural environment."?
It is important to ensure that the various interests of these groups promote mutually reinforcing goals
to ensur- sustainable tourism development.
264. The environment. for example. is so important that unless it is safeguarded tourism is in
danger of being a self-destructive process. Sound environmental management involving land,
wildlife. fauna and bio-diversity planning and conservation is a pre-requisite to ensure that tourism
does not impact negatively on the environment. The identification of the relative costs and benefits to
14' Ajaegbu, R.I., Qp,. Cit., 1992, pp. 19-20.
'42 Carter, E., "Environmental Contradictions in Sustainable Tourism", The Geogr@hicaIJournal,

Vol. 161, No.1, March 1995
98
the four interest groups mentioned above should be ascertained to ensure sustainable tourism.
265. One tool for "green" accounting is that of environmental auditing. Goodall (1995)'43 has
demostrated how environmental auditing can be used for assessing the environmental impact of
tourism. National Tourist Policies should therefore take into considreation environmental issues.
7. PQpular Participation and Decentralization
266. The performance of most African governments in implementing the reforms necessary to turn
their economies around has been a source of serious concern. There is a growing realization that
economic reforms aimed at alleviating poverty cannot be achieved without a much greater degree of
decentralization, democratization, and transparency in the political process; involving people of
various shades of opinion and at various levels in decision making and planning of development. Thus
the ICDP argues governments to consider decentralizing administrative systems to create an enabling
context for local development. Societal integration of various ethnic groups that characterise African
societies is a necessary ingredient in ensuring peace and harmony which are very vital for
development. This can be made when representation of various stakeholders in the development
dialogue are involved in charting out a common cause of action for the mutual benefit of all.
Development policies that take cognisance of diversity as an instrument for vibrant collective problem
solving machinery will rid Africa of the numerous ethnic conflicts, human displacements, and refugee
problems which have exacerbated the environmental degradation we are witnessing today.
267. Sectoral policies are required to:

• encourage domestic food production to bridge the gap between food needs and
growing population so that the encroachment of forests and marginal lands do not
arise
• improve management of forest resources so as to increase species, fuel, food and

fodder
• promote development and management of water resources including fisheries and

marine habitats which will enhance soil fertilty and help sustain the
Goodall, Brian: "Environmental Auditing: A Tool for Assessing the Environmental Performance
143
of Tourism Firms" in Geographical JQurnal VoI.161, No.2, March 1995, pp. 29-37
99
predominantly rain-fed cropping practices

-Institutional policy options must be outlined, carefully considered, and practical ones
selected to improve human welfare and environmental quality. These will include
considerations such as:
• participation of local groups, nongovernmental organisations, women, youth and the

scientific community in the planning and implementation of dvelopment. Integration
can be fostered by creating institutions where assemblage of various shades of opinion
are possible
• ensuring environmental protection and management of natural resources where the full
participation of women in project design and implementation is encouraged.
_ Building institutional capacity to include management, scientific and technical training

to address population, environment and development issues.
• Creating institutional level policies that will encourage, enhance, integrate and
comprehensively apply multi-sectoral as well as inter-disciplinary approaches in
solving problems.
9. Research
268. Research is a vital ingredient in any systematic problem appraisal and quest for solutions. The
need for expanded policy and action oriented research on the linkages between population, resource
use, development aspirations, and environmental quality cannot be over-emphasised. Comprehensive
research programmes should be instituted highlighting local, national as well as regional problems and
solutions. In this light, the following should form the research focus:
• providing data bases on various aspects of human life
- assessing human vulnerability to ecoligical changes
• population growth, movement and its effects on various ecosystems
- traditional knowledge and its adaptation to changing environments
• poverty alleviation with respect to both local conditions as well as the practicability of
such measures with respect to international exchange and trade relations, and
• collaborative national, regional, and international research where networking and

exchange of lessons and experiences are effected so as to enhance efficiency and avoid
duplication.
VlI. CONCLUSIONS
269. Population and environment linkages have long been perceived beginning with the Malthusian
theory which showed clearly the dangers uncontrolled population growth could pose to human
100
development. There have, however, been studies especially as have been associated with Boserup
that rapid population growth could be advantageous for development since people will tend to be
more innovative in their thinking and approach to issues.
270. The situation in Africa, as this study has sought to portray has revealed that population
changes have been causes and consequences of environmental stress and vice versa. Thus, migratory
and urbanisation processes have resulted in environmental stress while environmental processes have
largely been responsible for out-migration decisions particularly in the rural areas in most African
countries.
271. The study portrays most African countries as experiencing high rates of population growth
and, rapid urbanization which is principally a function of natural population increase and massive
rural-urban migration in recent times. These migration and urbanization processes have been shown
to have a link with environmental conditions at both places of origin and destination of migration
streams. The type of ecosystem in an area is therefore an important factor in assessing the trend and
pattern of migration and urbanziation.
272. Environmental conditions have impacted on shifts in human activities from one area to
another throughout all Africa with limited variations between countries. The proposition then is that
an indepth understanding of the negative and positive linkages between environmental processes and
population changes is crucial in Africa's quest for attainment of sustainable spatial and economic
development.
273. The study came up with a framework of policy options through which African states can
address the imbalances in the population- environment nexus. The framework addressed issues
concerning policies to arrest the high population growth rates and spatial inequalities in development
particularly between the rural and urban areas, migration policies to moderate the adverse
environmental and/or economic conditions, urban management policies to address urban hazards and
tourism policies to ensure sustainable tourism development.
274. It was emphasised that population and environment policies should not be divorced from each
other as has been the norm in most African countries. African countries have to envolve sets of
policies and progranunes that are integrative to ensure that development is sustainable. In addition to
adopting flexible implementation reforms, policies on decentralization, democratization and
transparency in administration have been suggested as options towards the attainment of full
participation of all in development activities.
101
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Appendix I
Examples of migrations which are in considerable measure related to pressure on the land
(refer to Hance W. Ibid. 1970) pp.173-176.
I. The drift from Saharan oases, many of which are grossly overpopulated, to the cities of North
Africa.
2. Migration from the rural areas of the Maghreb.
3. Movement of Nubians from the south of Egypt where avialble land per capita has been only
44 percent of the already low level in the north.
4. The large-scale movement of Mossi from their densely populated and poorly endowed
homeland in Upper Volta; involving about 20% of the working population of the country at
anyone time.
5. Movement from the smaller nodes of high density in West Africa such as the Korhogo Cercle
in Ivory Coast, several areas in northern Ghana, and the Atakora Mountains in northern
Dahomey.
6. The seasonal flow from parts of northern Nigeria where many migrants are called masu cin
rani (Rausa), "men who eat away the dry season". By going elsewhere they help to conserve
the limited supplies of food, alleviating some of the pressure on the land.
7. The large numbers of Ibo who migrated to adjacent lands and to other regions of Nigeria
prior to the Nigeria - Biafra conflict.
8. The out-migration of the Bamileke in Cameroon.
9. The large-scale and well-known migration of Rwandans and Burundi to adjacent countries,
especially Uganda.
10. The migration from some of the pressure areas of Uganda such as Kigezi or the West Nile
Province where "the higher the density of population of a Lugbara county". the higher is the
rate of labour migration".
II. Movemem of the Kikuyu, Luo, and other tribes in Kenya, primarily from high-density
portions of the Highlands and of the Lake Victoria basin, where some locations and
sublocations have 40-50 percent of the adult males absent at anyone time.
12. The expansionary drift of Chagga from their preferred zone on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro
to less desirable lands at lower elevations.
13. The large-scale international migrations of Malawians, Sotho, and Tswana to South Africa and
Rhodesia.
lOS
14. The migration of Africans from the reserves of Rhodesia and South Africa which cannot
support the population tht is now resident in them.
15. The emigration of people from the densely populated Indian Ocean island groups.
109
Annex 2
Percentage of urban population
=-
I~0.n/SUb Region/Country 1950 1970 1990 1995
liorld 29.3 36.6 43.1 45.2
.l ~:DeVeloped 54.7 67.5 73.6 74.9
I---
Less Developed 17.3 25.1 34.7 37.6
Least Developed 7.1 12.6 19.9 22.4
---
Latin !JIerica 41.6 57.4 71.4 74.2
--
East Asia 16.7 24.8 33.3 36.9
---
Soutb Asia 15.7 20.5 28.7 31.3
Africa 14.7 23.0 31.8 34.4
Eastern Africa 5.3 10.4 19.2 21.7
Burundi 1.7 2.4 6.3 7.5
I-coacros
. 3.3 19.4 27.8 30.7
Djibouti 41.0 62.0 80.7 82.8
-'---
Eritrea 5.9 11.1 15.8 17.2
---
Ethiopia 4.6 8.6 12.3 13.4
--
Kenya 5.6 10.3 23.6 27.7
Madagascar 7.8 14.1 23.8 27.1
-'--
Mala,1 3.5 6.0 11.8 13.5
-Mauritius
- 28.8 42.0 40.5 40.6
Mozambique 2.4 5.7 26.8 34.2
Rwanda 1.8 3.2 5.6 6.1
---
Seyche'lles 27.0 26.0 49.8 54.5
----'--
sosalia 12.7 20.4 24.2 25.7
Uganda 3.1 8.0 11.2 12.5
united Rep of Tanzania 3.8 6.7 20.8 24.4
Zambia 8.9 30.2 42.0 43.1
Ziababwe 1O.q 16.9 28.5 32.1
110
Middle Africa 1402 24.8 31.0 33.2

Angola 7.6 15.0 28.3 32.2
Cameroon 9.8 20.3 40.3 44.9
Central African Republic 16.0 30.2 ,
37.5 39.3
, Chad 3.9 11.8 20.5 21.4
Congo 30.9 32.8 53.5 58.8
Equatorial Guinea 16.0 26.7 35.7 42.2
Gabon 11.4 25.6 45.7 50.0
Sao Tome and Principe 13.0 23.4 42.3 46.7
Zaire 19.1 30.3 28.1 29.1
Iorthern Africa 24.7 36.4 41.8 45.9
Algeria 22.3 39.5 51.7 55.8
Egypt 31.9 42.2 43.9 44.8
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 18.6 45.3 82.4 86.0
Morocco 26.2 34.5 46.1 48.4
Sudan 6.3 16.4 22.5 24.6
TunisIa 31.2 44.5 54.9 57.2
Southern Africa 38.2 43.6 46.2 48.1
Botswana 0.3 8.4 23.1 28.1
Lesotho 1.0 8.6 19.4 23.1
NaDibia 9.4 18.6 31.9 37.4
South Africa 43.1 47.8 49.2 50.8
Swaziland 1.4 9.7 26.4 31.2
111
lestern Africa 10.3 19.6 32.8 36.6

Benin 5.3 15.9 29,0 31.3
Burkina Faso 3.a 5.7 17.9 27.2
--
Ca~ Verde . 7.9 19.6 44.2 54.3
---'-
Cote d'Ivoire 13.2 27.4 la.4 43.6
GaDlJia 10.6 15.0 22.6 25.5
Gbana, 14.5 29.0 34.0 36.3
Guinea 5.5 13.8 25.8 29.6
Guinea- Bissau 10.0 15.1 19.9 22.2
Liberia 13.0 260 42.1 45.0
Mali 8.5 14.3 23.8 27.0
Mauritania 2.3 13.7 46.8 53.8
Niger 4.9 8.5 15.2 17.0
Nigena 10.1 20.0 35.2 39.3
Seneq<.1 30.5 33.4 39.8 42.3
Sierra Leone 9.2 18.1 32.2 36.2
Togo 7.2 13.1 28.5 30.8
Source: United Natlons, Iiorld UrbanHatJon Prospects: The 1994 ReViSion. Annex tables, n.d.
112
Annex 3
Annual rate of urban population growtb
Region/Sub Region/Country 1950-1970 1970-1990 1990-1995
Africa 4.69 4.37 4.38
Eastern Africa 5.88 5.98 5.44
Burundi 3.40 7.06 6.62
Comoros 11.18 5.23 5.68
Djibouti 6.43 7.56 2.72
Eritrea 5.51 4.38 4.40
Ethiopia 5.36 4.27 4.74
Kenya 6.09 7.74 6.80
Madagascar 5.39 5.64 5.82
Malawi 4.95 7.00 6.16
Mauritius 4.48 1.05 1.16
Mozambigue 6.46 9.80 7.35
Rwanda 5.70 5.95 4.23
Seychelles 2.07 4.58 2.92
Somalia 4.57 3.84 2.51
Uganda 8.35 4.71 5.75
united Rep. of Tanzania 5.60 8.80 6.12
Zambia 8.82 4.98 3.47
Zimbabwe 5.60 5.78 4.95
Middle Africa 4.90 3.94 4.46
Angola 4.91 5.68 6.32
Cameroon 5.61 6.21 4.92
Central African Republic 4.89 3.38 3.42
Chad 7.19 4.85 3.60
Congo 2.54 5.28 4.87
Eguatorial Guinea 3.85 2.40 5.86
Gabon 4.41 7.00 4.65
Sao Tome and Principe 3.91 5.39 4.16
Zaire 4.85 2.68 3.90
113
NorthE-rn Africa 4.30 3.51 3.22
Alger! , 5.13 4.33 3.79

Egypt 3.80 2.54 2.59
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 7.75 7.13 4.33
Horocc I) 4.06 3.76 3.06
Sudar 6.83 4.46 4.42
Tunid 'I 3.64 3.32 2.75
Soutbe rn Africa 3.10 2.83 3.12
Botswa na 18.42 8.49 6.95
Lesothi) 12.82 6.71 6.17
Namibi .1 5.60 5.37 5.85
South Africa 2.99 2.65 2.89
Swazi! and 12.07 7.82 6.15
WestenI Africa 5.72 5.36 5.24
Benin 6.88 5.71 4.57
Burkin a Faso 4.11 8.08 11.20
Cape I'Erde 7.55 5.33 6.92
Cote c., tvoire 7.10 5.82 4.98
GambiiI 4.05 5.45 6.24
--
Ghana 6.29 3.58 4.30
-- I
Guinei 6.74 5.05 5.78
-- I
Guinea _.
- Bissau 2.26 4.41 4.36
Liberi a 6.08 5.50 4.63
--
Mali 4.83 5.14 5.66
Maurit ania 10.81 8.62 5.35
--
Niger 5.56 5.99 5.61
Nigeri a 5.97 5.60 5.22
Senega l 3.01 3.71 3.70
Sierra Leone 4.93 4.93 4.76
Togo 5:07 6.67 4.78
Source: Jlilted NatlOns, World Urbamzatlon Prospects: The 1994 ReVISIon. Annex tables, n.d,
114
Annel 4
Total population and population density: 1970, 1930 , and 1989
Sub Region! Population (OOOsi population Density Rural density per
country hectar of cropland
1970 1980 1989 1970 1980 1989 1970 1980 1989
Eastern Africa
.Burundi 3514 4130 5333 137 161 208 2.86 3.03 3.73
Comoros 275 383 ~24 123 l'!2 235 2.47 3.23 3.31
'-
I
Ethiopia 30623 38749 43329 23 35 44 z.n 2.50 3.05
Kenya 11493 16632 22798 20 29 40 4.96 6.15 7.25
Madagascar 6745 8790 11627 12 15 220 2.44 2.39 2.89

Nalawi 4513 6183 9136 43 66 97 2.00 2.42 J.36
Mauritius 826 966 1064 446 522 5'15 4,)6 5.21 5.96
Mozambique 9390 12095 13996 12 15 18 2.94 3.41 3.38
Rwanda n28 'l163 (;/92 1~)1 209 2'/0 5.13 4.30 0.57
Somalia 4791 6'/13 :H30 3 II 14 4.02 .

0.22 6.21
'.-
Uganda 9306 m20 17019 49 66 35 1 .01

'" 2.ll . 2.26
United Rep ranzania 13694 18531 25115 15 21 2"

.0 2.65 3.07 J.32
Zambia 4139 5738 '/832 6 8 1l 0.59 0.63 0.37
;;imbabwe 5260 'il26 9024 14 \3 25 1.83 2.13 2..4'7
Middle Africa
Angola 0583 6993 8901 4 6 7 1.37 1.08 1.79
Cameroon 6612 8655 11197 14 19 24 0.88 0.86 0.97
Central African 1849 2313 2929 3 4 5 0.70 0.73 0.79

Republic
Chad 3652 447"1 5430 3 4 4 l.ll 1.13 1.18
Congo 1261 1669 2163 4 5 6 6.24 7.24 7.73
Equatorial Guinea 291 217 345 10 8 12 0.95 0.69 1.07
Gabon 504 806 1122 2 3 4 1.34 1.15 1.37
Zaire 20270 27009 36182 9 12 16 1.95 2.53 3.32

115
~.
Iort/lem Africa
Algeria 11746 18740 24298 6 8 10 1.22 1.41 1.57
r-'
Eg.pt 33053 40875 51229 33 41 51 6.72 9.39 11.1
2
f----
Libpn Arab 1986 3043 4387 1 2 2 0.54 0.44 0.38
Jana.~iriya
r--'
MOleeeo 15310 19382 24437 34 43 55 1.34 1.43 - 1.44
1---.
Sudan 13859 18681 24502 6 8 10 0.99 1.20 1.52
Tunisia
f--_.
5127 6384 7895 33 41 51 0.65 0.67 0.75 I
Southern Africa
Botscana 623 902 1203 1 2 2 0.49 0.56 0.66
~.
Lesotho 1064 1339 1704 35 44 56 2.64 3.98 4.33

NaDitda 810 1066 1395 1 1 2 1.01 1.25 1.53 I
f--.
South Afriea
C---_
22458 29529 37056 18 24 30 0.89 1.16 1.44
I Swa,:land 419 565 732 24 33 43 2.49 2.46 3.33
liestern Africa
~'"
2693 3459 4483 24 31 41 1.38 1.32 1.51 ,
'I Bur~~na Faso 5550 6957 8751 20 25 32 2.34 2.29 2.10

5.38 5.53 6.54
I~:.·\erde 267 289 354 66 72 88
Cot" d' Ivcire 5515 8194 11541 17 26 36 1.45 1.73 1. 90
---
GambiJ 464 641 837 46 64 34 3.03 3.36 3.66
1
---
Ghali~1 8612 10736 14571 37 47 63 2.04 2.64 3.56
1--:---
GUH,.j 3900 4461 5585 16 13 23 4.94 5.14 5.75
--'
Guilie.j- Bissau 525 795 944 19 23 34 1.62 2.32 2.27
---
1385 1876 2493 19 26 2.30 3.29 3.72
-Libsria
. 14
-_.
Mali 5484 6363 8931 4 6 7 2.69 2.73 3.28
Haur itenia 1221 1551 1969 ,
1 2 2 3.72 5.65 5.43
---
Niger 4165 5536 7490 3 4 6 1.41 1.36 1.69
~--
I
~--
NigwJ 56531 I 78430 105065 62 86 115 1.51 1.38 2.20 I
seneq I 4158 55J8 7128 22 29 37 0.58 0.68 0.83
-~.
Sierr-l Leone 2656 3263 4045 37 46 56 1.46 1.39 1. 54

Togo I 2020 2615 I 3422 I 37 I 48 I 63 I 1.25 , 1. 42
I
1.70
II
I
116
Annel 5
row land deqradation, type and cause of deqradation, 1989
sub Total Type of degradation Causes of degradation I!

Region/Country degraded land
~ater Chenical Others Deforestation Agricultural Others I
erosion erosion Activities

Eastern AfriCa
Burundi 70 20 80 0 2 98 0
Conoros 8 100 0 0 100 0 0
I Etbiopia 25 74 0 26 36 14 50
Kenya 15 85 0 15 15 26 58
Madagascar 28 79 19 2 12 25 63
Malawi 9 94 6 0 20 65 14
Mauritius 6 100 0 0 100 0 0
Mozambique 10 95 4 1 65 23 11
Rwanda 69 22 78 0 3 97 0
Sonalia 20 18 2 80 0 9 91
Uganda 21 74 26 0 13 42 45
united Rep. of 12 81 13 6 23 39 38
I
Tanzania I
I
I.
Zambia 11 69 5 27 63 37 1
Zinbabwe 10 100 0 0 48 42 10
Middle Africa
Angola 9 99 1 0 97 3 0
Cameroon 22 74 24 1 9 71 20
Central African 3 85 9 5 47 3 45
Republic
Chad 20 8 3 39 4 3 92
Congo 4 29 71 0 99 1 0
Equatorial 1 37 63 0 77 23 0
Guinea
Gabon 5 14 86 0 77 23 0
Zaire 6 67 32 0 54 36 10
117
IortlJern Africa
f---- --
Alge' I a 11 16 34 50 12 53 35
r---'--'
Egyp'= 4 0 68 31 2 68 30
1---"-'---
Libyar p.rab 16 5 7 96 1 4 95
Jamahid'la
Karow) 12 75 11 14 30 50 20
If------.
-_.
Sudar 23 31 25 45 8 35 57
funis i s 56 44 10 46 6 16 78
Soutllern Africa
---
Botswdna 8 33 12 51 2 29 69
Lesotho 36 100 0 0 0 0 100
Namibia 9 89 0 12 0 1 99
South Hrica 37 81 2 17 0 24 75
Swaziland 2 100 0 0 0 50 50
liesterD Africa
Benin _. 16 50 50 0 23 71 2
Burkina Faso 43 85 0 15 11 57 32
Cape \e~'de 13 100 0 0 0 0 100
_.
Cote Orl'loire 7 71 29 0 71 19 10
Gallbia 12 28 72 0 28 72 0
Ghana _. 11 88 12 0 34 42 23
Guinea 7 68 32 0 72 18 10
GUinea- Bissau 12 29 71 0 31 69 0
Liberia 5 0 100 0 62 38 0
Mali _. 22 13 0 87 7 I 89
Mauritania 18 0 6 94 0 6 94
Niger 31 11 0 89 2 3 95
Nigeria 29 80 8 12 7 45 48
Senegal 25 11 75 15 5 75 20
Sierra Leone 18 5 95 0 47 53 0
Togo 26 56 44 0 12 79 8

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UNITED NATIONS

POPULATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES VII

LIST OF APPENDIXES viii

L INTRODUCTION: PERSPECTIVES ON LINKAGES AMONG

A. Introduction: The Scope of the Study .

B. Perspectives on Linkages among Population,

C. Perspective On Sustainable Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8

II. MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION IN ECA MEMBER STATES 10

A. Migration, Urbanization and Environment

III. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATORY

B. Land Degradation, Deforestation and Desertifi-

C. Drought, Famine, Insects and Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23

D Natural Disasters:Floods, Bush Fires and Earthquakes 30

E. Rural Population Pressure-Land Shortages, Tenurial Systems 28

B. Population Redistribution and Resettlement 37

E. Tourism and Environmental Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52

V. COUNTRY/REGIONAL CASE STUDIES 54

3. Migratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences of

2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory

3. Migratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences of

2. Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and

3. Migratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences of

2" Environmental Causes and Consequences of Migratory and

3. Migratory and Urbanization Causes and Consequences of

VI. DEVELOPMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF MIGRATION-URBANIZATION

B. Development Problems of Population Environment

SELECTED BffiUOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101

APPENDIXES ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107

TABLES TITLE PAGE

2.1 Typology of Internal Migration

3.1 Manifestation of Drought 20

3.2 Balance of Migratory movements by regions 28

3.3 Age structure and reasons for migration,

4.1 Main countries of Asylum and

4.2 Statistics of Rwanda and Burundi

4.3 Refugees by Asylum, 1987,1988, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49

4.4 Tourist Arrivals and Receipts, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52

5.1 Summary of Environmental Costs for

5.2 Population Density by Districts for

1.1 Population - Environment Dynamics

3.1 The Desertification Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 21

3.2 Food: The Population Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24

3.3 Drought - Affected Countries in Africa . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .. 25

3.4 The Burden of Disease 32

4.1 Population Redistribution in Ethiopia

4.2 Refugee settlements in Eastern Sudan,

4.3 Distribution and sites of Rwanda and

4.4 Savanna Areas in Africa where

5.1 Onchocerciasis and Displacement of

5.2 Upper East Region showing Population Densities. . . . . . . . . .. 60

5.3 Population and Environmental

5.4 Fuel use and charcoal supply in Ghana , 64

5.5 Approximate month of arrival and Departure of Tourists . . . . .. 67

Appendix 1 Examples of migrations in Africa which are

3 Annual rate of urban population growth 112

4 Total population and population density, 1970,

5 Total land degradation, type and cause

A. Introduction: The scope of the study

Pressure on the environment may result from rapid population growth,

United Nations International Conference on Population and Developrn.ent, Cairo, 1994.

2 Population Concern, Population and development, Washington, D.C., 1989