Chemistry 3.

Artificial Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis – formation of new elements Elements in the Galaxy

2019 – international Year of the Periodic Table of

Chemical Elements

Where do we come from? Stardust

Where did the elements that make us up come from?

Periodic Table

In a periodic table you need a legend para di ka lost.

In Universe different atoms exist pero in diff. amounts
- Sa periodic table kailangan may atomic # and
In Human Body:
legend
- Hydrogen lang yung parehas yung atomic # and
mass
o Ibig sabihin wala siyang neutron, proton
lang. (H+ ions)

Ex. Keratin (protein made up of CHNOPS)

- Most Abundant elements in the body:

1. Oxygen
2. Carbon
3. Hydrogen

Atomic # (Z): # of protons Abundance of elements on Earth:

Atoms are defined by number of protons in nucleus

Atomic Mass: # of protons and Neutrons

Atomic mass is always higher than atm # (except H)

Nucleosynthesis

Abundance of the elements on earth came from Stages

of Formation:

1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Cosmic Abundance
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Element No. of atoms Mass - Beginning of Creation and Expansion
H 92.8 76% - Scientific Evidence:
He 7.1 23% 1. Red shift
All others 0.1 1% 2. Cosmic Elemental Abundance of H & He

- Universe is 99.9% Hydrogen and Helium 3. CMB radiation

- Condition ng Big Bang
o All matter and energy ng universe were
contained in a point smaller than a point
of a needle: Singularity Theory; density
of 1075 tons per KM
o T > 10 15 K
- Matter & antimatter collide to create pure energy

Stage Time T (K) Event

1 10 -45 – 10– 32 1015 Inflation
- May alternation of abundance between Baryogenesis
2 10 -4 1012
successive elements: Kung even yung atomic #, (Quark soup)
higher abundance. 1012 - Nucleosynthesis
3 10 -4 - 3 min
- Li, B, BE are scarce compared to neighbors 109 (Nuclear Fusion)
- Cosmic abundance declines with decreasing Z - Neutrons and protons about equal in #
- Heavier elements: Pero nagtransmute sila to one another
o Atoms: 100/1M; Dust: 1/1M (reversible)
- Pero pagdating sa Fe, mas mataas na siya - As the universe cools
compared sa neighbors niya o Heavier elements take more energy to
protons  Neutrons change into
Primordial Nucleosynthesis/ Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
protons faster than neutrons to (+)  (+)
- Fundamental particles that are from the Big Bang start to outnumber neutrons
are Quarks, protons, neutrons
Atomic
Stellar nucleosynthesis Charge
Columbs Gram Mass
Units
1. Light elements units

2. Heavy elements -1.60 x 0.106

Electron -1 .000549
10-19 x 10 -28
Big Bang
+1.60 x 1.672
Proton +1 1.00728
- 14 million years ago, since then universe has 10-19 x 10 -24
been continually expanding 1.675
Neutron O 0 1.00867
- Stars only came 400 million years ago x 10 -24
- Most accepted theory on the universe - After the cooling down of the universe
 o Proton to Neutron ratio is 7:1 - Universe becomes transparent as it continues to
o Nuclear fusion between protons and expand (more space)
neutrons to form H. o Energy could escape faster; further

1
cooling takes place.
1H + Neutron = 21H (Deuterium) + 11H = 32He + 32He =
- Mostly H and some He
4 1 1
2He + 1H + 1H - Particles made at the time coalesce due to
4
2He – α – particle: building block of other elements gravitational force of attraction.
4. Formation of first-generation Stars &
- After the Big Bang
Galaxies
o 12 H: 1 He
5. Formation of heavier elements by
o Mass of atoms created after Big Bang
Supernova explosion (formation of second -
75% H: 25% He @
generation stars)
o But others say 89% H; 11% He; 1% @
everything else Formation of First-generation Stars

 Everything else was made in the - The universe right after the Big Bang was a
Stars. turbulent mass of mostly H & He atoms. @

Fusion Reactions - Formation of protogalactic Clouds in

homogeneities will coalesce due to gravity
- to form other elements (not isotopes kasi nag-
o So di sila homogenous dati pero they
iba na yung atomic #)
start moving towards each other.
o Pero di stable yung rxns so bumabalik
- Protogalactic clouds  cooled  collapse under
silla sa stable form kaya puro He & H.
the influence of gravity into smaller but denser
 i.e. Minor Rxns: Formation of Li,
masses with hotter cores reaching 5M K. Dito na
Be kaso unstable so byeee
magkaka H fusion making protons (Formation of
4
2He a Protostar)  Protostar

- very stable compared sa other isotopes ng H Protostar:

- Isotopes: Different no. of Neutrons
- At the core of protostars
- The next stable reaction was C-12 pero not
o T = 5M K (requisite temp)
during Big Bang
o Hydrogen burning and hydrogen Fusion/
- Almost all neutrons combine w/ + to form He
Proton-proton fusion
- How were the heavier elements formed?
 Longest stage in a star’s life
Stage 2: Stellar Nucleosynthesis  Fusion

1
t = 400, 000 years; T = 40,000 K 1H + Neutron = 21H (Deuterium) + 11H = 32He + 32He =

4
- Electrons coalesce with nuclei to form atoms 2He + 11H +11H
(kasi attracted sila sa + charge ng proton sa nu)
  For fusion to happen
you need high T, ρ &P
 combining two or more
atoms to create a new
larger atom.
 Releases considerable
amt of energy (EM
radiation/light: that’s
why stars shine)
 Side product: positron
- If protostar is not massive enough, the protostar
transforms into a planet made of dust with some
heat and some light: Jupiter and Saturn they cool
down and become a brown dwarf kasi di enough
yung energy created.
- Stars that are greater than the sun’s mass can
produce Helium in their core.
o Lahat naman nakakagawa ng He Kaso for
massive stars, it sinks back into the core.
(gravitational attraction)  then stops at Fe
magcocontract becoming denser and
hotter  He Fusion forming C & O
- Elements that are heavier will gravitate towards
the center. Pero they still have continuous
burning.
- Several Cycles
Fuel Main Product Duration
H He 7 x 10 -6
He C 7 x 10 -5
C O 6 years
O Si 6 mos.
Si Fe 1 day
Core Collapse (Fusion Stops) 1.4 sec
- So larger star can produce heavier elements.
Red Giants
- Mataas yung energy as result of fusion reaction
in the outer core
- Energy less stable sa Iron
- Other elements need low energy, kaso after
formation of Iron marami na siyang energy
Supernova
- Pag nagamit na ng star lahat ng gases
High Nuclear binding energy = High Atomic Mass
- The elements after Fe are less stable that’s why
fusion stops at Fe
- kaya mas mataas si Fe sa neighbors niya.
Hypothesis: The formation of elements after iron
require lower energy.
- Problem: mataas na yung energy up till Fe
What happens after Fusion Stops?
- The core will collapse, T goes up again bcs of core
but the core hasn’t collapsed totally so there
comes a combination of protons (+) and
electrons (-) so nagfufuse sila forming Neutron
- Density at the center increases tremendously
because of the production of Neutron.
- Ang magcocollapse yung innermost core tas
magkakashowaves sending outer core away.
 When stars deplete their fuel, they’ll look white: White Dwarf. - In the core of massive stars just before

Elements heavier than iron released when supernova explode. supernova explosion, atomic nuclei will
exchange protons and neutrons to form the Iron
Those with even atomic number will become more stable.
Peak Metals:
Supernova nucleosynthesis:

- Formation of elements heavier than iron.

- Not formed by nucleosynthesis at the core of stars
- Need a lot of energy (T) and Neutron: Neutron Star
- Electrons are squeezed in nuclei undergoing fusion
Neutron Star forms
Heavier elements are synthesized
Nucleosynthesis with the iron peak metals
- Neutron rich nuclei give of electrons thus
H H burning
producing nuclei with higher atomic # Big Bang
- Fusion of light nuclei produce more stable nuclei H burning in the
He Synthesis
core of stars
(higher nuclear binding energy) F56
N CNO Cycle
Fusion takes energy rather than releases energy
C, O He Burning

- So fusion stops at iron Mg, Ca, Fe C and O burning

- Gravitational force of attraction counteracts - Just before the final burning of Supernova: Iron
thermal pressure from energy released during Peak Metals
nuclear fusion reactions.
Supernova
- Malakas yung gravitational force (kasi nasa gitna
si Fe) so ibig sabihin di siya nacoocunter ng - Moagcocollapse yung innermost core and will

Thermal Pressure eventually start rebounding dahil sa

- Fusion stops (what happens when fusion stops) gravitational force of Attraction pero may

o Maraming Nuetron and high T which are nuclear fusion reactions na magbibigay ng

requirements for formation of elements Energy that would start the increase of the

heavier than iron. temperature

 Bago pa magexplode si - The expanding inner core will start smashing

supernova naging neutron star into the collapsing outer core

na siya. Neutron > protons. - pag nagcollapse yung outer core where H, He
and other light elements are found
Neutron Star
magcocollapse due to gravitational force of
- Electrons are squeezed into the nuclei where attraction
they combine with protons to form - pinakacore mo may energy from the continuous
nuclear fusions leading to iron therefore
Electron + proton = neutrino + gamma radiation
magkakaroon ng competition due to the
thermal force and the gravitational force of
 attraction as a result nagbabanggaan yung
dalawa  supernova explosion
Sun is a small Dwarf
Crab Nebula
- 6 light years wide, expanding remnants of a star
supernova explosion
After supernova: White dwarf, neutron star or blackhole
Stellar Material return to interstellar space and that’s why
some planets get rich in the elements source of nuclear fuel
Di gumagawa ng elements yung plannets.
How planets get rich in Elelements:
1. Dala niya from early on
2. Nearby supernova explosion
Where do they get their fuel?
From Zn, how can the other elements be formed?
- Other heavier elements can be formed by proton
and neutron exchanges.
- Pero since Neutron star: the neutron rich nuclei
will give-off electrons thus producing nuclei with
higher atomic #
Nucleosynthetic Rxn /Neutron capture Rxn
- After supernova
Zn  neutron capture  increase mass # = 69 (unstable)
 Neutron capture  neutron disintegrates to proton
and emits electron Ga (nucleus w/ Atm #)
Li, Be, B
- Kakaibang nucleosynthesis kasi unstable at high
temperatures so bumabalik lang sa He
- Difficult to produce in stars but present in nature

There is an interconversion between energy and mass
- Einstein
4h  He; mass of 4 H > He; Asan yung difference?
- Collision of cosmic rays with H and He in
interstellar space: Cosmic Spallation
o Particle in space is hit by cosmic wave

Di papasok si Law of Conservation (kung ano yung mass

ng reactants, ayun din yung mass ng product) kasi dapat
in reasonable quantities: quantities that we can
measure. Nuclear fusions reaction is at atomic level.

Einstein: 4H = He + Energy; Proof ng E=mc2

Millions of these reactions will produce tremendous

amount of energy: Nuclear fuel / Nuclear Energy
- Can form Li, Be, B or element lighter than Fe
Elements Heavier than Iron (aside form Iron Peak)

Formation of More Stars

- Debris from supernova scatter in interstellar space

- Cosmic dust is enriched by heavy elements
formed during supernova explosion
Formation of more Stars (Protostars) 2nd gen.
- It can form stars and scatter elements in space
 Summary - Studying the fundamental nature of matter
Big Bang or Primordial Nucleosynthesis - Synthesis of trans uranium elements
- H fusion reactions towards the creation of the
Belt of Stability
stable Helium
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
1 2 3
1H 1H 1H – differ in atomic Mass  # of Neutrons;

- H burning -- pero same in atomic #

- 3 He atoms to form C
- He rearrangement into C, N, O
- formation of Iron Peak Metals (massive Stars)
- Heavy metals when iron peak metals start
neutron capture
1. Small Stars  hanggang Fe lang
2. Massive Stars  Iron peak Metals 
Explosion  heavier than Zn  interstellar
dust: Li, Be, B

Nucleosynthesis in stars therefore leads to

chemical enrichment of the galaxy but there are
factors needed to make it faster.

1. Initial mass – Fe gravitating to center

2. Yield – more helium, mas mabilis rxn # of Neutrons vs. # of Protons

3. Evolution time – mas mahaba raw yung
massive stars? Wat
- Light elements stable kung ratio is 1: 1
- But in Higher atomic # - a stable nucleus can
accommodate more neutrons
- The nuclei that are to the left or to the right of
the of the band of stability are unstable
- Black area: Valley/ Belt/ Band of Stability; Z=N
- Predict how unstable nuclides will decay

How isotopes are formed?

- Typical modes of Radioactive Decay

1. α – Decay / α – emission
Transuranic elements: made by artificial synthesis
o mass number of nuclides decrease by 4
Artificial Synthesis and the atomic # decreases by 2
o Heavy unstable nuclides, Z > 83
1. Particle Accelerator
2. Cyclotron Accelerator
- Radioisotopes (medicine) are obtained using this
 - Charges in electrons on 2 atoms
o Electron Transfer
o Electron Sharing

Periodic Pattern

2. β – Decay / β – emission
o net effect is conversion of a neutron to a
proton by ejecting an electron from the
nucleus

o Neutron: proton ratio is High

o above the belt of stability
Electron Configuration
3. Electron capture or Positron Emission
o Proton is converted to neutron by
capturing electron pero mageemit ka ng
transitory particle: Positron
o Positron: Neutron + proton ratio ^
o Below the band of stability

Magic # in Chemistry (2,8,20, 28,50, 82,126)

- Total no. of neutrons, they do not undergo

radioactive decay.
Valence Shell – outermost Shell

Matter Valence Electrons – E- in the valence shell

Octet Rule
Homogenous Heterogenous

- filled Valence Shell- no bond formation

Pure
Mixture - Unfilled shells – Reactivity
Substance

- So magiging unreactive sila; “Noble gas like”

Compound Element
Rules to Predict Charge

Force for Bond Formation Charge = group number

- Chemical Bonds = - (8 – group #)

- Stable than they are if not bonded
 Cation - particle with positive charge Lewis Dot Model

Anion – particle with negative Charge - Core e + nucleus are represented by element symbol
- Valence e- represented by dots
Ionic Bonding
- # of dots = group number

- Metal – non-metal - Rules on Lewis Structures:

1. Octet Rule (except H, B, S, P)
- Transfer of e-
2. Total # of electrons
- Create one positive ion – Cation (loses e-) o Valence x presence
- Create one negative ion – Anion (gains e-)
Polar bonds and Electronegativity
- Determining Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds
o Overall charge must be neutral - Atoms of different elements have different attraction

o 1. Metal ions 2. Non-metal ions of electrons due to electronegativity

Electronegativity

- Degree to which an atom attracts electrons towards

itself in a bond with another atom
o Coefficient of metal = Charge on non-metal - Highly EN atoms attracts electrons, weakly EN do not
o Coefficient of non-metal = Charge on metal
Covalent Bonds
o X & Y are shown with lowest common
Polar Non-Polar
denominator
Unequal Sharing Equal Sharing
- Properties of Ionic Compounds
o Hard, rigid solids @ room temperature
o High melting point EN Difference Bond
o Dissolve in polar solvents 0 – 0.3 Non-polar Covalent
o Solutions conduct electricity 0.4 – 1.9 Polar Covalent
o Conducts electricity in molten state 2.0 or greater Ionic
o Closely packed; Dense structures

Covalent Polar Bonds and Polar Molecule

- Formation of anion: favorable: cation: unfavorable
- Net result of attractive &repulsive electrostatic forces
- Bond sharing; electron sharing
o Each atom wants 8
- Properties of Covalent Bonds
o Gas, liquid and solids
o Maybe hard or soft
o Dissolve in polar or non-polar solvents
 Depends on polarity
o Solutions & melts do not conduct electricity
o Most covalent compounds are mol.
- Any bond containing different elements will be polar
to some degree
- Molecules can have several bonds
- Mol. polarity depends on how bonds are arranged.
- Mol. may contain polar bonds and be
- Mol. structures & geometry dictate polarity of mol.
- Polarity in molecules determine whether or not
electrons in that mol. are shared equally
- Determining Polarity”
1. Lewis Dot
-
2. E chart for difference
 3. Symmetry o Positive end of one mol. being attracted
to the negative end of another mol.
Covalent Bonds
Polar o Similar to ionic bonds but much weaker
Non-Polar
Unequal Sharing 3. Dispersion Force
Equal Sharing
Net Dipole Movement o Caused by electron motion
Non non-bonding pairs; each
Dipole moments – a quantity o Electron momentarily repel electron of
bond is non-polar
to measure polarity of bond; nearby molecules creating momentary
Bond has same polarity + no
unit: Debye Units; Bond charge difference
non- bonding sa Central atom
dipole moment is vector;
No net dipole movement o Can exist bet. nonpolar mol & polar mol
Molecular Dipole moment –
o Kung dispersion lang meron: Gas
vector sum of all moments
o Weakest pero increases as the number
of electrons increases.
Dipole moments

- Direction of the Polar bonding molecule

Self – Assembly

- Therefore polar - Mol. Systems: a process in which molecules or

- Asymmetrical shape parts of molecules spontanously form ordered

Detemining Molar Polarity aggregates, usually by non-covalent interactions

- Aggregation into thermodyamically favored
Intermolecular Force
nanostructures.
- Attractions between molecules - Sponatanous formation of a complex by small
- Dictates whether solid, liquid or gas (for (molecular) components under siimple
covalents lang kasi ionics are always solid) combination rules.
- 3 main types: - Process where separate or distinct components
1. Hydrogen Bonding form spotaneously into well deifned aggregates.
o Atraction between H and the H atom of o No human intervention
one molecule and an e- atom of an o Size of the components may vary from
adjacent mol (F,O,N) the microscopic to macroscopic
o A type of dipole-dipole interaction o Stable aggregates form & is irreversible
o Storngest IMF - Types of self-assembly
2. Dipole-dipole 1. Static
 o Stable once formed exchange of gluons make the
2. Dynamic Assmebly force of an attractive nature
o Not necessarily stable o Weak Nuclear Force
- Variants of Self Assembly  CANNOT HOLD ANYTHING

o Templated – guided TOGETHER but maybe at workd at

o Biological certain kind of radioactive decay.

What drives self – assembly

- Forces of bonding (covalent, ionic, IMF)

- Other Forces (magnetic, electrostatic, fluidic)
- Polar/nonpolar
- Shape (configurational)
- Tepmplates (guided self-assembly)
- Kinetic Conditions (diffusion)
- Natural Forces

Force Example
Strong Nuclear Holds nuclei together
Electromagnetic Holds atoms together
Weak Nuclear Releaased on B decay
Gravitational Holds solar system
o Gravitational Force
 Universal attraction that material
objects apply on each other;
strenght weakens with distance but
additive & for massive objects will
be dominant with profound
influence w/in the universe
o Electromagnetic Force
 Account for all known chemical
reactions and most reactions
between light and matter
o Strong Nuclear Force
 Accounts for the large amounts
of energy produced in nuclear
reactions; nuclear reactions in
the center of stars and the