Review of Current Knowledge and Data on Marine Litter in Asia and the Pacific

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Review of Current Knowledge

and Data on Marine Litter in
Asia and the Pacific

February 2019
 Review of Current Knowledge and Data on Marine Litter in Asia and the Pacific
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PREFACE
This section aims to provide a review of the knowledge and data in Asia and the Pacific, including the background
information, waste management status, status and trend of marine litter pollution, and briefly analyze the data
credibility and gaps. The Geographic Scope of this study is (in Alphabetic order) Bangladesh, Cambodia, India,
Japan, Maldives, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, People’s Republic of China, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
Due to the limitation in data and resources available, we suggest the reviews of each country to be supplemented
with opinions and revisions by invited national experts in future work, in order to have the most accurate and
detailed review of marine litter pollution status in each country.
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CONTENTS

2.1 Regional Review: COBSEA, East Asia and NOWPAP ..................................................................... 8

2.2 Regional Review: South Asia ............................................................................................................. 15

2.3 Regional Review: Pacific .................................................................................................................... 19

2.4 Reference ............................................................................................................................................. 20
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process
ALDFG Abandoned, lost and derelict fishing gear
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project of the UN FAO
COBSEA Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia
DMCR Department of Marine and Coastal Resources of Thailand
ECNU East China Normal University
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Fund
GESAMP Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
GIS Geographic Information System
GPGP Great Pacific Garbage Patch
ICC International Coastal Cleanup organized by the Ocean Conservancy
IMO International Maritime Organization of the UN
IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the UNESCO
IUU Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported fishing
LAFG Lost and Abandoned Fishing Gear
LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MEE Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China
MOEJ Ministry of the Environment, Japan
MPD Marine Plastic Debris
MPs Microplastics
MRCWG Marine Resources Conservation Working Group of the APEC
NGOs Non–Governmental Organizations
NPGP North Pacific Garbage Patch
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the US
NSFC National Science Foundation of China
NOWPAP North West Pacific Action Plan
NSWMC National Solid Waste Management Commission of the Philippines
PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
RAP MALI Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter
RSP Regional Seas Programme of the UNEP
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SKLEC State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research
SOA The State Oceanic Administration of the People’s Republic of China
UN United Nations
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEA United Nations Environment Assembly
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNOSSC United Nations Office for South–South Cooperation
WBG World Bank Group
WTO World Trade Organisation
MMT Million Metric Tonnes
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Introduction

Marine litter has become a global concern in recent decades due to the elevated level of human activities and
ineffective waste management practices in coastal regions. Plastics is the most common type of marine litter
discovered, making up 60% to 80% of all marine litter (Rios 2007), which can accumulate along shorelines, on the
most remote islands (Lavers and Bond 2017), as well as in the open ocean and deep sea (Barnes 2009).
As recognized in the UNGA/UNEA Resolutions, one of the most significant barriers in addressing marine litter
pollution is the absence of monitoring and assessment programmes that provides credible scientific data and
information, based on which the status and impacts of marine litter on a global, regional and local scale can be
thoroughly determined. In order to promote understanding of the problem and coordinate mitigation strategy, it is
crucial for policymakers to enhance their policies with science–backed evidence, raise awareness of marine litter on
all levels, communicate scientific results to broader stakeholder community and address critical aspects in the
implementation of the SDGs according to the UN’s 2030 Agenda.
Table 1 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) associated with Marine litter.

Clean water and Clean, accessible water for all is an essential part of the world we want to live
SDG 6
sanitation in.

Sustainable cities There needs to be a future in which cities provide opportunities for all, with
SDG 11
and communities access to essential services, energy, housing, transportation and more.

Responsible
SDG 12 production and (including recycling paper, plastic, glass, and aluminium)
consumption

Careful management of this essential global resource is a key feature of a

SDG 14 Life below water sustainable future. (Avoid single use plastics to keep the ocean safe and
clean.)

Reducing marine pollution. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine

SDG 14.1 pollution of all kinds, particularly from land–based activities, including
marine litter and nutrient pollution
Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems. By 2020, sustainably manage and
protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts,
SDG 14.2
including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans;
Increase scientific knowledge. Develop research capacity and transfer marine
technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution
SDG 14.8
of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in
particular, small island developing States and least developed countries;

Science–based policies in accordance with SDG implementation will:

• Enhance human wellbeing by poverty eradication, creation for job opportunities in the island and coastal
communities, the transition towards a low–carbon economy, while maintaining healthy oceans.
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• Ensure a healthy planet by developing policies that address the health of oceans and enables the
implementation of science–based management plans to combat the adverse effects of worsening marine
pollution due to plastic and other forms of marine litter.
• Support social and economic development by providing ocean governance strategies and capacity
development to ensure a healthy environment, social stability, prosperous coastal communities, and global
economic wellbeing.
Specifically, the science–based policy will help to achieve SDG.6. Clean water and sanitation; SDG11. Sustainable
cities and communities; SDG12. Responsible production and consumption; and SDG14. Life underwater by:
• Communicating information to key stakeholders.
• Helping to identify key strategic intervention points (hotspots).
• Identifying and developing key intervention and mitigation strategy based on scientific evidence and
methodology.
• Generate research output in forms of reference for policymaking, detailing the status, source, origin,
future trends, and impacts, and provide science–based intervention tools and database.
• Helping regional governments in capacity building by providing training workshops and scientific know–
how.
• Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of remediation measures.
• Providing guidance on the future steps and monitoring of continued performance.

Science–based policymaking will help to achieve the goals by providing reliable open–access data and identify key
intervention points to improve the performance of remediation strategies, effectively identifying priority strategic
action points, and bringing together groups with experience, expertise and resource that foster effective and efficient
execution and management of marine litter (UNEP 2011). When presented with transparently articulated data,
statistics, findings, future scenarios, management and implementation of robust strategies and opportunities, there is
also a higher chance that the public can be more participative, enthusiastic and responsive (Kirkman 2006).
Considering the broad spectrum of stakeholders involved in the marine litter problem, it is crucial for all parties and
stakeholders to achieve consensus and build the capacity to control marine litter pollution. Besides, prevention and
control of marine litter requires regional intergovernmental supporting mechanisms that help to bridge key gaps
considering data availability and regional policy priorities (Löhr 2017). Encouragingly, several global initiatives and
cross–sectoral groups have been working collaboratively to evaluate the impacts of marine litter on our planet.
Furthermore, there is increasing interest and public awareness toward combating marine litter and developing
strategies for conservation and sustainable development in the oceans.
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Reference
Cheshire, A., Adler, E., Barbière, J., Cohen, Y., Evans, S., Jarayabhand, S., … Westphalen, G. (2009). UNEP/IOC
Guidelines on Survey and Monitoring of Marine Litter Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 186 IOC Technical
Series No. 83. Retrieved from
http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/10739/MarineLitterSurveyandMonitoringGuidelines.pdf?seq
uence=1andisAllowed=y [Accessed 30 November 2018]
Gall, S. C., and Thompson, R. C. (2015). The impact of debris on marine life. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 92(1–2),
170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.041
General Assembly resolution 72/73, Oceans and the law of the sea, A/RES/72/73 (5 December 2017), available from
undocs.org/A/RES/72/73.
Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., … Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic waste
inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223), 768–770. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415386.010
Kirkman, H. (2006). The East Asian Seas UNEP Regional Seas Programme. International Environmental Agreements:
Politics, Law and Economics, 6(3), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784–006–9011–5
Löhr, A., Beunen, R., Savelli, H., Kalz, M., Ragas, A., and Van Belleghem, F. (2017). Solutions for global marine
litter pollution. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 28, 90–99. DOI: 10.1016/j.cosust.2017.08.009
Rios, L. M., Moore, C., and Jones, P. R. (2007). Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the
ocean environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(8), 1230–1237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022
UNEP, COBSEA, 2011. Spatial Planning in the Coastal Zone of the East Asian Seas Region: Integrating Emerging
Issues and Modern Management Approaches. Interim Publication of UNEP/COBSEA, Bangkok.
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Review of current knowledge and data on marine litter in Asia and the Pacific

2.1 Regional Review: COBSEA, East Asia and NOWPAP

It was estimated in 2015 by Jambeck and others that between 4.8–12.7 MMT of plastic litter entered the ocean in 2010,
with South Asian nations (Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia) and East Asian nations
(Cambodia, Japan, North Korea, People’s Republic of China, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Indonesia,
Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) combined contributing more than 70% of the global total (Jambeck and others
2015). In 2017, Lebreton and others estimated that among the top 20 rivers with the highest amount of marine plastic
emission, 16 of them are located in Asia. (Lebreton and others 2017) As marine litter becomes a global concern, the
rapid industrialization, economic growth, the booming population as well as natural factors such as wind, current,
waves, precipitation and disasters has made Asia–Pacific a significant source of marine litter leakage (Gall and
Thompson 2015). However, although current studies show that the Asia–pacific region has a large amount of marine
litter leakage to the ocean, the amount of marine litter input from Asian countries are still unclear. Besides, considering
the long history of ocean dumping by the developed nations, the true cause of the ubiquitous distribution of marine
litter is still arguable.

Cambodia
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from each designated country.)
Cambodia has an estimated population of more than 16.2 million with a density of 81.8 people/km2 (Cambodian
National Institute of Statistics 2013). It has a total municipal solid waste generation of 33360 tonnes each year, and
was ranked as the 71st largest contributor of plastic marine litter, with on average more than 8,000 tonnes of input in
2010. (Jambeck and others 2015) To date, there are limited research activities related to marine litter in Cambodia.
With not enough research data, marine litter monitoring in Cambodia has mainly relied on citizen science, NGOs and
Beach Cleanups. Cambodia participated in 2016 International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) Campaign with 134 volunteers
collecting 309 kg of trash, covering 3.0 km of coastline and collected 9,895 items (Ocean Conservancy 2017b). In
2017, 14 volunteers participated in the ICC Campaign in Cambodia and collected 55 kg or 1,489 items of litter on a
300 m coastline (Ocean Conservancy and others 2018). With an average 1072 pieces of debris recovered per person,
Cambodia’s coastline was ranked top with pieces of trash collected per person in 2015 (Ocean Conservancy 2016).
However, the data is subject to high uncertainties due to the limited amount of participants, and the amount collected
can vary largely between different locations. (Ocean Conservancy 2016).

Indonesia
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Indonesia is the world’s 4th most populous country. With a population of 256 million, and total municipal solid waste
generation of 38.5 million tonnes, Indonesia was listed as one of top contributors of plastic marine litter (Jambeck
2015). With around 60% of the population living in coastal regions (Purwaka 2002), marine litter has gained high
policy awareness in Indonesia. Multiple presidential decrees, as well as action plans against marine litter, have been
introduced. The policy frameworks include:
• The President Joko Vidodo G20 Summit in 2017 stated “Indonesia is to reduce wastes through reduce–
reuse–recycle up to 30% until 2025, and targeting reduction of marine plastic debris as much as 70% by
2025";
• Updated regulations, a prohibition on plastic bags, and enforcement of dumping laws are all essential
elements, and will require cross–sector collaborations among governments, NGOs, and the business
sector in order to cut down plastic waste and clean up our environment;
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• Indonesia joined 2017 UN Environment's global campaign to eliminate primary sources of marine litter;
Indonesia has pledged one billion USD a year at the 2017 World Oceans Summit (Bali, 22–24 Feb.) to
dramatically reduce the amount of plastic and other waste products polluting its waters
• Indonesia has utilized regulatory tools in waste management to encourage higher clarity and transparency
and to encourage public–private partnerships in product responsibility.
In Indonesia, institutional oversight differs for the management of the solid waste from household and in waterways.
At local scale, Municipal solid waste (MSW) management is typically done by the Cleansing Department (Seksi
Kebersihan) of each district, with household level collection delegated to the local government. On the other hand,
managing MSW in waterways is handled by different departments, depending on the city. (Shuker 2017) On the
national scale, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry has the responsibility to develop policies, formulate
regulations and coordinate efforts in waste collection and recycling. The responsibilities of the Ministry of Public
Works and Housing is generally limited to providing technical advice, promoting pilot projects, and
constructing/supervising large–scale off–site solid waste facilities (landfills). Although the ministries offer sectoral
inter-linkages across departments, persistent overlaps in their roles and responsibilities adversely affect efficiency and
effectiveness of execution of mandates and institutional responsibilities. (Shuker 2017)

Japan
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Marine litter in Japan may originate from fishing and aquaculture industry, marine litter transported by currents, winds
and waves, and disasters such as Tsunamis and earthquakes. In recent years, numerous activities has been carried out
in Japan on the prevention and research of marine litter under a number of international cooperation frameworks, such
as G7, G20 and NOWPAP. Since 2009, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) of Japan conducted a survey to estimate
the total quantity of marine debris accumulate on the entire Japanese beaches. According to a survey done by the
Ministry of the Environment in Japan, Around 62% of litter recovered on beaches were plastics.

Composition and types of marine litter in Japan

3% 3% 2% 1% Plastics
5%
6% Rubber

EPS
18%
62% Paper

Cloths and Fibre

Glass/Ceramics

Metal

Others

Figure 1 Types and composition of marine litter in Japan. Source: NOWPAP MERRAC 2017

According to the literature search, the research on marine litter in Japan and offshore can be traced back to the 1990s
(Kanehiro 1995). The study area includes the offshore Tokyo Bay (Kuriyama 2002; Kuriyama 2003; Kanehiro 1995),
Hiroshima Bay (Fujieda 2004), Sagami Bay (Kuriyama 2002) and the North Pacific region of the open sea. The
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research objects include surface seawater, beach, moat sediment, seafloor and so on. There is only one article on the
study of Hiroshima Bay in Japan, and it was in 2005. The research method is to collect 8L of sand containing marine
litter from the beach, put it into a bucket, collect the floating objects with a 300μm sieve and classify the floating
objects. In addition, a visual assessment of the number of improperly used expanded polystyrene was performed.
Studies have shown that Hiroshima Bay is a place where marine litter is concentrated, with an abundance of
56,500,000,000 items/km2, mainly from polystyrene foam from oyster culture.

Malaysia
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Ninety-five percent of municipal waste in Malaysia are disposed into landfills (Johari 2014). Studies have been
conducted on four beaches in Peninsular Malaysia on the composition and abundance of debris on the selected beaches
(Agamuthu 2012), designed to assess the amount and distribution of marine litter on eight sandy public beaches in
Malaysia. Plastics were the most abundant type of debris found on all beaches, including plastic bags and wrappers,
hard plastics, polystyrene and abandoned fishing nets. The density of debris on Malaysian beaches was found to be
comparable to other beaches worldwide in the range of 0.142 – 0.884 items/m2 or 1.119 – 32.351 g/m2, where plastics
were the most common type of marine litter (Agamuthu 2012; Fauziah 2015; Mobilik 2015). The results indicated
that the density of waste is highly dependable on the economic activities of the relevant beaches (Khairunnisa 2012),
as well as lack of cleaning activities (Fauziah 2015).

Philippines
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
The Philippines is an island state in Southeast Asia with 7,641 islands and 36,289 km of coastline. The population of
Philippines was 104.9 million in 2017 and is further projected to grow to 125.4 million in 2030 (UNDP 2018), with
more than 60% living along the coastline (Taguiam 2014). It was ranked third by mass of mismanaged plastic waste
following China and Indonesia (Jambeck and others 2015).
The majority of waste in the Philippines were biodegradable waste (52.31%), residual waste (17.98%) and plastics
(10.55%) (UNEP/COBSEA 2018). The amount of mismanaged plastic waste generated by 83.4 million coastal
residents in the Philippines was 1.88 million metric tonnes in 2010 (Jambeck 2015), with a very high level of plastic
bag consumption. For example, waste audits in 2006 and 2010 showed that among plastic products, plastic bags were
the main marine litter contributor in terms of volume. Between now and 2025, 155 million tonnes of plastic waste
could enter the oceans if nothing is done to check the situation (Villanueva 2015). The waste will continue to grow
with a growing population and per capita consumption associated with economic growth, especially in urban areas
and lower–middle–income countries. It is worth noting that the Philippines has remarkably high collection rates with
a nationwide average of roughly 85% waste collected, possibly due to the extensive involvement of local communities.
In the Philippines, plastic debris has been found in macroaquatic animals, such as Green Turtle, Whale Shark and
Beaked Whale (Angelo Abreo 2016a). Manila Bay Coastal area has been identified as an accumulation zone of Marine
litter in the Philippines (Ocean Conservancy 2017c). Several factors contribute to the result. Population size (22.4
million in 2015) and economic status (more than 70% of the national GDP) are expected to remain high sources of
marine litter (World Bank 2018; Pesaresi 2016). For example, waste generation rate per capita per day in Metro Manila
is 3.00 kg in 2007 (Hoornweg 2012). Poor quality of waste management systems largely determines the most
significant mass of uncaptured waste available to become marine litter. It has been reported that the Pasig River which
drains into Manila Bay is one of the rivers with the highest plastic emission worldwide (Lebreton 2017).
The largest seaport in the Philippines may also contribute to the occurrence and transportation of marine litter. Climate,
Manila sits astride the Pacific typhoon belt, and a great quantity of marine litter washed up annually on the coast of
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Manila Bay.

People's Republic of China

(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of plastic products, contributing nearly a third of the world’s
plastic production and consumption (PlasticEurope 2017). Before 2017, China was also one of the world’s largest
recycler for plastics, importing more than 7 million tonnes of plastic waste in 2016, and 5 million in 2017. In 2015,
Jambeck and others reported that China is among the world’s top contributors of marine plastic debris (Jambeck 2015).
In 2017, Lebreton and others reported among the world’s top 20 rivers with the highest marine plastic debris emission,
six of them were located in China (Lebreton 2017). However, due to the uncertainties in both of the model studies,
discrepancies were found between the study results and the local in–situ measurement data in China. It was reported
that the mean density of microplastics in the surface waters of China’s coastal ocean to be 0.33–545 particles/m3
(Zhang and others 2017; Zhu and others 2018). Since 2007, the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) had organized
to monitor the marine litter in coastal sediments, surface water and water column. It was discovered that most marine
litter are distributed in coastal recreational area, fisheries and shipping ports. The results from 2017 showed that the
average density of floating litter in the coastal waters of China was 2865 pieces/km2, of which, 87% was plastic litter.
Areas such as coastal tourism and recreation areas, agricultural and fishery areas, port shipping areas, some estuary
waters were hotspots of marine litter. According to the monitoring results of the microplastics pilot conducted by SOA
in 2016 and 2017, microplastics were ubiquitously detected in seawater, sediments and mussels in the coastal regions
of China. The results from 2016 showed an average concentration of floating microplastics in coastal surface waters
of China to be 0.29 n/m3, with highest concentration to be 2.35 n/m3. The average quantity of microplastics in mussels
was to be 26 n/100g. Although the existing monitoring and research has not found that the average density of marine
litter in China to be significantly higher than other countries and regions, the problem of marine litter pollution at
some local regions is still serious especially in coastal communities, fishing ports and downstream cities. In addition,
microplastics were also detected in table sea salt commercially available in China.

Figure 2 Amount of plastic litter on beaches in China. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) was included in Plastic Litter
since 2016. (Source: State Oceanic Administration of the People’s Republic of China)
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Figure 3 Amount of plastic litter on sea surface in China. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) was included in Plastic Litter
since 2016. (Source: State Oceanic Administration of the People’s Republic of China)

On the policy level, China has particularly high awareness on marine litter and environment protection in general.
Since the inclusion of “Protection of Ecology Environment” in the report of its 19th National Congress, environmental
protection has become one of the fundamental national strategies of China. Numerous national–wide campaigns have
been launched to identify and eliminate sources of pollution, including open landfills and mismanaged dumping sites
that are highly susceptible to the formation of marine litter. Although there is no specific legislation toward marine
litter in China, many relevant laws and regulations have been made, including the Law on the Prevention and Control
of Environment Pollution Caused by Solid Wastes (1995), Cleaner Production Promotion Law of the People's
Republic of China (2002), Notice of the General Office of State Council on Restricting the Production, Sale and Use
of Plastic Shopping Bags (2008), Circular Economy Promotion Law of the People's Republic of China (2009),
Announcement on Issuing the Administrative Provisions on the Environmental Protection of the Imported Waste
Plastics (2013) and Notice of the General Office of the State Council on Issuing the Implementation Plan for
Prohibiting the Entry of Foreign Garbage and Advancing the Reform of the Solid Waste Import Administration System
(2017). Besides, China has also introduced innovative policies such as “River Captain” and “Bay Captain” system,
which hold local policy makers personally responsible for ensuring the environment protection in rivers and bays.
China has also issued a ban on foreign waste import since late 2017, which is another positive step that helps the
country to reduce the amount of plastic debris entering the environment. With the above legislation and regulation,
waste management and control of marine litter have been rapidly progressing in China. In the future, the amount of
marine litter entering the ocean from China is expected to further decrease due to progress in the categorization of
urban waste (Cities’ best practices), the realization of “ecological civilization” and infrastructure investments in rural
areas.

Republic of Korea
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Since 2008, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries (MOF) of the Republic of Korea has conducted nation-wide
monitoring of marine litter at 20 sites along the Korean coastline, in order to study its distribution and the
environmental impact. According to statistics from the MOF, a total amount of 70 840 tonnes of marine litter has been
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recovered from oceans and coastlines in Korea in 2016, with an annual growth rate of 2.5%. (Korean National Marine
Debris Monitoring Program 2017) In 2014, Jiang and others conducted a national wide study that estimates the annual
flow and stock of marine litter (> 25 mm) in Korea. Sampling were collected at six beaches in South Korea, and they
found 55 debris type and 56% appeared to be ocean–based. They then further studied the impact of Typhoon Nakri
on the most popular beach in Korea and found that dominant type of the debris is wood, which possibly was released
by accident from the nearby coast. Lee and others reported the characteristics of the distribution of different size class
(large micro–, meso–and Macro–) plastic marine litter in twelve beaches in South Korea. Moreover, the abundances
of the large microplastics was strongly correlated with that of mesoplastics for most plastic types. In 2014, Hong, Lee
and Kang conducted survey of beach waste on thirteen beaches in Korea, and showed that 35% of marine debris
originated from fisheries and marine aquaculture activities, 20% from household waste, 12% from beach leisure
activities. (Hong, Lee, and Kang 2014) Among them, plastic garbage such as plastic bottles accounted for 70% of the
total amount of marine garbage, especially in the summer between July and September. Other waste, foam accounts
for 14%, wood accounts for 5%, and metals account for 4%. The results were reported in particles/m2. A high
concentration of Styrofoam were discovered, indicating origin from marine aquaculture activities. In 2015, Jiang and
others used a remote sensing technique to monitor the beach debris with a network camera which could be a useful
tool for future beach debris management. (Jiang and others 2015) In 2016, Korea participated in the International
Cleanup Campaign (ICC). More than 1500 people attended the cleanup and collected 1702 kg or 44961 pieces of litter
on 24.5 km of coastline. (Ocean Conservancy 2017b)
Other than beaches, Lee and others 2006 introduced the distribution characteristics of marine litter on the seabed of
the East China Sea and the South Sea of Korea using bottom trawl. The results were reported in Kg Km–2. The mean
distribution densities were found to be higher in coastal seas, and fishing gear was the most abundant debris type. In
2007, Jung and others reported the results of the national efforts on the harbours and fishing area and believed that the
Korean coasts had been severely polluted by marine litter. (Jung and others 2007) They regarded ship–based activities
as the main contributor to these debris instead of land–based activities.
So far, three National Marine Litter Management Plan has been carried out, and numerous innovative measures to
tackle marine debris have been introduced, such as the Marine litter collection barges, marine litter buyback programs,
and youth education programs. Since 2003, the Ministry of Marine and Fisheries of the Republic of Korea has
introduced a “Marine Garbage Repurchase Plan” to encourage Korean fishermen to bring marine debris such as
abandoned fishing nets back to shore by providing financial subsidies. (Morishige, 2010) In 2007, Korea introduced
the Marine Environmental Management Act (MEM Act), which specified the responsibility of the state, local
administrators and individuals to prevent and control marine litter.

Russia
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
There are only a few publications (in English) related to marine litter from Russia in the NOWPAP region. A previous
study on marine litter in the Japan Sea showed that mean concentration of stranded debris in Japan and Russia was
2144 and 1344 g/100 m2, respectively. The mean number of pieces of stranded debris in Japan and Russia was 341
and 20.7/100 m2, respectively. The most abundant type of stranded debris was plastic, which accounted for 40–80 %
of the total items in terms of weight and number. The mean concentration of buried debris in Japan and Russia was
9.03 and 2.70 g/m2, respectively. The total weight ratio of buried debris to stranded debris in the samples was 0.65,
suggesting the significance of buried debris when evaluating the status of debris on beaches. Resin pellets were found
on 12 Japanese beaches, but on none of the Russian beaches (T. Kusui and M. Noda 2003)

Singapore
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
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Singapore has strict regulations and legislation on Marine microplastics and Marine litter from both the land and sea.
Because Singapore has a developed economy, they have good capabilities to deal with the point sources of marine
litter. Besides, the waste collection rate in Singapore is high. Singapore prevents and reduces marine pollution through
the management of pollution from land–based sources and management of water pollution and quality in inland water
bodies and coastal areas.
International Coastal Cleanup Singapore (ICCS) conducts annual beach and mangrove cleanups and publishes the
data on marine trash in Singapore. For the ICCS 2013 study alone, 14 448 kg (153 147 pieces) of marine litter were
collected on 19.476 km of coastline (Ocean Conservancy 2014). The average weight of marine trash collected by each
volunteer has increased by 32% from 3.1 kg/person in 2002 to 4.2 kg/person in 2013. The average weight of marine
trash collected for each metre of coastline has increased by 194% from 0.25 kg/m in 2002 to 0.74 kg/m in 2013 (Ocean
Conservancy 2014). The top marine trash items collected in 2013 are Foam pieces, Cigarette butts, Plastic pieces,
Beverage bottles (plastic) (Ocean Conservancy 2014). Most of the debris on our shores comes from land–based
activities in Singapore, instead of coming from ships or boats or other countries. (UNEP/COBSEA 2018)
The tendency for Singapore marine litter could be positive, considering the strict items they have signed up by
International Coastal Cleanup Singapore (ICCS). The suggestions include:
• Appoint a dedicated government agency to lead in addressing marine trash;
• Increase enforcement and improve infrastructure;
• Introduce public campaign on reducing marine trash; and
• Look at upstream policies to minimize plastic disposable and littering (ICCS 2013).

Thailand
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Thailand is a country at the centre of the Southeast Asian Indochinese peninsula with 68 million in population. With
a coastal population of 26.0 million and waste generation rate of around 1.2 kg per person per day, Thailand was
ranked the world's 6th largest plastic marine litter contributor, with 0.15–0.41 million metric tonnes of plastic marine
litter output in 2010 (Jambeck 2015), though another study (McKinsey 2015) gave Thailand a higher ranking regarding
plastic leakage to the sea as the world’s 5th largest marine plastic debris contributor. It was estimated that
approximately 80% of marine litter in Thailand come from land-based sources, including: coastal communities;
dumping sites near coastal area, fishing pier, coastal recreation area, and the rest 20% come from the marine
transportation, fisheries, and marine tourism activities (Thailand Survey response 2017). The total amount of waste,
uncollected and disposed improperly, from coastal provinces of Thailand was estimated at 2.83 million tonnes in the
year 2016, of which 12% was plastic. The approximate fraction of 15% mismanaged plastic wastes, ca. 51 000 tonnes,
ended up in Thai waters each year.
The Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) of Thailand has surveyed and gathered the information of
marine litter either in the coastal sea (especially at the estuaries) and on the beaches, as well as in endangered marine
species (in the guts of sea turtles, dolphins, whales, or debris that entangled such animals) (Thailand Survey response
2017). The mass of marine litter usually pile up on beaches during monsoon, when the debris was flushed into the
rivers and finally washed ashore. (Thailand Survey response 2017). In the 2016 International Cleanup campaign,
Thailand participated with 3 641 persons, collected 12 504 kg, covered 104.2 km of coastline and collected 57 811
items. (Ocean Conservancy 2017b) Plastics were the most common type of litter recovered. Other than the ICC event,
DMCR has the regular coastal cleanup all year round with public participation, in 24 coastal provinces, according to
the ICC standard (Thailand Survey response 2017). A study of microplastic contamination of three most abundant
sessile and intertidal invertebrates at three beaches of the eastern coasts of Thailand revealed a significant
accumulation of microplastics in the invertebrates at rates of 0.2–0.6 counts/g indicating higher pollution levels along
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the coastline. (Gamage 2017) Filter–feeding organisms showed comparatively higher accumulation rates of
microplastics. The plastic pollutant prevalence in sessile and intertidal communities corresponded with pollution
characteristics of contaminated beach habitats where they live. Thus, bivalves, gastropods, and barnacles can be used
as indicators for contamination of microplastics in Thailand. This study also demonstrated the need for controlling
plastic pollution in Thai coastal areas (Gamage 2017)
To cope with the marine litter on policy level, Thailand has established the 20–Year Pollution Management Strategy,
Pollution Management Plan 2017–2021, and the Master Plan on Waste Management 2016–2021. (The Ocean
Conference 2017). The Lead Agency for marine litter in Thailand is Department of Marine and Coastal Resources
(DMCR), which is in cooperation with the Marine Pollution Control Department, Environmental Quality Promotion
Department, and Department of National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, as well as private sectors to remediate
marine litter pollution. DMCR has initiated a pilot Port Litter Collection facility in Samutsakorn province, where the
fishermen, especially the trawlers, are encouraged to bring back the marine litter collected by the trawl–net to shore.
(Thailand Survey response 2017)

Vietnam
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Vietnam has an estimated population of 94.6 million, and is the world's 15th most populous country in 2018. The total
municipal solid waste generation is 12.8 MMT, and waste generation rate per capita per day is 1kg for urban population.
The Percentage of waste composition is Food waste–41.9%; Plastics–15.6%; Paper–1.9%; Glass–7.2%; Metal–6%;
Other–27.4% (Vietnam Survey response 2017). Vietnam was ranked the world's Fourth largest plastic marine litter
contributor, with 0.28–0.73 million metric tonnes of plastic marine litter output in 2010 (Jambeck and others 2015).
In 2016 International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) campaign, Vietnam participated with 1 181 volunteers, collected 2932
kg of beach litter, covered 7.7 km of coastline and collected 32 135 items (Ocean Conservancy 2017b). Besides,
Vietnam has also launched shorelines clean–up operations in coastal areas and propagated information to residents
and tourists to raise the public awareness of environment protection. (Vietnam Survey response 2017).
Vietnam’s development of plastic waste collecting system along with landfill management has helped reduce the
quantities of solid wastes dumped into the oceans. Vietnam has adopted legal documents regarding environment
protection and management policies (Vietnam Survey response 2017). In Vietnam, the collection rate of plastic waste
in urban areas is considerably high (over 80%), but in rural areas is lower (40–60%). In 1995, Vietnam acceded to the
Basel Convention and the MARPOL Convention. To implement those conventions, The Law on Marine Resources
and Environment and Islands, which was adopted in 2015, will provide a legal framework for the overall management
of marine resources and the environment. The local authorities in coastal provinces of Vietnam, especially those with
marine conservation areas and world natural heritage sites, have launched many annual shorelines clean–up operations
and information dissemination for residents as well as tourists to raise the public awareness of environment protection.
(Vietnam Survey response 2017). Modelling in Vietnam reveals that if total per capita waste generation levels were
reduced by 8% and significant improvements were achieved in the collection, recycling, treatment facilities, and
sanitary landfill levels, and there would be an inspiring 30% reduction in mismanaged waste. Still, then, 9 million
metric tonnes would be considered "mismanaged"–waste that is not collected or collected but then either dumped or
stored in unsanitary dumpsites; all are significant contributors to marine leakage. Without intervention, mismanaged
waste is expected to grow 130%, with 20 million metric tonnes forecasted to be mismanaged by 2050. These models
illustrate the amplifying effect of waste generation growth against the ability to manage it. There is a need for fast
action on a large scale (Ocean Conservancy 2017c).

2.2 Regional Review: South Asia

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Bangladesh
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
The Bangladesh coast is termed as a zone of several vulnerabilities, including marine litter caused by dumping of
municipal solid waste directly into the oceans, untreated industrial effluents through various contaminants from the
ships, untreated waste from establishments like eateries and hotels, drainage and surface run–off from port areas, off
shore mineral exploration, ship breaking industry and waste dumping from other nations (Islam and others 2014). At
Chittagong port – one of the major ports in Bangladesh, around 50,000 tonnes of wastewater from land–based
refineries are spilled every year. Marine pollution has damaged sand dune fauna, vegetation, and the soil properties of
the coastal regions in Bangladesh (Hossain and others 2015).
To combat marine and coastal pollution, Bangladesh became the first nation in South Asia to phase out polythene bags
in 2002 (Jalil and others 2013). Apart from this commendable action, Bangladesh has signed and ratified many
international treaties and collaborated with various international legislative frameworks that are working towards
reducing marine litter, including Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (Basel Convention 1989), International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea from
ships (MARPOL) (Karim 2009), and United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea. Bangladesh has also joined
the International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) that engages with local people and communities to remove garbage and all
kinds of trash from the beaches and waterways identify the sources of trash, create awareness among the masses about
the negative impacts of marine pollution and change behaviours of people that result in marine litter at the first place
(Xanthos and Walker 2017).

India
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Indian sub–continent has a long coastline of around 7500 kilometres, endowed with a number of mangroves, estuaries,
mudflats and mudflats. With the population explosion, lack of strict regulations and increase in anthropogenic
activities, there has been increases in coastal and estuarine pollution, including marine litter. Some of the major causes
of marine litter in India are mismanaged municipal sewage, untreated industrial effluents, fish processing industries,
solid waste dumping, aquaculture industry (Shanmugam and others 2007). According to a study done by India’s
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), around 25,940 tonnes of waste are generated every day in the country. With
a limited waste treatment capacity, the rest of waste is directly dumped into the rivers and finally find its way into the
oceans thereby rendering them highly polluted and a threat to the economy.
India was ranked the world’s 12th largest source of marine plastic debris, with 600,000 tonnes of mismanaged plastic
waste generation in 2010 (Jambeck and others 2015). According to Lebreton (2017), River Ganges in India ranks
number 2 in the world in river plastic emission. In 2013, Jayasiri and others recorded an average distribution
concentration of plastic debris of 11.6 items/m2 or 3.24 grams/m2. It needs to be noted that a special source for marine
plastics in India is the ship breaking industry. In the intertidal sediments found in the Alang–sosiya ship breaking yard
(the world’s largest ship breaking yard), an average of 81 microplastic particles were discovered (Reddy and others
2006). Ship breaking also generates all kinds of scraps including metals, rubber and plastic debris. In 2015, CPCB
(Central Pollution Control Board) has identified 302 polluted rivers in the country. Four plastic bags were recovered
from a beached Longman beaked whale, which highlighted the increasing risk to the marine fauna posed by marine
litter (Wesch and others 2016). Among them, plastics are the major composition of marine litter.
The Indian government has taken many actions to address the issue of marine pollution. The most recent is the National
Marine Litter Policy, which is an action plan to check plastic waste flowing into the oceans. The aim is to clean up
the oceans, which aligns with UN Environment’s global ‘Clean Seas Campaign’ that the Indian Sub–continent joined
on the World Environment Day 2018 (Kripa and others 2016). The Ministry of Earth Sciences also has ‘Marine
Pollution Monitoring Program’ that highlights the issues of coastal and marine pollution in India. This Program has
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been in action since 1991 and has been helpful in assessing the health of the country’s seas. The other regulations
include the enactment of The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974, and The Environment
Protection Act in 1986 that were established by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF and
CC). Government of India has developed a comprehensive Policy Statement for Abatement of coastal pollution and
derived ‘Sea Water Quality Criteria’ for toxic heavy metals and pesticides and these have been prescribed for enforcing
of amendment in the existing Gazette Notification of the MoEF and CC, GOI (1998). India has also signed and ratified
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 as amended SOLAS (Amended) 1974); International
Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness response and cooperation 1990 (OPRC 1990); Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes, and other matter 1972 as amended (LDC-Amended
1972). Operating Agreement on the International Maritime Satellite Organization INMARSAT (INMARSAT OA)
(Amended) and many more. Moreover, India was the host country for the 2018 World Environment Day, themed
“Beat Plastic Pollution”.

Maldives
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
The Republic of Maldives, a nation consisting of over 1,000 coral islands in the Indian Ocean, is categorised as a
Small Island Developing State (SIDS), which have limited resources for economic development (Ghina 2003).
Maldives now has a population of 450 000(World Population Prospects 2017). International tourist industry and
fishing are the dominant economic activity in Maldives (Saleem 2003). As a result, Marine litter has greatly affected
the aesthetic value of coastal and bathing beaches, as well the quality of the fishing products. The Maldives are facing
declines in tourist numbers and associated revenues due to marine litter, particularly plastics that threaten to affect the
reputation of islands as sought–after tourist destinations. According to Barnes, D. K. 2004, the accumulation rates of
flotsam in Maldives is 2.6 items per km per year, 43% of which is manmade and 41% colonized by biota. The
abundance of long–term accumulation of plastic on the beach is 1029±1134 pieces/m2 (Imhof 2017). The abundances
of microplastics in surface water and beach sediments are 0.32±0.15 pieces/m3 and 22.8±10.5 pieces/m2, respectively
(Saliu 2018). For the large marine litter, it was estimated that 3% of hooks/set on Maldives’ tuna longline was lost
(United Nations Environment Programme 2009). According to a two–year summary of turtle entanglements in the
Maldives, Green turtle, Leatherback turtle, Hawksbill turtle, and Olive Ridley turtle are found to be entangled in ghost
gear (Stelfox M and Hudgins J 2015).
In the past, solid waste in Maldives was collected in an ad–hoc manner and dumped at the shore, disposed of in the
ocean, or transported to Thilafushi Island to be incinerated in the open (Saliu 2018). It was not until May 2009 that an
integrated waste management system began to develop. As a result, anthropogenic materials are accumulating on the
surface of the oceans, in the water column and on the seabed. There are reported areas about marine litter in Maldives
include Ari Atoll (Barnes D. K. 2004), Paradise Island (Finkl 2013), Vavvaru Island (Imhof 2017), and Faafu Atoll
(Saliu 2018). The results of these studies are hardly comparable due to different learning objects and different methods.
Imhof and others 2017 found that that the abundance of plastic particles in Vavvaru Island seems to be significantly
less than that of more populous regions, strengthens the well–established conclusion that their abundance correlates
positively with population density, and other intensive anthropogenic activities.
The abundance of marine litter in Maldives is affected by anthropogenic activities, especially considering the large
number of tourists in recent decades. Densely populated localities such as Malé,Addu City and Fuvahmulah may be
highly polluted by marine litter. Besides, the island of Thilafushi may also be a hotspot of marine litter, due to the
improper waste management (Saliu 2018). The abundance correlates positively with population density, and other
intensive anthropogenic activities (shipping, manufacture, and so on). Fishery is also an important source of marine
litter. Therefore, the key indicators for marine litter in Maldives are population density, tourist industry, fishing
activities and aquaculture, and Garbage disposal rate. The marine litter in Maldives is most likely to accumulate at
beaches, in coastal oceans and around islands.
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Pakistan
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Marine litter distribution along Pakistan’s Coast of the Arabian Sea was first reported in a study in 2015. After studying
4 beaches using quadrate frame method by Chapman (1964), the study reported high concentration of marine litter on
all four beaches, and discussed possible relationship between debris composition and function of sampling sites. (Qari
2015)
Marine litter related activities in Pakistan have been mainly conducted by environmental organisations, such as the
World Wildlife Fund (WWF). The WWF has worked closely together with the local fisherman, and has retrieved over
1000 kg of ghost nets from sea. Besides, the Diving community in Pakistan, represented by the Professional
Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), has also been actively engaged in the removal of marine litter. (Project
AWARE 2018)

Sri Lanka
(This section is subject to review and edit by regional experts from the designated country.)
Sri Lanka is a small island nation off the southern coast of India. It is one of the most densely populated countries in
the World (UNDP 2018), with its population growing from 14.8 million in 1980s to over 21 million in 2017, and is
further projected to increase to 21–23 million by 2020–2030(WBG 2007). As an island state, Sri Lanka has a total
coastline of about 1,620 km (Jang and others 2018), mostly sandy beaches that are affected by annual monsoon cycles
(Duhec and others 2015; Jayasiri and others 2013). With its long coastlines and diverse costal ecosystems, tourism
industry has become a key contributor to Sri Lanka’s service–based economy, consisting of 11.6% of its GDP in 2017.
More than two million tourists visited Sri Lanka in 2017 (SLTDA 2017).
Sri Lanka was ranked the world's 5th largest plastic marine litter contributor, with 0.24–0.64 million metric tonnes of
plastic marine litter output in 2010 (Jambeck and others 2015), although study (McKinsey 2015) has suggested that
are–evaluation of plastic leakage quantity put Sri Lanka to lower rankings, with Thailand replacing it as 5th largest
marine plastic debris contributor. Significant amount of marine litter could be found on beaches near river mouth
beaches (Santos and others 2009) and urbanized areas (Andrades and others 2016) of Sri Lanka, due to input from
land and sea based sourced as well as the transport by wind (Heo and others 2013; Lee and others 2015; Hidalgo–Ruz
and others 2012), current (Eriksen and others 2014; Hidalgo–Ruz and others 2012; Hidalgo–Ruz and others 2018) and
tide (Maximenko and others 2012). Though it was mentioned that the proximity to urban areas may have contrary
effect on the accumulation of marine litter due to the more frequent beach cleaning effort in those areas.
Currently, there is no existing marine litter hotspot data in Sri Lanka. The monitoring data and methodologies, though
efficient to provide national estimates, are limited in both duration and scale, possibly due to lack in funding for
research and monitoring effort. It is of interest for Sri Lanka to work more closely with regional/global collaboration
and funding frameworks.
On regional and global level, Sri Lanka has been actively working with the South Asia Co–operative Environment
Programme (SACEP) and South Asia Seas Program (SASP). It has joined the Commonwealth Clean Oceans Alliance
– an agreement between member states to join forces in the fight against plastic pollution and pledged to eliminate
avoidable single use plastic in an ambitious bid to clean up the world’s oceans, as well as the UN Clean Seas Campaign
towards against marine litter and ocean pollution, indicating proper policy awareness toward marine litter within the
region. It will implement a ban on single–use plastic products from 1 January 2018, step up separation and recycling
of waste, and set a goal to making its ocean and coastline “pollution–free” by 2030. (MMDE 2017)
 Review of Current Knowledge and Data on Marine Litter in Asia and the Pacific
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2.3 Regional Review: Pacific

Bordered by some of the world’s largest economies, the Pacific faces the greatest challenge of marine litter pollution.
Before 1972, ocean dumping has been a common practice worldwide. Due to the generally low density of marine litter,
including plastics (Crawford and others 2016), marine litter enter the oceanic circulation under the effect of winds,
currents and waves, forming a high–concentration area of marine litter in the oceanic gyres (Cozar and others 2014),
the most well–known of which is the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. The
concentration of marine litter, especially plastic debris, may be formed by the transport of Kuroshio Current, the debris
brought to sea by disaster events, and the debris generated from ocean–based activities, such as fishing and marine
aquaculture, in Asian Nations. Recent estimate shows that there are as much as 45 000 to 129 000 tonnes of plastic
debris floating in the GPGP at the size of around 1.6 million km2, an amount that is 4 to 16 times higher than previously
estimated. Determining from the labels of the plastic debris collected, Japan and China are the main origin countries,
each accounting for nearly 30% of all plastic debris collected. (Lebreton and others 2018)
 Review of Current Knowledge and Data on Marine Litter in Asia and the Pacific
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