CONTENT

 AIM

 SPECIAL ASPECTS OF PROJECT

 INTRODUCTION

 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOIL STABILIZATION

 DESCRIPTION OF SOIL

 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

 NECESSITY OF SOIL STABILIZATION

 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION

 MATRIALS USED IN THIS PROJECT(FLY ASH, LIME,

 WATER-PROOFING COMPOUND, JUTE)

 LABORATORY TESTS

 SEIVE ANALYSIS

 LIQUID LIMT TEST

 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

 COMPACTION TEST

 C.B.R. TEST

 CONCLUSION

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 AIM

Reduce the cost of road (black cotton soil) near about 50-60% by soil
stablisation technique. With the help of stablisation agent like jute, fly
ash, lime and water proofing compound and also improve the c.b.r value
near about 18-20 times.

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 SPECIAL ASPECTS OF PROJECT

This is a newly developed method of road construction. By this method

we use locally available material, and improve the C.B.R value of soil.
This method is so simple and gives better result which we design; while
never get in old method.

There are following salient features, which are:

 More economical
 Save money and use the waste materials, like fly ash.
 Inthis project lime, ingredients convert, clay particles in silt.
 Jute act like reinforcement and improve the tensile strength of soil.
 Fly ash as a cementanious material and fill the voids of soil.
 Water proofing compound which found in market in the form of
liquid as well as in powder form to improve the water proofing
capability of soil.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Soil stabilization:-

The term soil stabilization means the improvement of the stability of bearing power of the soil by
the use of controlled compaction, proportioning under the addition of suitable admixture or
stabilizers. Soil stabilization deals with physical, physicochemical and chemical methods to
make the stabilized soil serves, its purpose as pavement components materials.

Soil stabilization is a new process by which we improve the soil characteristic and economic
Stabilization. In a broad sense, incorporates the various methods improved for modifying the
properties of soil, to improve the engineering properties of soil and improve the performance of
soil. Stabilization is being used for several of engineering works, the most common application
being in the construction of road and air field pavements, where the main objective is to increase
the strength or stability of soil and to reduce the construction cost by making best use of locally
available material. When for construction the available soil is not suitable for the intended
purpose then the soil stabilization is required. In its other senses, the stabilization process
includes the drainage, pre-consolidation, compaction many other such processes. However,
generally the term stabilization is restricted to the processes which alter the soil material itself for
improvement of its properties. For the purpose of stabilization, a chemical or a cementing
material is used to a natural soil.

Fig.1.1 Process of soil stabilization

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 In the earth structures, the soil stabilization is used to decrease the compressibility and
permeability of the soil mass and to increase its shear strength. The soil stabilization requires
increasing the bearing capacity of the foundation soils. But, the main use of stabilization is to
improve the natural soil for the construction of airport runways and highways. The principles
of the soil stabilization are used for controlling the grading of aggregates and soils in the
construction of bases and sub bases of the airport runways and highways.

For the military and other emergency purposes, the areas are made trafficable with the use of
soil stabilization in a short period of time. Sometimes, for making the suburban streets and city
to make them more noise-absorbing, the soil stabilization is used.

1.2 The basic principles in soil stabilization may be stated as:-

 Evaluating the properties of given soil.

 Deciding method of supplementing the lacking property by the effectives and economical
method of stabilization.
 Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.
 Considering the construction procedures by adequately compacting the stabilized layers.

1.3 Soil stabilization may results in any one or more of the following
changes:-

 Increase in stability.
 Change in physical properties like density or swelling.
 Change in physical characteristics.
 Evaluating the properties of given soil.
 Deciding method of supplementing the lacking property by the effectives and economical
method of stabilization.
 Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.

5
  Considering the construction procedures by adequately compacting the stabilized layers.
 Change in chemical properties.
 Retaining the desired minimum strength water proofing.

Fig. 1.2 Cement stabilization

1.4 Based on the above properties, the various techniques of soil stabilization
may be grouped as follows:-

1.4.1 Proportioning techniques:-

Various locally available soils and aggregates are mixed in suitable proportions and compacted
to serve desired objectives.

1.4.2 Cementing agents:-

The strength of the stabilizers soil can considerably by increased by the addition of cementing
agents like Portland cement, lime or lime-fly-ash, bituminous materials also impart binding
effects to non-cohesive soils.

1.4.3 Modifying agents:-

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If the stabilizer added in small proportion could modify the undesirable properties of certain soils
(such as highly clayey soils) making them more useful as construction materials. Such stabilizers
may be called modifiers.

The most common modifier used in the case of highly plastic soils is lime. Portland cements also
acts as modifier in some cases.

1.4.4 Water proofing agents:-

A compacted soil mass which is stable enough may becomes weaker or softer by the ingress of
water or when subjected to soaking conditions. If the absorption of water can be stopped or
retarded by means of some water-proofing agents, it will be possible to make use of such
materials with advantages. The most common method of water proofing is by the use of
bituminous materials.
1.4.5 Water retaining agents:-
Some non- cohesive soils have sufficient stability when the compacted layer possesses slight
moisture content, but the soil may become loose and less stable when completely dried. In such
cases use of materials with deliquescent properties like calcium chloride is likely to be useful to
retain some moisture to impart some apparent cohesion and thus retain the stability. This
incidentally can also reduce the dust nuisance in un-surfaced roads.

1.4.6 Water repelling agents:-

Almost the same function of water proofing agents may be performed by the water repelling or
retarding agents like organic compound (vinsol resin and resinous materials).

1.4.7 Heat treatment:-

Thermal stabilization has different useful aspects as regards clayey soils. There are desirable
changes in some of the properties and heated treated soil may be used in number of ways.
requirements.

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 CHAPTER 2
DESCRIPTION OF SOIL

2.1 Defination of Soil

“It is define as natural aggregate of mineral grains with or without organic matter constitutes
and that can be separated by general mechanical means such as agitation in water”

Soil is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and mechanical processes that
include weathering and erosion. It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituent’s that are in sol
solid,

Fig 2.1Gaseous and aqueous states of soil.

2.2 Soil particles

The descriptions of the grain size distribution of soil particles, according to their texture (particle
size, shape, and gradation).
Major textural classes include, very roughly
Gravel (>2 mm)
Sand (0.1 –2 mm)
Silt (0.01 –0.1 mm)
Clay (< 0.01 mm)

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 Fig 2.2 Soil particles

2.3 Constituents of Soil

A soil mass consists of solid particles, water and air. The solid particles are called soil grains. The void space
between the soil grains is partly filled with water and partly with air. Thus, Soil consists of three constituents viz.
solid particles, air and water which are blended together to form a complex material.

Fig.2.3 constituents of soil

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Triangle texture of soil

Fig.2.4 Pascal’s triangle texture of soil.

2.4 Formation of soil

2.4.1 Weathering
The weathering of parent material takes the form of physical disintegrating and chemical
decomposition and transformation. Generally, minerals that are formed under high temperature
and pressure are less resistant to weathering, while minerals formed at low temperature and
pressure are more resistant to weathering. Weathering is usual ly confined to the top few meters
usually
of geologic material, because physical, chemical, and biological stresses generally decrease with
depth. Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the earth are exposed
to lower pressure near the surface and they swell and become unstable. A chemical
decomposition rate double with each 10°C rise in temperature but is strongly dependent on water
to effect chemical changes. Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will
remain unaltered
altered for millennia in deserts.

2.4.2 Physical disintegration

It is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil. Temperature fluctuations
cause expansion and contraction of the rock, splitting it along lines of weakness. Water may then
enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward the
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center of the rock, while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of "shells".
Cycles of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size, as does the
physical rubbing of material as it is moved by wind, water, and gravity. Water can deposit within
rocks, minerals that expand upon drying, thereby stressing the rock. Finally, organisms reduce
parent material in size through the action of plant roots or digging on the part of animals.

2.4.3 Chemical decomposition

Chemical decomposition results when minerals are made soluble by water or are changed in
structure. The first three of the following list are solubility changes and the last three are
structural changes .
1. The solution of salts in water results from the action of bipolar water on ionic salt
compounds.
2. Hydrolysis is the transformation of minerals into polar molecules by the splitting of the
intervening water. This results in soluble acid-base pairs. For example, the hydrolysis of
orthoclase-feldspar transforms it to acid silicate clay and basic potassium hydroxide, both of
which are more soluble.
3. In carbonation, the reaction of carbon dioxide in solution with water forms carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid will transform calcite into more soluble calcium bicarbonate.
4. Hydration is the inclusion of water in a mineral structure, causing it to swell and leaving it
more stressed and easily decomposed.
5. Oxidation of a mineral compound causes it to swell and increase its oxidation number,
leaving it more easily attacked by water or carbonic acid.
6. Reduction means the oxidation number of some part of the mineral is reduced, which occurs
when oxygen is scarce. The reduction of minerals leaves them electrically unstable, more
soluble and internally stressed and easily decomposed.

Of the above, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective. Saprolite is a particular example
of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite, metamorphic and other types of
bedrock into clay minerals. Often called "weathered granite", saprolite is the result of weathering
processes that include: hydrolysis, chelation from organic compounds, hydration (the solution of
minerals in water with resulting cat-ion and anion pairs) and physical processes that include
freezing and thawing. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock
material, its physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate and
type of weathering transform the parent material into a different mineral. The texture, pH and
mineral constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material.

2.4.4 Climate
Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation, and soils show the distinctive characteristics of
the climate safe zone in which they form mineral precipitation and temperature are the primary
climatic influences on soil formation.

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2.4.5 The direct influences of climate include:
1. A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas as caliches
2. Formation of acid soils in humid areas
3. Erosion of soils on steep hillsides
4. Deposition of eroded materials downstream.
Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion in warm and humid regions where soil
does not freeze
Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching. Soil is said to be formed when
detectable layers of clays, organic colloids, carbonates, or soluble salts have been moved
downward. Wind moves sand and smaller particles, especially in arid regions where there is little
plant cover. The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the
movement of ions and particles through the soil, and aid in the development of different soil
profiles. Soil profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates, where organic materials may
accumulate, than in wet and warm climates, where organic materials are rapidly consumed. The
effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily
temperature fluctuations. Cycles of freezing and thawing constitute an effective mechanism
which breaks up rocks and other consolidated materials.
Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and
biological activity, which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil

2.5 Properties of Soils

The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance,
are texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Most of
these determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held in the
soil. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil particles,
called soil "separates": sand, silt, and clay. Larger soil structures called "peds" are created from
the separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, and silica with the organic constituent humus,
coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil
density, particularly bulk density, is a measure of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the
part of the soil volume occupied by gases and water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil to stick
together. Soil temperature and color are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to
conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures.
The properties may vary through the depth of a soil profile.
1. The mineral components of soil, sand, silt and clay, determine a soil's texture. In the
illustrated USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil that does not exhibit one of these
predominately is called "loam". While even pure sand, silt or clay may be considered a soil,
from the perspective of food production a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is
considered ideal. The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40% sand, 40% silt and the
balance 20% clay by weight. Soil texture affects soil behavior, in particular its retention capacity for
nutrients and water.

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2. Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical weathering; clay, on the other hand, is
a product of chemical weathering but often forms as a secondary mineral precipitated from
dissolved minerals. It is the specific surface area of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic
charges within them that determine their role in the cat-ion exchange capacity of soil, and hence
its fertility. Sand is least active, followed by silt; clay is the most active. Sand's greatest benefit
to soil is that it resists compaction and increases porosity. Silt is miner logically like sand but
with its higher specific surface area it is more chemically active than sand. But it is the clay
content; with its very high specific surface area and generally large number of negative charges
that gives a soil its high retention capacity for water and nutrients. Clay soils also resist wind
and water erosion better than silt and sandy soils, as the particles are bonded to each other.
3. Sand is the most stable of the mineral components of soil; it consists of rock fragments,
primarily quartz particles, ranging in size from 2.0 to 0.05 mm (0.079 to 0.0020 in) in
diameter. Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm (0.002 to 0.00008 in). Clay cannot be
resolved by optical microscopes as its particles are 0.002 mm (7.9×10−5 in) or less in
diameter.[40] In medium-textured soils, clay is often washed downward through the soil
profile and accumulates in the sub-soil.

4. Soil components larger than 2.0 mm (0.079 in) are classed as rock and gravel and are removed
before determining the percentages of the remaining components and the texture class of the
soil, but are included in the name. For example, a sandy loam soil with 20% gravel would be
called gravelly sandy loam.

5. When the organic component of a soil is substantial, the soil is called organic soil rather than
mineral soil. A soil is called organic if:
 Mineral fraction is 0% clay and organic matter is 20% or more
 Mineral fraction is 0% to 50% clay and organic matter is between 20% and 30%
 Mineral fraction is 50% or more clay and organic matter 30% or more.

2.6 Structure
The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt and clay forms aggregates and the
further association of those aggregates into larger units forms soil structures called peds. The
adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays,
and silica, and the breakage of those aggregates due to expansion-contraction, freezing-thawing,
and wetting-drying cycles, shape soil into distinct geometric forms. These peds evolve into units
which may have various shapes, sizes and degrees of development. A soil clod, however, is not a
ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance. The soil structure affects
aeration, water movement, and conduction of heat, plant root growth and resistance to erosion.
Water has the strongest effect on soil structure due to its solution and precipitation of minerals
and its effect on plant growth.
Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil
evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil
formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of

13
the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or
destroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices.

2.7 Soil Structural Classes

2.7.1. Types: Shape and arrangement of peds
A. Platy: Peds are flattened one atop the other 1-10 mm thick. Found in the A-horizon of forest
soils and lake sedimentation.
B. Prismatic and Columnar: Prism likes peds is long in the vertical dimension, 10-100 mm
wide. Prismatic peds have flat tops, columnar peds have rounded tops. Tend to form in
the B-horizon in high sodium soil where clay has accumulated.
C. Angular and sub-angular: Blocky peds are imperfect cubes, 5-50 mm, angular has sharp
edges, sub-angular have rounded edges. Tend to form in the B-horizon where clay has
accumulated and indicate poor water penetration.
D. Granular and Crumb: Spheroid peds of polyhedrons, 1-10 mm, often found in the A-
horizon in the presence of organic material. Crumb peds are more porous and are
considered ideal.

2.8.2. Classes
Size of peds whose ranges depend upon the above type
A. Very fine or very thin: <1 mm platy and spherical; <5 mm blocky; <10 mm prism like..
B. Fine or thin: 1-2 mm platy, and spherical; 5-10 mm blocky; 10-20 mm prism like.
C. Medium: 2-5 mm platy, granular; 10-20 mm blocky; 20-50 Prisms like.
D. Coarse or thick: 5-10 mm platy, granular; 20-50 mm blocky; 50-100 mm prism like.
E. Very coarse or very thick: >10 mm platy, granular; >50 mm blocky; >100 mm prism like.
2.8.3. Grades:
Is a measure of the degree of development or cementation within the pads that results in their
strength and stability.
A. Weak: Weak cementation allows pads to fall apart into the three textural constituents, sand, silt
and clay.
B. Moderate: Pads are not distinct in undisturbed soil but when removed they break into
aggregates, some broken aggregates and little un-aggregated material. This is considered
ideal.
C. Strong: Peds are distinct before removed from the profile and do not break apart easily.
D. Structure less: Soil is entirely cemented together in one great mass such as slabs of clay
or no cementation at all such as with sand.
At the largest scale, the forces that shape a soil's structure result from swelling and shrinkage that
initially tend to act horizontally, causing vertically oriented prismatic peds. Clayey soil, due to its
differential drying rate with respect to the surface, will induce horizontal cracks, reducing

14
columns to blocky peds. Roots, rodents, worms, and freezing-thawing cycles further break the
peds into a spherical shape.

At a smaller scale, plant roots extend into voids and remove water and cause the open spaces to
increase, and further decrease physical aggregation size. At the same time roots, fungal hyphen
and earthworms create microscopic tunnels that break up peds.

At an even smaller scale, soil aggregation continues as bacteria and fungi exude sticky
polysaccharides which bind soil into small peds. The addition of the raw organic matter that
bacteria and fungi feed upon encourages the formation of this desirable soil structure.

At the lowest scale, the soil chemistry affects the aggregation or dispersal of soil particles. The
clay particles contain polyvalent cations which give the faces of clay layers a net negative
charge. At the same time the edges of the clay plates have a slight positive charge, thereby
allowing the edges to adhere to the faces of other clay particles or to flocculate (form clumps).
On the other hand, when monovalent ions such as sodium invade and displace the polyvalent
cations, they weaken the positive charges on the edges, while the negative surface charges are
relatively strengthened. This leaves a net negative charge on the clay, causing the particles to
push apart, and so prevents the flocculation of clay particles into larger assemblages. As a result,
the clay disperses and settles into voids between peds, causing them to close. In this way the soil
aggregation is destroyed and the soil made impenetrable to air and water. Such sodic soil tends to
form columnar structures near the surface.

2.8.4. Density:-
Density is the weight per unit volume of an object. Particle density is the density of only the
mineral particles that make up a soil; i.e., it excludes pore space and organic material. Particle
density averages approximately 2.65 g/cm3 (165 lb/cu ft).

Soil bulk density, a dry weight, includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume. A
high bulk density indicates either compaction of the soil or high sand content. The bulk density
of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3 (for comparison water is 1.0 g/cm3). A lower bulk
density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the influence of soil texture
and state.

2.8.5. Porosity:-
Pore space is that part of the bulk volume that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter
but is open space occupied by either gases or water. Ideally, the total pore space should be 50%
of the soil volume.

The gas space is needed to supply oxygen to organisms decomposing organic matter, humus, and
plant roots. Pore space also allows the movement and storage of water and dissolved nutrients.
Because soil pore space is tortuous or highly curved and twisted, the slow diffusion of solutes
and gases through soil pores can limit the bioavailability of substrates to microorganisms. This
property of soils effectively compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many organisms are

15
not in direct competition with one another, which may explain not only the large number of
species present, but the fact that functionally redundant organisms (organisms with the same
ecological niche) can co-exist within the same soil.

There are four categories of pores:

a. Very fine pores: < 2 µm
b. Fine pores: 2-20 µm
c. Medium pores: 20-200 µm
d. Coarse pores: 200 µm-0.2 mm
In comparison, root hairs are 8 to 12 µm in diameter. When pore space is less than 30 µm, the
forces of attraction that hold water in place are greater than the gravitational force acting to drain
the water. At that point, soil becomes water-logged and it cannot breathe. For a growing plant,
pore size is of greater importance than total pore space. A medium-textured loam provides the
ideal balance of pore sizes. Having large pore spaces that allow rapid gas and water movement is
superior to smaller pore space but has a greater percentage pore space. Soil texture determines
the pore space at the smallest scale, but at a larger scale, soil structure has a strong influence on
soil, aeration, water infiltration and drainage. [16] Tillage has the short-term benefit of
temporarily increasing the number of pores of largest size, but in the end those will be degraded
by the destruction of soil aggregation. Structurally the pores in soil form a homogeneous set of
fractals (termed also uniform fractal) characterized by fractal dimension D <3 and linear sizes X.
For the clay soil is has been found that D=2.7 and X=0.150 mm.

2.8.6 Consistency:-
Consistency is the ability of soil to stick to itself or to other objects (cohesion and adhesion
respectively) and its ability to resist deformation and rupture. It is of rough use in predicting
cultivation problems and the engineering of foundations. Consistency is measured at three
moisture conditions: air-dry, moist and wet; and in those conditions the qualities depend upon
the clay content. In the wet state, the two qualities of stickiness and plasticity are assessed. A
soil's resistance to fragmentation and crumbling is assessed in the dry state by rubbing the
sample. Its resistance to shearing forces is assessed in the moist state by thumb and finger
pressure. Finally, a soil's plasticity is measured in the wet state by moulding with the hand.
Finally, the cemented consistency depends on cementation by substances other than clay, such as
calcium carbonate, silica, oxides and salts and moisture content has little effect on its assessment.
The measures of consistency border on subjective as they employ the "feel" of the soil in those
states.
The terms used to describe the soil consistency in three moisture states and a last consistency not
affected by the amount of moisture is as follows:
 Consistency of Dry Soil: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard
 Consistency of Moist Soil: loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm
 Consistency of Wet Soil: non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non-plastic,
slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic

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  Consistency of Cemented Soil: weakly cemented, strongly cemented, in donated (requires
hammer blows to break up)
Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support buildings and roads. More
precise measures of soil strength are often made prior to construction.

2.8.7 Temperature
Soil temperature regulates seed germination, root growth and the availability of nutrients. Soil
temperatures range from permafrost at a few inches below the surface to 38°C (100°F) in Hawaii
on a warm day.

The colours of the ground cover and its insulating ability have a strong influence on soil
temperature. Snow cover will reflect light and heavy mulching will slow the warming of the soil,
but at the same time they will reduce the fluctuations in the surface temperature. Below 50 cm
(20 in), soil temperature seldom changes and can be approximated by adding 1.8°C (2°F) to the
mean annual air temperature.

2.8.8 Color
Soil color is often the first impression one has when viewing soil. Striking colors and contrasting
patterns are especially noticeable. The Red River (Mississippi watershed) carries sediment
eroded from extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China
carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils. Molli sols in the Great Plains of North America
are darkened and enriched by organic matter. Pod sols in boreal forests have highly contrasting
layers due to acidity and leaching.

Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy. Many soil colors are due to various iron
minerals. The development and distribution of color in a soil profile result from chemical and
biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material
weather, the elements combine into new and colorful compounds. Iron forms secondary minerals
of a yellow or red color, organic matter decomposes into black and brown compounds,
and manganese, sulfur and nitrogen can form black mineral deposits. These pigments can
produce various color patterns within a soil. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual
color changes, while reducing environments (anaerobic) result in rapid colour flow with
complex, mottled patterns and points of color concentration.

2.8.9 Resistivity:-
Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current. The
electrical resistivity of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in
contact with the soil. Higher moisture content or increased electrolyte concentration can lower
resistivity and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. Soil resistivity
values typically range from about 2 to 1000 Ω·m, but more extreme values are not unusual.

17
18
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2.3 Engineering Classification of Soil
Based on the engineering classification, soil may be grouped as:
1. Course grained soil or Granular soil
2. Fine grained soil or cohesive soil
3. Organic soil this classification is also known as general classification or broad classification of soil.
soil

2.3.1. Coarse grained soil

Fig.2.3.1 coarse grains of soil

The soil which consists of coarser size particles or coarse grains is termed as coarse grained soil. It is also known as
cohesion less soil or granular soil as there is no cohesion or cohesive forces acting between the particles to bind
them together.r. Particles of this type of soil are rounded, angular, bulky, and hard rock particles and 50% or more of
total material (soil) by weight is retained on 75 micron IS sieve.

property of a coarse grained soil

Sand, gravel, cobbles are the common examples of coarse grained soil the property
depends upon the uniformity of the size of the grains. Well graded sand is more stable as a foundation base as
compared to a uniform or poorly graded gravel or sand. A granular soil has the following significant engineering
properties;
 It is an excellent foundation material.
 It is the best embankment material.
 It is the best backfill material for retaining walls.

2.3.2 Fine grained soil:

The soil which consists of finer size particles or fine grains is termed as fine grained soil. It is also known as
cohesive soil. The presence of cohesion or binding force in fine grained soil is due to the intermolecular forces of
attraction between soil particles and binding of soil mass together by the capillary action of moisture present ini
the soil. This type of soil includes clays, silts, silty clays and clays mixed with sand or gravel.

20
In this type of soil, more than 50% of the total material passes 75 micron IS sieve. Clay is more cohesive than
silt. Fine grained soils have following significant
s engineering properties;
1. It possesses low shear strength.
2. It is impervious practically.
3. It shrinks upon drying and expands upon wetting.
4. It is plastic and compressible. Remember that cohesive property is due to presence of clay minera
minerals in soil. So
term cohesive soil is generally used for clayey soils only.

2.3.3. Organic Soil

The soil which contains a large percentage of organic matter and particles of decomposed vegetation matter is
known as Organic soil. The soil with organic matter
matter is weaker and more compressible than soils having the
same mineral composition but lacking in fibrous nature and odors (smell) of decaying vegetation.

Fig.2.3.3 organic soil

The significant engineering properties of organic soils are:

1. It has low shear strength.
2. It is often permeable.
3. It is highly compressible.
4. It is poorest foundation material.
These types of soils are present in the top layer of soil and are removed generally from a site prior to the start of
construction.

2.4 Major Soil Deposits of India:-

India:
Based on the physiographic, climatic conditions and geological formation, the soils of India can be divided into
following major groups:-
1. Marine Deposits
2. Late rite Soil (Late rites)
3. Desert Soils
4. Black Cotton Soils
5. Alluvial Soi.

21
 CHAPTER 3
NECESSITY OF SOIL STABILIZATION

3.1 Necessity of Soil Stabilization:-

 Stabilized soil functions as a working platform for the project.
 Stabilization waterproofs the soil.
 Stabilization improves soil strength.
 Stabilization helps reduce soil volume change due to temperature or moisture.
 Stabilization improves soil workability.
 Stabilization reduces dust in work environment.
 Stabilization improves marginal materials.
 Stabilization improves durability.
 Stabilization dries wet soil.
 Stabilization conserves aggregate materials.
 Stabilization reduces cost.
 Stabilization conserves energy.

3.2Deformation of soils:-
The change in shape or volume of soil mass accompanied by vertical or lateral movement under the effect of
external loads is termed as deformation of soils.

3.3Swelling
The increase in the volume of a soil mass, when water is added to it is called swelling.

3.4Creep
The slow and gradual lateral advancement of the soil is termed as Creep.

3.5Heaving
The upward movement of soil is termed as Heaving.

3.6Plastic Flow
The continuous soil deformation in highly plastic soils subjected to constant shearing stress is termed as Plastic
flow.

3.7Lateral Movement
When soil is loaded, shearing stresses are induced in it. When shearing stresses reach a limiting value, shear
deformation takes place in lateral direction causing shearing of soil.

3.8Settlement
Settlement of a structure is its vertical downward displacement due to decrease in the volume of soil mass on
which it is built. Settlement is of following types:

22
3.8.1Uniform settlement
If the settlement of structure due to soil displacement is even, it is called uniform settlement. If the settlement of all
the footings of a simple building is uniform, then there is no damage to the building.

3.8.2Differential settlement: If the settlement of structure due to soil movement is uneven, it is called
differential settlement or non- uniform settlement. This settlement is more dangerous as it causes damage to the
structure.

23
 CHAPTER 4
METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION

4.1Methods of soil stabilization:

There are the various methods of soil stabilizations are as follows:-
1. Mechanical stabilization
2. Lime stabilization
3. Cement stabilization
4. Bitumen stabilization
5. Chemical stabilization
6. Electrical stabilization
7. Thermal stabilization
8. Stabilization by grouting
9. Stabilization by geo-synthetics

4.1.1Mechanical stabilization
Mechanical stabilization is the process of improving the properties of the soil by changing its
graduation. Mechanical stabilization is also known as granular stabilization. For the purpose of
mechanical stabilization, the soils are subdivided in to two categories;
1. Aggregates
2. Binders
The mechanical stability of the mixed soil depends upon the following factors:-
1. Mechanical strength of the aggregates
2.Mineral composition
3.Gradation
4.Plasticity characteristics
5.Compaction

4.1.2. Cement stabilization:

The process of cement stabilization can be done by mixing the Portland cement and pulverized
soil with water and the compacting the mix to attain the strong material. The material take place
by mixing soil and cement is known as soil-cement. The material becomes hard and durable
structural material as the hydrates and develops strength.

There are the following factors which affects the cement stabilization:-
1. Type of soil
2. Quantity of cement
3. Quantity of water
4. Mixing, compaction and curing
5. Admixture.

24
 Fig.4.1.2 cement stabilization

Fig. 4.1.3lime stabilization

4.1.5 Chemical stabilization:-

stabilization:
In chemical stabilization, soil is stabilized by adding different chemicals. The main advantages
setting time and curing time can be controlled.
of chemical stabilization are that setting

The following chemicals have been successfully used.

1. Calcium chloride
2. Sodium chloride
3. Sodium silicate
4. Polymers
5. Chrome lignin

4.1.6. Thermal stabilization:

A thermal change causes a marked improvement in the properties of the soil. Thermal
stabilization is done either by heating the soil and cooling it.

a) By heating the soil

 When the soil is heated then the water content of soil is decreased. Electric repulsion
soil strength is increased. If temperature is
between the clay particles is decreased and the soil
increased to more than 100 degree Celsius, then the absorbed water is driven off and the
strength of soil is further increased.
 When the soil is heated at the temperature of 400 degcel. To600 deg.cel. Then some
non expansive and non
irreversible changes occur which make the soil non-expansive non-plastic. The clay
clods are converted in to aggregates.

25
  When the soil is heated with further increase in temperature then there is some
verification and fusion, and a brick- like material is obtained and these material can be
used as artificial aggregate for mechanical stabilization.

B) By freezing the soil

 When the inter particle repulsion increases then cooling causes a small loss of strength of
clayey soils. However, if the temperature is decreased to freezing point, the pore water
freezes and the soil is stabilized. Ice so formed to act as a cementing agent.
 In cohesion less soil, water freezes at about 0 deg.celsius. But in the cohesive soils, water
may freezes at a much lower temperature. The soil strength increases as more and more
water freezes. Freezing method of stabilization is very costly. This method has been used
successfully to specify soil beneath foundations. Generally, freezing method is adopted
when advancing shafts or tunnels through fine sand or loose silt.
 When freezing front penetrates these areas then the freezing cause serious trouble to
adjacent structures. It may cause excessive heaving. After considering the above aspects
then the freezing method should be used.

4.1.7. Stabilization by grouting:-

 In the grouting stabilization method, stabilizers are introduced by injection in to the soil.
Grouting is always done under pressure, the stabilizers with high permeability. Grouting is
not appropriate for stabilizing clays because the clays very low permeability.
 The grouting stabilization method is costly in comparison with direct blending methods.
Grouting method is appropriate for stabilizing buried zones relatively limited extent, such
as a pervious stratum below a dam. The improvement in soil can be done by grouting
method so that the soil cannot be disturbed. Grouting method stabilized an area which is
close to an existing building.
 Relishing on the stabilizer used, the grouting techniques can be classified as under:-
1. Cement grouting
2. Clay grouting
3. Chemical grouting
4. Chrome-lignin grouting
5. Polymer grouting
6. Bituminous grouting

26
 CHAPTER 5
MATERIALS USED

5.1 In this project for making economical pavement we use following substance:
1. Fly ash
2. lime
3. Water proofing compound
4. jute

Fig .5.1 materials used in project

5.1.1Fly ash
Soil stabilization is the alteration of soil properties to improve the engineering performance of
soils. The properties most often altered are density, water content, plasticity and strength,
modification of soil properties is the temporary enhancement of sub grade stability to expedite
construction.

Class C-fly ash and class F-lime product blends can be used in numerous
Geo-technical applications common with highway construction:-
 To enhance strength properties.
 Stabilize embankments.
 To control shrink swell properties of expansive soils.
 Drying agents to reduce soil moisture content to permit compaction.

Class C-fly ash can be used as a stands alone material because of its self-cementitious properties.
Class fly ash can be used in soil stabilization with the addition of a cementitious agent (lime,

27
Lime kiln dust, CKD and cement). The self cementitious behavior of fly ashes is determined by
ASTM D 5239. This test provide a standard method for determining the compressive strength of
cubes made with fly ash and water ( water/fly ash weight ratio .35) test at 7 days with standard
most curing .the cementitious characteristics are ranked as shown below.

 Very self-cementing> 500 psi (3400 kpa)

 Moderately self-cementing 100-500 psi (700-3400 kpa)
 Non self-cementing<100 psi(700kpa)

It should be noted that the result obtained from ASTM 05239 only characterize the
characteristic of the fly ash water blends and does not alone provide a basis to evaluate the
potential interactions between the fly ash and soil or aggregate the use of fly ash in soil
stabilization and soil modification may be subject to local environmental requirement
pertaining to leaching and potential interaction with ground water and adjacent water courses.

28
 CHAPTER 6
LABORATORY TEST

6.1 Laboratory Test

Firstly we take the soil from village hathaikheda (near CIST ) and find the properties of soil.

Samples in the laboratory, In order to find out strength properties of soil, a number of
representative samples from different locations are tested.

EXPERIMENT NO.1
Objective:- sieve analysis
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a soil.
The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the
finer particles.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 422 - Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils
Significance:
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil.
Equipment: Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker,

Test Procedure:
Sieve Analysis:
1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (# 4 sieves at top and #200 sieves at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieves.
Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve
with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weight and record the weight of the bottom
pan with its retained fine soil.

29
 Fig.13 process of sieve analysis

Data Analysis:

(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve
from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the data
sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the
soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.

alculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve by
(2) Calculate
the original sample mass.

(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting
the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

30
 Observation & Calculations
SAMPLE NO: 1
Type Of Sieve Analysis: Dry
Total Weight Of Sample: 1kg

SIEVE NO. SIZE OF WT.OF SOIL CUMULATIVE CUM%

OPENING RETAINED WT OF RETAINED
(MM) (GM) RETAINED(GM)
1 4.75 189 189 18.9%

2 2.36 150 339 33.9%

3 1.18 176 515 51.5%

4 0.600 166 681 68.1%

5 0.300 140 821 82.1%

6 0.150 64 885 88.5%

7 0.000 115 1000 100%

Sieve size Percentages finer

4.75 160
2.36 140
1.18 190
0.85 25
0.6 85
0.3 20
0.15 50
0.075 252

31
 Graph between sieve size and percentage of passing

300

250

200
percentage passing

150

100

50

0
0 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.85 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075

sieve size (mm)

Graph no. 1

Experiment no.2
1. Objective:-To determine liquid limit of soil sample.

2. DEFINITION:-
The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight
of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the liquid and plastic states of
consistency. The moisture content at this boundary is arbitrarily defined as the water
content at which two halves of a soil cake will flow together, for a distance of ½ in. (12.7
mm) along the bottom of a groove of standard dimensions separating the two halves,
when the cup of a standard liquid limit apparatus is dropped 25 times from a height of
0.3937 in. (10 mm) at the rate of two drops/second.

3. APPARATUS:-
1) Porcelain evaporating dishes or similar mixing dishes approximately 4½ in. (114 mm) in
diameter.
2) Pulverizing apparatus - mortar and rubber-covered pestle.
3) U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
4) Spatula, about 3 in. (75 mm) long and approximately ¾ in. (19 mm) wide.

32
5) Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
6) Watering bottle, with distilled, dematerialized or tap water.
7) Drying tares with covers, such as metal cans with lids, which will prevent moisture
loss. The tares and covers should be marked and weighed as matched pairs.
8) Mechanical Liquid Limit Device(s)
9) Manually operated - consisting of a brass cup and carriage, constructed according to the
plan and dimensions. Electrically operated - a motorized device equipped to produce the
rise and rate of drops of the brass cup as described in Sections 5.2 and 6.4 of this
procedure, respectively. The cup and the critical dimensions of the device shall conform
to those shown in Figure 1 of Appendix A. The device shall be calibrated to give the
same liquid limit value as obtained with the manually operated device.
10) Grooving Tool and Gauge - a combined grooving tool and gauge conforming to the
dimensions.
11) Oven - a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperatures of
230deg.cel (110degC).
12) Desiccators - a container, usually of glass, fitted with an airtight cover, and containing at
the bottom a desiccating agent such as calcium chloride. The device prevents the sample
from absorbing moisture from the air while being cooled for weighing.

LIQUID LIMIT

Fig. 14 Cassagrandes apparatus

33
 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Coefficient of x (see equation on graph) = 0.15

Intercept c (see equation on graph) = 29.806
Liquid limit % = 26.056

NORMALLY LIQUID LIMIT FOR COHESIVE SOIL IS VARY (17-30%)

Experiment no.3

1. Objective:-To determine the plastic limit of soil sample.

2. DEFINITION
The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semisolid states of consistency. It is the
moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread ⅛ in. (3
mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable surface.

3. APPARATUS
1. Evaporating dishes - porcelain or similar mixing dishes approximately 4½ in. (114 mm)
in diameter.
Weight in gms lid+wet soil in Lid +dry soil Number of Moisture
gms in gms blows contains%
18.597 43.955 35.366 18 51.2195
18.962 40.594 36.014 22 26.895
18.34 32.727 32.164 27 4.07263

2. Pulverizing apparatus - mortar and rubber covered pestle.

3. U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
4. Spatula, about 3 in. (75 mm) long and approximately ¾ in. (19 mm) wide.
5. Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
6. Watering bottle, with distilled water demineralized or tap water.
7. Drying tares with covers, such as metal cans with lids, which will prevent moisture loss. The
tares and covers should be marked and weighed as matched pairs.
8. Surface for rolling - a ground glass plate or piece of glazed or unglazed paper on which to
roll the soil sample. (Unglazed refers to paper similar to that used for mimeographing). Paper
toweling is not satisfactory.
9. Oven - a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperatures of
230deg.F (110deg.C) for drying moisture samples.
10. A ⅛ in. (3 mm) diameter rod may be used as a guide to help the operator estimate the thread
size. EB 07-039 Page 12 of 16 3.11 Desiccator.

34
Results:-
Liquid Limit &Plastic Limit Test Result
Observation and Calculations
Determination no 1 2 3
Container no 10 11 12
Mass of container(w1) 12gm 12gm 12gm
Mass of container+wet soil(w2) 45 47 50
Mass of container+dry soil(w3) 39 42 46
Mass of water,(ww= w2- w3) 6 5 4
Mass of dry soil ,(ws= w3- w1) 27 30 34
Moisture content,( w2- w3)/( w3- w1) x 100(%) 22.22 16.67 11.76

No of blows 7 8 10

Liquid limit=16.88%
Plastic limit=18

Experiment no.4
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

 OBJECTIVE:

To determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the laboratory.

 DEFINITION OF C.B.R.:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard
circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that required for the corresponding penetration of
standard material.
C.B.R =(test load/ standard load) 100
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetration for the standard
material with C.B.R values of 100%
Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)
2.5 1370
5.0 2055
7.5 2630
10.0 3180
12.5 3600

35
The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remolded specimenwhich may be
compacted either statically or dynamically.
Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavements structure as it provides the support to the
pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its property are important in the design of
pavements structures. The main function of sub grade is to give the adequate support to the
pavements and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic
and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting
test.
The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided in to
three groups:
 Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests
Shears tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. Some of the
commonly known shear test, are direct shear test,triaxial compression tests, and unconfined
compression tests.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in situation with a load bearing area.
The results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the
stressed soil mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed
could be studied.
Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded
area is relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the
laboratory.
TESTS PROCEDURE
 The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of mould 150mm diameter with a base plate and a
collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and expansion
soaking.
 The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the
mould and the assembly is under the placed plunger of the loading frame.
 Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of
1.25mm. A load penetration curve drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are
1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5mm and 5.0 penetrations respectively.
 A CBR value is expressed as percentages of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5
mm or 5.0mm to the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore CBR = (load carries by
standard specimen)* 100.
 Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than of 5.0 mm
penetration, the former is adopted. if the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration
is higher than at 2.5 mm, the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test again gives
similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR
value. The average CBR value of three test specimen is reported as the CBR value of sample.

36
 SOIL TESTING
First we take the black cotton soil and find the CBR value. For this take 5 kg of soil (black cotton
soil). And crush the soil BLACK COTTON SOIL passes by sieve 2.75 mm.
Then prepare a mould and submerged it in water near 96 hours we take near 3sample in
laboratory and take in CBR testing machine.

Fig.16 CBR test machine

Fig.17 CBR TESTING MACHINE

37
TAKE BLACK COTTON SOIL PREPARES MOULDS AND TESTS CBR APPERATUS.

DATA OBTAINED BY TEST

LOAD PENETRATION DATA

Penetration ( mm) Load ( div) Load ( kgf)

0 0 0
0.5 8 6.612186
1 12 9.24328
1.5 14 10.78383
2 18 13.86492
2.5 20 15.40547
3 24 18.48656
3.5 28 21.56765
4 31 23.87847
4.5 34 26.18929
5 35 26.95957
5.5 38 29.27039
6 41 31.58121
6.5 44 33.89203
7 47 36.20285
7.5 49 37.74339
8 51 39.28394
8.5 53 40.82449
9 56 43.13531
9.5 59 45.44612

RESULTS:(GIVEN SOIL CBR )

Penetration (mm) Pt (kgf) Ps (kgf) CBR (%)

2.5 15.4 1370 1.124088

5 26.95957 2055 1.311901

GIVEN SOIL IS BLACK COTTON BECAUSE ITS CBR VALUE IS BELOW 5%

38
LOAD PENETRATION CURVE
70

60

50

40
LOAD DIVISION

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5

PENETRATION (MM)

Graph no. 2

BLACK COTTON SOIL

39
NOW WE TAKE BLACK COTTON SOIL AND MIX IT WITH FLY ASH
CONTENT:
FLY ASH 650 gm (15% WEIGHT OF SOIL)

DATA OBTAINED BY CBR APPARATUS

LOAD PENETRATION Data

Penetration (mm) Load ( div) Load (kgf)

0 0 0
0.5 4 3.081093
1 22 16.94601
1.5 40 30.81093
2 58 44.67585
2.5 70 53.91913
3 81 62.39214
3.5 87 67.0138
4 93 71.63542
4.5 98 75.48678
5 105 80.87
5.5 110 84.73006
6 116 93.20307
6.5 121 96.28416
7 125 97.82471
7.5 127 103.9869
8 140 107.8383
8.5 146 112.4599
9 151 116.3113
9.5 156 120.1626

Results:( given soil CBR )

Penetration (mm) Pt ( kgf)* Ps ( kgf)* CBR (%)

2.5 53.91913 1370 3.935703

5 80.8787 2055 3.935703

40
 LOAD PENETRATION CURVE

180

160

140

120

100
load division

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.6 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
penetration (mm)

Graph no. 3

BLACK COTTON SOIL + FLY ASH

41
 CONCLUSION

 Above these result we conclude that, if we use individually each gradient then its performance
is not well.
 As in the case of fly ash when we use below 20% its CBR Value is good but when we add
more fly ash then its CBR value reduce.

References:
1. Soil Mechanics And Foundation, B.c Punmia, (Laxmi Publication)
2. Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering , K R Arora (Standard Book)
3. Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering S.K. Garg Khanna Publication, Delhi

42