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2.3 Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a series of integrated circuits that functions as a central processing
unit for a computer, in this case the Arduino UNO board (Schwartz & Manickum,
2015). In an Arduino it’s the brain for the entire board and its where the input
programming is turn into an output function. This results the carried out programmed
sequence, which is the running lights.
2.4 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a control device which incorporates a microprocessor. It is
installed onto the Arduino UNO board. It executes the tasks understood by the
microprocessor via the programming codes, by allowing current to flow through the
circuit based on the programmed sequence (Steven F. Barrett, 2002).
2.5 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that produces light when
current flows through it. It has 2 cathodes which also determine the polarity of the LED.
The longer cathode is a positive lead, whereas the shorter cathode is the negative lead.
Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron gaps, discharging vitality as
photons(Kramer, 2010).
2.6 Resistors
A resistor is a detached two-terminal electrical segment that actualizes electrical
obstruction as a circuit component. In electronic circuits, resistors are utilized to
decrease current stream, change flag levels, to separate voltages, predisposition
dynamic components, and end transmission lines, among different employments
(Schwartz & Manickum, 2015). Resistors basically determine the current flow
𝑉
throughout the components in the circuit. The basic rule of R= 𝐼 applies, where when
the resistance value is greater, less current flows through the circuit.
2.7 Breadboard
A breadboard is basically the base for the electronic components and the Arduino in a
temporary circuit (ochiai, 2014). It is a solderless device which acts as a connecting
terminal for the components. Most of the electronic parts can be interconnected among
each other by embedding the terminals into the multiple openings on the breadboard
(Schwartz & Manickum, 2015).
4.0 Results
The LEDs lit up in sequence based on the program created. The circuit functioned as intended,
and this implies that the program was written correctly, and all connections were proper. The
objective of this experiment was accomplished.
H Suziki, H. K., 1993. A atangible programming language, a tool for collaborative learning.. Athens,
s.n., pp. 297-303.
Harish K, M. D. S. M. A. K. C. K. J., 2017. Pick and Place Robotic Arm Using Arduino. International
Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), 6(12), pp. 1568-1573.
Jaroslav Sobota, R. P. P. B. M. S., 2013. Raspberry Pi and Arduino Boards in control education. IFAC
Symposium Advances in Control Education, 1(1), pp. 7-12.
John-David Warren, J. A. H. M., 2011. Arduino Robotics. 1 ed. New York: Apress.
McRoberts, M., 2000. Arduino Starters Kit Manual- A complete beginner's guide to the Arduino. 3 ed.
s.l.:Earthshine Design.
ochiai, Y., 2014. Visible Breadboard: System for Dynamic, Programmable, and Tangible Circuit
Prototyping with Visible Electricity. International Conference on Virtual, Augumented and Mixed
Reality, pp. 73-84.
Steven F. Barrett, D. J. P., 2002. Microcontrollers. In: Handbook of Networked and Embedded Control
Systems. New Jersey: s.n., pp. 295-322.
7.0 Appendix
Appendix A
Attached on the next page is the program code written for the Running Lights sequence via the
Arduino IDE software.
Experiment 2.0 ROBOTIC ARM
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Robotic arms are a norm in modern day production processes across various fields.
Automated systems like the robotic arm are required to do tasks that a human is not
capable of doing, as well as to minimize errors, which cuts costs evidently for
manufacturers. It is more effective and faster than the work of a human, hence the wide
usage of robotic arms in industries (Harish K, 2017). Theoretically, a robotic arm is a
mechanical arm, or a manipulator designed to perform various tasks via variable
programming (Shakeel, 2016). The robotic arm is anthropomorphic, hence having the
ability to do all sorts of tasks similar to a human arm, such as lifting objects, to carrying
out welding processes etc (Noor Ali Al teef, 2015). A robotic arm is controlled by a
computer, or in this case, an Arduino board, with the aid of numerous sensors and
actuators. These sensors help the robotic arm to identify the object of its task as well as
to ensure that the safety of humans are a priority, by stopping the robotic arm, if human
presence is sensed near the work space. Actuators however are the main component of
the robotic arm, as it is the primary source of movement of the robotic arm.
1.2 Objective
Assemble and program a Robotic Arm to pick and move a sponge.
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Equipment
1. Servo motors
2. Arduino Uno R3 board
3. Robot limbs (from the set)
4. Connection wires
5. Arduino IDE software
3.2 Procedure
1. The servo motors are first placed exactly at 90°. To do this, the servos are
connected to the Arduino board, and a program is coded and ran via the Arduino
IDE software. The code for this task can be found in Appendix B.
2. The servo brackets are then assembled and prepared. The servo motors are fitted
into the brackets.
3. The rotary base is then assembled onto a board which has a 360° compass
diagram printed on it. This is to assists us during programming to determine
how much the Robotic Arm needs to rotate. The servo motors that are required
for the rotational base was then attached.
4. The shoulder of the Robotic Arm is then assembled.
5. The servo motors in it’s brackets are then attached to the shoulder of the robotic
arm.
6. The same process was carried out for the elbow, which was attached to the
shoulder of the robotic arm.
7. The wrist was then attached to the elbow of the robotic arm, and it’s servo motor
was attached.
8. The clamp, or the mechanical gripper was then connected to the wrist. As the
function of this part is fairly simple, only 1 servo motor is required.
9. A program was then coded via the Arduino App for the movement of the robotic
arm. The program code for this process can be found in Appendix A. This
programming code was then uploaded into the Arduino board via USB.
10. The servo motors were then reconnected to the Arduino board via the input pins
and connecting cables.
11. A test run was carried out before carrying out the experiment.
12. A complete assembled model of the Robotic arm can be found in Figure 4
below.
5.0 Conclusion
This experiment was successful as the objective of it, which was to successfully assemble
and program the robotic arm as well as to move the sponge was accomplished. We had
learnt the basic programming language for the functionality of the robotic arm. We are
confident that we are able to use these fundamentals to undertake future more complexed
projects. The necessary infrastructure of this experiment that was meant to teach us has
been obtained via this experiment. For robotic arms, vast areas in various fields of it are
still developable. With the help of the robotic arm, many tasks are achieved in a faster
time span as well as with more precision and efficiency. For example, some robotic arms
have been custom developed to assist surgeons during a surgery, in the medical field.
6.0 References
Harish K, M. D. S. M. A. K. C. K. J., 2017. Pick and Place Robotic Arm Using Arduino. International
Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), 6(12), pp. 1568-1573.
Jaroslav Sobota, R. P. P. B. M. S., 2013. Raspberry Pi and Arduino Boards in control education. IFAC
Symposium Advances in Control Education, 1(1), pp. 7-12.
John-David Warren, J. A. H. M., 2011. Arduino Robotics. 1 ed. New York: Apress.
Noor Ali Al teef, Y. S. J. H. M. H. M. Z. H. I. M. A. I. A. R., 2015. Design and the mechanism of, Syria:
s.n.
Ramon, M. C., 2014. Assembling and Controlling a Robotic Arm. In: Intel Galileo and Intel Galileo Gen
2. s.l.:s.n., pp. 509-577.
Shakeel, R. M., 2016. Robotic Arm Final Year Project Report. pp. 39-73.
Appendix A
Attached on the next page is the programming code for Robotic Arm
Appendix B
Programming code to reset and prepare servo motors.
#include <Servo.h>
#define PIN 9
Servo prepareServo;
void setup() {
prepareServo.attach(PIN);
void loop() {
prepareServo.write(90);
delay(250);
}
Case Study 1.0: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
1.0 Introduction
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, more commonly known as drones are rapidly becoming the future
of aerospace flying. The UAV is an aircraft without an on-board pilot and has the abilities to
fly like an ordinary aircraft. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system which
includes the aircraft, a ground controller, numerous sensors and radar technologies, and a
system of communication between the aircraft and the ground controller. It can be operated
with various degrees if autonomy, either under remote control by a human operator, or
autonomously by onboard computers (Honeywell, 2005). The UAV can be flown just like any
ordinary aircraft, for numerous purposes. Amongst them for military operations, surveillance,
imaging etc (Dario Floreano, 2015).
The UAV functions by being reliable to numerous sensors and actuators. Sensors are defined
as a system that observes the environment surrounding the system, and actuators are present to
influence it, depending on the programmed tasks. (Yunmok Son, 2015). Sensors are classified
into several categories. Proprioception sensors, such as gyroscopes, compasses and
accelerators, measures values internally to the system. Proprioception sensors controls the
internal system. Exteroceptive sensors, such as sonar sensors and infrared sensors etc measure
the external state of the system. Then there are active and passive sensors. Active sensors such
as a radar emits energy in the form of waves into the environment. These waves can be detected
by satellites to show the position of the UAV. Passive sensors however such as cameras receive
emissions produced, such as light (NASA, 2012), These sensors collect and transmits data to
the Flight Control System (Enric Pastor, 2006). The actuators then respond to this data, and the
movement and controls of the UAV are adhered based on the data.
2.3 Radar
A Radar is a remote sensing technology that uses electromagnetic waves to measure distance
and the speed of the aircraft. It can used to detect other aircraft flying in the vicinity of the
UAV. A radar system consists of a transmitter in the UAV producing the electromagnetic
waves, and a receiving antenna which receives the electromagnetic waves transmitted by
other radar transmitters (Wood, 2018) . The electromagnetic waves transmitted from a
transmitter is able to travel long distances at a larger wavelength (2.5-4cm) at a frequency of
8-12 GHz. (Richard J. Doviak, 1993). The radio waves travel at approximately at the speed of
light (3 x 108 ms-1 ) until it hits something, in other words can be received by the receiving
antenna of another radar system, which is able to allocate the location of the transmitter. The
working principle of a radar can be observed in Figure 2.0 below:
Computer
High The waves are system in the
Frequency received by receiver unit
radio Antenna B on processes
waves are radar system and displays
produced B the waves on
a screen
Transmitter A Exact
Duplexer location
from radar
switches of radar
system A
antenna system A
sends narrow
through to can be
beams of
receiver pin-
radio waves
unit pointed
theough the
air medium on radar
system B
By this radar system, the location of the drone’s target, which could either be a landing zone,
or the controller of the UAV can be located, and be used as a navigation system to fly the UAV.
A radar is also able to pin-point the location on other radar systems. A good example is how
commercial UAVs that are flying in ‘No-Fly Zones’ are located by authorities (T. Stan
Gregory, 2015).
Figure 2.6: How the position of the UAV is shown on a Radar screen (ANSYS, n.d.)
2.4 Light detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
Light detection and ranging, commonly known as LIDAR is an active form of remote sensing
technology. The environment surrounding the UAV is scanned with a pulsed laser beam, and
the reflection time of the signal from the ground or object back to the detector is measured and
calculated. Information such as range to target, velocity of target and the chemical properties
of target can be obtained by the LIDAR. In an UAV, the LIDAR sensor is commonly used to
detect obstacles around the UAV, as well as detect the altitude of the UAV. To achieve this,
the LiDAR sensors fires rapid pulses of laser light, up to 150 000 pulses per second. The time
taken for the pulses to reflect back towards the sensor after facing an obstacle, is measured and
calculated by the instrument using formula 1 below:
Formula 1: Formula to calculate distance between obstacle and UAV using LIDAR sensors:
This data is then relayed towards the controller. In obstacle avoidance basis, the UAV will
differ its flight path by generating skirting manoeuvres to avoid the obstacle
(BOUABDALLAH, 2007).
A brief summary of how the LIDAR sensor functions can be found below in Figure 3.0.
Computation of
Emission of Distance
precise echo
Laser Pulse measured
position
Reflection Retrieving
of pulses UAV
recorded position
and altitude
3.0 Programming
The on-board computer which all the sensors and actuators are connected to is a single-board
computer such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi boards (Matheus Hentschke, 2018). A java code
was written into the Raspberry Pi software and uploaded into the microcontroller of the board.
The program enables the following functions of the UAV:
• Collision avoidance using the ultrasonic sensors and the infrared sensors
which sends signals to the on-board computer system of the UAV which
then controls the blade motors in the UAV to carry out anti- Collision
manoeuvres.
• Location sensing using the Radar and Lidar sensors, which transmit
information to the on-board controller, which then signals the location
of the UAV.
• Altitude and distance measurement using the Lidar sensors. The sensors
send signals to the on-board computer of the UAV, which then measures
and relays the information to the controller, to determine the altitude the
UAV is flying at.
• Stabilisation of the UAV during mid-flight via gyroscopic sensors and
the rotor blades. When the UAV is not stable, the gyroscopic sensors
measure the difference, and then relays information to the gyroscope.
The gyroscope then relays information to the rotor blades, which then
increases the rotational speed of specific rotor blades to stabilise the
UAV.
4.0 Actuation
4.1 Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC)
Electronic speed controllers are microcontrollers which controls the speed at which the
motors rotate. It translates the pilot’s controls into precise instructions, which then sends
signals to the motors to control the movement of the UAV. When the UAV is controlled to
move in a forward direction, the ESC understands this command, and automatically increases
the speed of the front rotors, and decreases the speed of the back rotors. This produces more
acceleration force towards the front of the UAV, which drives it in a forward direction (DJI,
2016).
Figure 4.1: Electronic Speed Controller for UAVs (Best Hoverboard Brands.org, 2019)
4.2 Rotors/Propellers
A rotor or propeller converts rotational movement, created by the brushless motors into thrust
in accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle (Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017). The size, pitch,
number of blades, and the type of material used characterises the rotors. For commercial
UAVs, he common go-to material is ABS plastic, whereas for industrial and military drones,
carbon fibre is usually used as it is more durable and produces less vibration whilst spinning.
The larger the diameter of the propeller, the more stable the flight of the UAV is. Commercial
UAVs commonly use 2-blade propellers, which produces more thrust. This enhances the
flight of the UAV. The lower the pitch in design of the propeller, the less drag is produced.
Hence, a smoother flight for the UAV (Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017).
Best Hoverboard Brands.org, 2019. Top 10 Best Drone ESC – Latest Bestsellers for Drone lovers.
[Online]
Available at: https://www.besthoverboardbrands.org/top-10-best-drone-esc-latest-bestsellers-only/
[Accessed 1 May 2019].
BOUABDALLAH, S., 2007. Obstacle Avoidance. design and control of quadrotors, 23(1), pp. 79-82.
Dario Floreano, R. J. W., 2015. Science, Technology and the future of small autonomous drones.
nature, Volume 521, pp. 460-466.
Enric Pastor, P. R. J. L. R., 2006. A Hardware/Software Architecture for UAV Payload and Mission
Control, Spain: IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine.
G. Benet, F. B. J. P. P., 2002. Using infrared sensors for distance measurement in mobile robots.
Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 1(40), pp. 255-266.
Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, J. M.-S. M. B. A. P. A., 2017. Unmanned Aerial Systems for Civil Applications:
A Review. Drones, 1(2).
Honeywell, 2005. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. [Online]
Available at: http://www51.honeywell.com/honeywell/news-events/case-studies-n3n4/aerial-
vehicles.ht
[Accessed 1 April 2019].
Imen Mahjri, A. D. A. B., 2015. A Review on Collision Avoidance Systems, 10(1007), pp. 203-214.
John-David Warren, J. A. H. M., 2011. Arduino Robotics. 1 ed. New York: Apress.
L. Koval. J. Vanus, P. B., 2016. Distance measuring by ultrasonic sensor. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 49(25),
pp. 153-158.
R. Chatys, Z. K., 2005. GYROSCOPE-BASED CONTROL AND STABILIZATION OF. Aviation, 9(2), pp. 10-
16.
Richard J. Doviak, D. S. Z., 1993. Doppler Radar and Weather Obsevartions. Learn more about Radar
Wavelength, 1(2).
Stewart, R., 1858. The Gyroscope. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 65(2), pp. 122-125.
T. Stan Gregory, Z. T. H. T. D. L., 2015. Drones: Balancing risk and potential. 347(6228), p. 1323.
Figure 2.2: The Localizer transmitter and sensors used near the airport runway
This ensures safe and accurate landings for all aircrafts, which also reduced the risk of aviation
disasters due to landing.
3.0 Programming
The instrumented landing system is programmed to detect any aircraft and determine
the type of aircraft via the signals emitted from the aircraft. The ILS then calculates the
required distance for the landing glide scope for the aircraft (Yajuan Zhu, 2016). The
information is then related back to the aircraft. The ILS then directs the aircraft towards
the runway at a correct heading and speed to ensure a perfect landing (Mustaz
Mohamemd Abdalla Eltahier, 2017). A complex programming language is used for this
feature. A firewall is also added into the programming to prevent it from being hacked
by unauthorised people, that may intend to cause harm.
4.0 Actuators
4.1 Approach Lighting
Approach lighting are a series of lightbars that are extend out a certian distance
away from the runway. These lights are programmed to communicate with the
Localizer and sensors on the ground to detect the type of aircraft that is about to
land. The approach lights then receive the information and shine according to colour
and the number of lights as well. This is to allow the pilot to physically see the
position and distance of the runway, especially in the dark, and not only rely on the
ILS. This is to ensure that the pilot is also in control of the aircraft, in the scenario
that the ILS is not functioning etc (Ju-Derk Park, 2016).
Figure 4.1: Approach lights schematic diagram near the runway
4.2 Transmitters
By definition, a transmitter is a set of equipment used to generate and transmit
signals. In this case, between the localizer and the aircraft (Shang Gao, 2018). The
transmitter on the ground base localizer transmits the radio waves indicating the
landing glide slope. The aircraft’s ILS receiver receives the radio waves which then
guide the aircraft into the glide slope to ensure a safe and accurate landing is
executed by the pilot and the aircraft, if it was flying autonomously.
4.3 Marker Beacons
Marker beacons are a type of radio transmitter used by the ILS. These beacons are
used to indicate the position of the aircraft along the landing glide slope trajectory.
An outer marker beacon is located 7 miles from the landing threshold. A 75MHz
carrier wave is transmitted in a series of dashes with a 400Hz audio tone. The
transmission is straight up and very narrow. The signal is received by a marker
beacon receiver and is used to illuminate a blue light on the instrument panel. This,
in addition to the oral tone in combination with the locator and glide slope indicator,
accurately locates the aircraft on an landing approach (Ju-Derk Park, 2016).
5.0 Summary
In a nutshell, the Instrumented Landing System of the aircraft is an extremely complexed
mechatronics system. The sensors, programming language and the actuators become
harmonious to one another to perform the tasks assigned. Constant improvements are being
implemented to improve this system to become more efficient. However, no matter the
advancement, radio navigation is still an essential element during this landing sequence.
This is to ensure that pilots are always aware of the environment around their aircraft and
are able to regain control when acquired. Yet again, this is still an interesting system that
has been implemented to ensure the safety of aircrafts and people.
6.0 References