DCN ASSIGNMENT 4

1.What is network topology? Explain different types of network

topology and compare them.
A network topology is the arrangement of nodes -- usually switches, routers, or software
switch/router features -- and connections in a network, often represented as a graph. The
topology of the network, and the relative locations of the source and destination of traffic flows
on the network, determine the optimum path for each flow and the extent to which redundant
options for routing exist in the event of a failure. There are two ways of defining network
geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.

The physical topology of a network is the layout of nodes and physical connections, including
wires (Ethernet, DSL), fiber optics, and microwave. There are several common physical
topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration.

Types of physical topologies

BUS TOPOLOGY

In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series along a linear path. This
arrangement is found today primarily in cable broadband distribution networks.

Advantages

1. Since there is a single communication line, means the same medium is shared. Therefore, the
major advantage of using this topology is its simplicity.

2. Easy to setup and extend.

3. Less costly. Less cabling needs.

Disadvantages

1. On the other hand, having a single communication line for data transmission makes it easier
for collision to occur, which is seen as a disadvantage of using this network topology.

2. If the single network cable has a problem or disconnection, the whole network breaks.

3. Difficult to identify a problem.

4. All devices receive all signals from every other host. This is not efficient.

STAR TOPOLOGY
In the star network topology, a central node has a direct connection to all other nodes.
Switched local-area networks (LANs) based on Ethernet switches, including most wired home
and office networks, have a physical star topology.

Advantages

1. Easy to install and implement with wiring etc.

2. Easy to troubleshoot and detect problems in the network.

3. If one device fails, it does not affect the other devices in the network.

4. You can easily add or remove devices without affecting the rest of the network.

5. Centralized management and monitoring through the central switch/hub.

Disadvantages

1. The main disadvantage of using this topology is that it has a single point of failure, i.e. when
the central switch node is down, there will be a break in communication for all connected
devices.

2. More cabling is needed since you connect each individual devices to the central node.

3. Performance of the whole network depends on the performance of the central node.

RING TOPOLOGY

In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed loop configuration. Some rings
will pass data only in one direction, while others are capable of transmission in both directions.
These bidirectional ring networks are more resilient than bus networks because traffic can reach
a node by moving in either direction. Metro networks based on Synchronous Optical Network
Technology (SONET) are the primary example of ring networks today.

Advantages

1. The advantage of using this network topology is the ability to have fast network throughput.

2. Less packet collisions.

3. High speed transfers.

4. Token is used between nodes thus making this performing better than bus topology.

Disadvantage

1. The disadvantage is the point of failure, as a single node can break the transmission of data on
the network.
 MESH TOPOLOGY

The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that multiple paths between at
least some points of the network are available. A network is said to be fully meshed if all nodes
are directly connected to all other nodes, and partially meshed if only some nodes have multiple
connections to others. Meshing to create multiple paths increases resiliency under failure, but
increases cost. The Internet is a mesh network.

Advantages

1. The main advantage of this type is fault tolerance, which is because of the redundant links
that are created.

2. If one device/node in the network fails, the rest of the devices can work normally without
interruption.

3. Adding more devices in the network does not affect the rest of the devices.

Disadvantages

1. The obvious disadvantage of using this type of network is the high cost of implementation.

2. Implementation and maintenance of such a topology is time consuming and difficult.

3. Cabling cost is high.

TREE TOPOLOGY

The tree network topology, also called a star of stars, is a network where star topologies are
themselves connected in a star configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks including
data center networks, are configured as trees.

Advantages

1. This network topology is ideal for when you have a device acting as the root device on the
network.

Disadvantages

1. The disadvantage of using this topology is the multiple points of failures that are created, i.e.
both the star and bus topology needs to be up at all times.

Logical topologies

A logical topology for a network usually refers to the relationship between nodes and logical
connections. A logical connection will differ from a physical path when information can take an
invisible hop at intermediate points. In optical networks, optical add-drop multiplexers (ADMs)
create logical optical paths because the ADM hop isn't visible to the endpoint nodes. Networks
based on virtual circuits (or tunnels) will have a physical topology based on the real connection
medium (fiber, for example) and a logical topology based on the circuits/tunnels.

Sometimes the logical topology will refer to the topology as the user sees it, which means the
connectivity of the network. IP and Ethernet networks, the two most commonly used today, are
fully meshed at the connection level because any user can connect with any other -- unless some
means of blocking unwanted connections, like a firewall, is introduced. This full connectivity is a
property of the network protocols used (IP and Ethernet), not of the network topology itself.
Any network topology can appear to be fully meshed to its users.

2.List the classification of network in detail according to the area

covered. Also explain each classification of network in detail.
Classification of Networks (LAN,MAN,WAN)

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

4. Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN): The interconnection of devices within the range of an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters. For example, a wireless network connecting a
computer with its keyboard, mouse or printer is a PAN. Also, a PDA that controls the user’s
hearing aid or pacemaker fits in this category. Another example of PAN is a Bluetooth. Typically,
this kind of network could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other
networks.

Local Area Network (LAN): Privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area, like a
home, office, building or group of buildings (e.g. campus). They are widely used to connect
computers in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information. LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of
designs that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

Early LAN (Local Area Network) networks were formed using coaxial cable, coax is an electric
cable and it is used to carry radio signals. LAN (Local Area Network) setup is developed by
connecting two or more than two computers with each other using a physical connection in
order to share files and data overtime.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Covers a larger geographical area than is a LAN, ranging
from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications
channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single
organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also
be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of
LANs. Metropolitan Area Networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and
wire/cable.

Most widely used technologies to develop a MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) network are
FDDI (fiber distribution data interface), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and SMDS (switched
multi megabit data service).ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is the most frequently used of
all. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a digital data transfer technology. It was developed in
1980 to improve the transportation of real time data over a single network. ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) works just like cell relay system, where data is separated in the form of fixed
equal sized packets and is transferred overtime. The purpose of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) was to access clear audio and video results during a video conferencing.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): Computer network that covers a large geographical area, often a
country or continent. (Any network 1 whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional,
national boundaries). Less formally, a network that uses routers and public communications
links. Routers will be discussed later.

WAN (Wide Area Network) networks are established often by seeking help from telecomm
departments who provide the] facility of leased lines. Router is connected to the LAN at one side
and a hub is attached at the other end.

3.Write the function of repeater, hub , NIC ,media converter ,

router, bridge and switch.
REPEATER:

A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in transmission
systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss. Analog repeaters
frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct a signal to near its
original quality.

In a data network, a repeater can relay messages between subnetworks that use different
protocols or cable types. Hubs can operate as repeaters by relaying messages to all connected
computers. A repeater cannot do the intelligent routing performed by bridges and routers.
 HUB:

A hub, also called a network hub, is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs
are devices commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. The hub contains multiple ports.
When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN
can see all packets.

Hubs and switches serve as a central connection for all of your network equipment and handles
a data type known as frames. Frames carry your data. When a frame is received, it is amplified
and then transmitted on to the port of the destination PC.

NIC:

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a computer hardware component that allows a computer to
connect to a network. NICs may be used for both wired and wireless connections.

A NIC is also known as a network interface controller (NIC), network interface controller card,
expansion card, computer circuit board, network card, LAN card, network adapter or network
adapter card (NAC).

Most new computers have either Ethernet capabilities integrated into the motherboard chipset,
or use an inexpensive dedicated Ethernet chip connected through the PCI or PCI Express bus. A
separate NIC is generally no longer needed. If the card or controller is not integrated into the
motherboard, it may be an integrated component in a router, printer interface or USB device.

Typically, there is an LED next to the connector informing the user if the network is active or
whether or not data is being transferred on it. Depending on the card or motherboard, transfer
rates may be 10, 100, or 1000 Megabits per second.

MEDIA CONVERTER:

A media converter is the sort of little device every IT networking professional should keep on
hand. That is because it allows you to join different signaling formats onto one well-functioning
LAN.

This technology has gone the way of its predecessors in that it has become more streamlined,
smaller in size, and simpler through the years. And that is the result of very hard work done by
some very smart engineers at the Small Form Factor Committee. These shining lights have
moved on to other pastures, the Storage Networking Industry Association, but their contribution
to efficient network connectivity is strongly felt.

A media converter is an essential tool in stretching the IT dollar. It allows admins to repurpose
existing wiring configurations while delivering high-end device support. It is an infrastructural
backbone that will transition business into the Internet of Things (IoT) mainstream.

ROUTER:
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers
perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a
web page or email, is in the form of data packets. A packet is typically forwarded from one
router to another router through the networks that constitute an internetwork (e.g. the
Internet) until it reaches its destination node.

A router is connected to two or more data lines from different IP networks.[b] When a data
packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in the
packet header to determine the ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table
or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey.

The most familiar type of IP routers are home and small office routers that simply forward IP
packets between the home computers and the Internet. An example of a router would be the
owner's cable or DSL router, which connects to the Internet through an Internet service provider
(ISP). More sophisticated routers, such as enterprise routers, connect large business or ISP
networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber
lines of the Internet backbone.

BRIDGE:

A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other bridge
networks that use the same protocol.

Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model,
connecting two different networks together and providing communication between them.
Bridges are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they broadcast data to every node. However,
bridges maintain the media access control (MAC) address table as soon as they discover new
segments, so subsequent transmissions are sent to only to the desired recipient.

Bridges are also known as Layer 2 switches.

SWITCH:
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge[1]) is a computer
networking device that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching to
receive, process, and forward data to the destination device.

A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to process and
forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also process
data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality. Such
switches are commonly known as layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.[2]

Switches for Ethernet are the most common form of network switch. The first Ethernet switch
was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.[3] Switches also exist for other types of networks including
Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand.
Unlike less advanced repeater hubs, which broadcast the same data out of each of its ports and
let the devices decide what data they need, a network switch forwards data only to the devices
that need to receive it.

4.Describe the function of different layers of OSI model.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications communicate
over a network.

A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose of

the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so the digital communication
products and software programs they create can interoperate, and to facilitate a clear
framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunication system.

Most vendors involved in telecommunications make an attempt to describe their products and
services in relation to the OSI model. And although it is useful for guiding discussion and
evaluation, OSI is rarely actually implemented as-is. That's because few network products or
standard tools keep related functions together in well-defined layers, as is the case in the OSI
model. The TCP/IP protocol suite, which defines the internet, does not map cleanly to the OSI
model.

How the OSI model works

IT professionals use OSI to model or trace how data is sent or received over a network. This
model breaks down data transmission over a series of seven layers, each of which is responsible
for performing specific tasks concerning sending and receiving data.

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a
network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers. Each
communicating user or program is on a device that can provide those seven layers of function.

In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served by the layer below
it. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down through the layers in
the source computer, across the network, and then up through the layers in the receiving
computer. Only the application layer, at the top of the stack, doesn’t provide services to a higher-
level layer.

The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of applications, operating systems,
network card device drivers and networking hardware that enable a system to transmit a signal
over a network Ethernet or fiber optic cable or through Wi-Fi or other wireless protocols.

7 layers of the OSI model

The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:

Layer 7: The application layer: Enables the user (human or software) to interact with the
application or network whenever the user elects to read messages, transfer files or perform
other network-related activities. Web browsers and other internet-connected apps, such as
Outlook and Skype, use Layer 7 application protocols.

Layer 6: The presentation layer: Translates or formats data for the application layer based on the
semantics or syntax that the application accepts. This layer is also able to handle the encryption
and decryption that the application layer requires.

Layer 5: The session layer: Sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations between
applications. Its services include authentication and reconnection after an interruption. This
layer determines how long a system will wait for another application to respond. Examples of
session layer protocols include X.225, AppleTalk and Zone Information Protocol (ZIP).

Layer 4: The transport layer: Is responsible for transferring data across a network and provides
error-checking mechanisms and data flow controls. It determines how much data to send, where
it gets sent and at what rate. The Transmission Control Protocol is the best known example of
the transport layer.

Layer 3: The network layer: Primary function is to move data into and through other networks.
Network layer protocols accomplish this by packaging data with correct network address
information, selecting the appropriate network routes and forwarding the packaged data up the
stack to the transport layer.

Layer 2: The data-link layer: The protocol layer in a program that handles the moving of data into
and out of a physical link in a network. This layer handles problems that occur as a result of bit
transmission errors. It ensures that the pace of the data flow doesn’t overwhelm the sending
and receiving devices. This layer also permits the transmission of data to Layer 3, the network
layer, where it is addressed and routed.

Layer 1: The physical layer: Transports data using electrical, mechanical or procedural interfaces.
This layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to another along the
network. It determines how physical connections to the network are set up and how bits are
represented into predictable signals as they are transmitted either electrically, optically or via
radio waves.

5. What is the need of layered architecture? Explain the features

of various protocols used in TCP/IP reference model.
Reasons for having layered Architecture:
The process of establishing a link between two devices to communication and share information
is complex. There are many functions which are to be taken into considerations to enable
effective communication. To organize all these functions into a coherent form the designers felt
the need to develop network architecture. In the network architecture the communication
functions are grouped into related and manageable sets called LAYERS. A network architecture
refers to a set of protocols that tell how every layer is function.

The reasons and advantages of using the network architecture are as follows: - It simplifies the
design process as the functions of each layers and their interactions are well defined. - The
layered architecture provides flexibility to modify and develop network services. - The number of
layers, name of layers and the tasks assigned to them may change from network to network. But
for all the networks, always the lower layer offers certain services to its upper layer. - The
concept of layered architecture redefines the way of convincing networks. This leads to a
considerable cost savings and managerial benefits. - Addition of new services and management
of network infrastructure become easy. - Due to segmentation, it is possible to break complex
problems into smaller and more manageable pieces. - Logical segmentation helps development
taking place by different terms.

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used
in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every
possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data
between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and
addressing schemes.

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of
network interconnection to connect remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model
were:

1. Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.

2. The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and
destination machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.

3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer

is called a internet layer.

2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.

5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:

a. Delivering IP packets

b. Performing routing

c. Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.

3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.

4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.

5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

1. The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol
stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
2. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine
and run applications on it.

3. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.

4. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.

5. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.

6. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.

7. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP

a. TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol

which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow
control.

b. UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not

want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.

2. It is scalable.

3. Client/server architecture.

4. Supports a number of routing protocols.

5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.

3. Replacing protocol is not easy.

4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

6.Explain cyclic redundancy checkcode and explain why error

detection and correction is required with best suited examples.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) An error detection mechanism in which a special number is
appended to a block of data in order to detect any changes introduced during storage (or
transmission). The CRe is recalculated on retrieval (or reception) and compared to the value
originally transmitted, which can reveal certain types of error. For example, a single corrupted bit
in the data results in a one-bit change in the calculated CRC, but multiple corrupt bits may cancel
each other out.

A CRC is derived using a more complex algorithm than the simple CHECKSUM, involving
MODULO ARITHMETIC (hence the 'cyclic' name) and treating each input word as a set of
coefficients for a polynomial.

• CRC is more powerful than VRC and LRC in detecting errors.

• It is not based on binary addition like VRC and LRC. Rather it is based on binary division.

• At the sender side, the data unit to be transmitted IS divided by a predetermined divisor
(binary number) in order to obtain the remainder. This remainder is called CRC.

• The CRC has one bit less than the divisor. It means that if CRC is of n bits, divisor is of n+ 1 bit.

• The sender appends this CRC to the end of data unit such that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by predetermined divisor i.e. remainder becomes zero.

• At the destination, the incoming data unit i.e. data + CRC is divided by the same number
(predetermined binary divisor).

• If the remainder after division is zero then there is no error in the data unit & receiver accepts
it.

• If remainder after division is not zero, it indicates that the data unit has been damaged in
transit and therefore it is rejected.

• This technique is more powerful than the parity check and checksum error detection.

• CRC is based on binary division. A sequence of redundant bits called CRC or CRC remainder is
appended at the end of a data unit such as byte.

Requirements of CRC :

A CRC will be valid if and only if it satisfies the following requirements:

1. It should have exactly one less bit than divisor.

2. Appending the CRC to the end of the data unit should result in the bit sequence which is
exactly divisible by the divisor.