Chapter No.

TITLE PAGE
NO.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENT -

ABSTRACT -

LIST OF FIGURES -

LIST OF TABLES -

1 INTRODUCTION 4

1.1 BRAKE SYSTEM 5

1.2 BRAKE 6
SYSTEMFUNDAMENTALS
1.2.1 PRICIPLES OF FRICTION 6

1.2.2 KINETIC FRICTION 6

1.2.3 STATIC FRICTION 7

1.2.4 TYPES 7

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS 9

1.3.1 PEAK FORCE 9

1.3.2 CONTINUOS POWER 9

DISSIPATION
1.3.3 FADE 9

1.3.4 SMOOTHNESS 9

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF 12

BRAKE SYSTEM
2.2 CONVENTIONAL 12
FRICTION BRAKE
2.2.1 BRAKE FADING SYSTEM 13

2.2.2 RETARDERS 14

2.3 LOCATION 14

2.4 ELECTRIC CONTROL 15

SYSTEM

1
 2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF 16
ELECTROMAGNETIC
BRAKES
2.5.1 THERMAL DYNAMICS 17

2.6 DISC BRAKE 18

3 WOKING METHODALOGY 21
COMPONENT USED 21

4 COMPONENTDESCRIPTION 22

4.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC 22
BRAKE
4.1a DISC BRAKE 22

4.1a DRUM BRAKE 23

4.1.1 ELECTRO MAGNETIC 23

BRAKING
4.2 WHEEL 24

4.2a WHEEL 24

4.3 SENSOR 24

4.3.1 POSITION SENSORS 25

4.3.2 PASSIVE INFRARED 26

SENSOR
4.3.2a PASSIVE INFRARED 26
SENSOR
4.4 BUMBER 26

4.5 ELECTRONIC CONTROL 27

UNIT
4.6 WIPER MOTOR 28

4.7 TRANSFORMER 28

4.8 PUSH BUTTON 29

5 WORKING PRINCIPLE 30

5.1 WORKING 30

2
5.1a ELECTROMAGNETIC 31
BRAKING SYSTEM

6 ADVANTAGES & 32
DISADVANTAGE
6.1 ADVANTAGES 32

6.2 DISADVANTAGES 32

7 APPLICATION 34

8 COST ESTIMATION 35

9 CONCLUSION 37
REFERENCE

3
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of
kinetic energy into heat. This high energy conversion demands a large rate of heat
dissipation so that stable performance can be maintained. By using the
electromagnetic brake as supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes
can be used less frequently and therefore never reach high temperatures.
the brake linings can have a longer life span, and the potential brake fade
problem can be avoided. In this paper, a new mathematical model for
electromagnetic brakes is proposed to describe their static characteristics (angular
speed versus brake torque). The performance of the new mathematical model is
better than the other three models available in the literature in a least-square sense.
A robust sliding mode controller is designed that achieves wheel-slip control
for vehicle motion. The objective of this brake control system is to keep the wheel
slip at an ideal value so that the tire an still generate lateral and steering forces as
well as shorter stopping distances.
The system shows the nonlinearities and un-certainties. Hence, a
nonlinear control strategy based on sliding mode, which is a standard approach to
tackle the parametric and modeling un-Canaanites of a nonlinear system, is chosen
for slip control. Simulation will be performed to confirm the effectiveness of the
controller.

4
1.1 BRAKE SYSTEM.
There are many types of braking systems that can be used with a power
transmission system. Each of these types can be placed into one of the following
categories:

 Internal braking
 External braking
Internal braking systems generate torque by converting the electric motor
into a braking device. Internal brakes use electrical switch gear and electronic
circuitry to perform the braking!
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article
is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes. Most commonly brakes use friction
to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may
be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to
electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic
energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized
oil.
Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric
current in the brake disc, tin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still 1 other
braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by
transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take
other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).
Some vehicles use a combination of harking mechanisms, such as drag
racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel
brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.

5
 Since kinetic energy increases quadratic ally with velocity ( ), an object
moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at
lm/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction
limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag,
and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and
shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed wing aircraft
are fitted with wheel brakes on the under carriage. Some aircraft also feature air
brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and
some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive
bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep
descent. The Saab B 17dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or
disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling
downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake. When the brake pedal of a
modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston pushes the brake
pad against then rake disc which lows the wheedle work. On the brake drum it is
similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the
wheel down.
1.2 BRAKE SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:
Automotive brakes are designed to slow and stop a vehicle by transforming
kinetic energy (motion energy) into heat energy. As the brake linings contact the
drums/rotors they create friction which produces the heat energy. The intensity of
the heat is proportional to the reticle speed, the weight of the vehicle, and the
quickness of the stop. Faster speeds, heavier vehicles, and quicker stops equal more
heat.
1.2.] Principles of Friction:
Friction is the resistance to movement that results from two objects
moving or rubbing against each other. There are two types of friction: kinetic and
static.
1.2.2 Kinetic friction:
Kinetic friction Occurs between two objects, one of which is moving.
Kinetic friction always produces heat. The more kinetic friction produced, the more
6
heat produced. Automotive braking systems use kinetic friction to convert the energy
of a moving vehicle into heat.
1.2.3 Static friction:
Static friction Occurs between two objects that are stationary. Automotive
braking systems use static friction to hold a vehicle while it is parked. Static friction
produces no heat. Various factors affect the amount of friction produced between
two objects. The rougher the surfaces of two objects, the more friction .
they produce Extremely rough surfaces create the most friction. but rough
surfaces also wear down quickly Therefore automotive brakes use relatively smooth
surfaces to avoid rapid wear. l to compensate for their smooth surfaces, automotive
brakes are applied with a great amount of pressure over a relatively large contact
area. The greater the pressure bringing the objects together, the more friction they
produce. Therefore, the greater the pressure applied to the brakes, with all Other
factors equal, the greater their stepping power. The greater the amount of shared
contact area between two objects, the greater the amount of friction the objects
produce. Automotive braking systems use the largest contact area possible. The
greater the contact area of a brake shoe or pad, the less heat the shoe or pad generates.
Less heat allows for more friction, which makes the brakes more efficient.

1.2.4 TYPES:
Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or
Electromagnetic. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may
pass fluid though an orifice to create friction:
Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe"
or pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and Hydrodynamic brakes, such as
parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.
Typically the term "friction brake is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes
hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad
shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear
surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to outside of a rotating
drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with Shoes that expand to rub the inside
of a drum, commonly called a drum brake although other drum configurations are
possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake”. Other
brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes
include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy
7
brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Cusco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc
(two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc
surfaces and expand laterally.
Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the
machinery. For example, an intimal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel
supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking.
Some engines use a valve override called a J are brake to greatly increase pumping
losses. Pumping brakes. Can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that
recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor
is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric
vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as
a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric
motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as
heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric
motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an
internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and
electromechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes,
but nowadays are often just called electromagnetic brakes as well). rub on the
outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that
expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake ,although other
drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating ‘disc, commonly
called a "disc brake".

Other brake configurations 'are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley
brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the
Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the also Lambert disc brake uses a
hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between
the disc surfaces and expand laterally.
Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the
machinery. For example, an intimal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel
supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking.
Some engines use a valve override called 1a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping

8
losses. Pumping brakes ‘can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that
recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is
already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline elect’s vehicles
use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a
regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors
to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some
vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a
secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-
circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electromechanical
brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are
often just called electromagnetic brakes as well).

. 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS
Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:
1.3.1 Peak Force:
The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The
peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake
can cause a wheel skid.

1.3.2 Continuous Power Dissipation:

Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high.
The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through
the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous power
dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.
1.3.3 Fade:
As a brake heats, it may became less effective, called brake fade. Some
designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune.
Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

9
1.3.4Smoothness:
A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake
force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and l brakes
without an anti-skill mechanism often lead to skids, which in Creases maintenances
and leads to a "thump thumped eying for riders in side.
Power:
Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application
force leads to a braking force that is higher than Typical for other brakes in the same
class. This notion of "powerful does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and
may be confusing in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle
brake application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.
Pedal feel:
Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power
output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid
displacement of the brake and other factors.
Drag:
Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on
design of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that
exists under braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface
in the off-brake condition.
Durability:
Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may
be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also
wear quickly.
Weight:
Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprang weight can significantly hurt
traction in same circumstances. Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include
additional support structure.

10
Noise:
Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal
or grinding noises that are quite loud. It is the project which has been fully equipped
and designed for auto vehicles. The technology of pneumatics plays a major role in
the field of automation and modern machine shops and space robots. The aim is to
design and develop a control system based on intelligent electronically controlled
automotive bumper activation system is called electromagnetic braking system with
bumper. The project consists of IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic bumper system. The IR sensor senses the obstacle. There is any obstacle
closer to the vehicle (within feet), the control signal is given to the bumper and break
activation system. This bumper activation system is activated when the vehicle speed
above 40-50 km per hour. The speed is sensed by the proximity sensor and this signal
is transfer to the control unit and pneumatic bumper activation system.

11
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation
equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles. We outline
the general principles of regular brakes and several alternative retardation techniques
in this section. The working principle and characteristics of electromagnetic brakes
are then highlighted.
2.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF BRAKE SYSTEM:
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of
kinetic energy into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver
commands a stopping force several times as powerful as the force that puts the car
in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as heat. Brakes must alter
attest the speed of a! vehicle a short period of time regardless how fast the speed is.
As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to generating high torque' and
absorbing energy at extremely rates for short periods of time. Brakes may be applied
for a prolonged periods of time in some applications such as a heavy vehicle
descending a long gradient at high speed. Brakes have to have the mechanism to
keep the heat absorption dupability for prolonged periods of time. '
2.2 CONVENTIONAL FRICTION BRAKE:
The conventional friction brake system is composed of the
following basic components: the master cylinder which is located under the hood
is directly connected to then rake pedal, and convert’s drivers foot pressure into
hydraulic pressure. Steel brake hoses connect the master cylinder to the slave
cylinders located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme
temperature conditions, fills the system. Shoes" or pads are pushed by the slave
cylinders to contact the drums or rotors, thus causing drag, which slows the car.
Two major kinds of friction brakes are disc brakes and drum brakes.
Disc brakes use a clamping action to produce friction between the rotor and the
pads mounted in the caliper attached to the Suspension members. Disc brakes work
using the same basic principle as the brakes on a bicycle: as the caliper pinches the
wheel with pads on both sides, it slows the vehicle.

12
 Drum brakes consist of a heavy fiat-topped cylinder, which is
sandwiched between the wheel rim and the wheel hub (see Figure 2.2). The inside
surface of the drum is acted upon by the linings of the brake shoes. When the brakes
are applied, the brake shoes are forced into contact with the inside surface of the
brake drum to slow the rotation of the wheels (Limpert1992).
Air brakes use standard hydraulic brake system components such as
braking lines, wheel cylinders and a slave cylinder similar to a master cylinder to
transmit the air pressure-produced braking energy to the wheel hakes. Air brakes are
used frequently when greater braking capacity is required.

2.2.1 Brake Fading Effect:

The conventional friction brake can absorb and convert enormous energy
values (25h.p. without self destruction for a S-axle truck, Reverdinl974), but only if
the temperature rise of the friction contact materials is controlled. This high energy
conversion therefore demands appropriate rate of heat dissipation if a reasonable
temperature and performance stability are to be maintained.
Unfortunately, design, construction, and location features all severely
limit the heat dissipation function of the friction brake to short and intermittent
periods of application. This could lead to a brake fade problem (reduction of the
coefficient of function, less friction force generated) due to the high temperature
caused by heavy brake demands. The main reasons why conventional friction brakes
fail to dissipate heat rapidly area s follows:
 Poor ventilation due to encapsulation in the road wheels,
 Diameter restriction due to tire dimensions,
 Width restrictions imposed by the vehicle spring designer;
 Problems of drum distortion at widely varying temperatures.

It is common for friction-brake drums to exceed 500 °C surface temperatures

when subject to heavy braking demands, and at temperatures of this order, a
reduction in the coefficient of friction ( brake fade ) suddenly occurs (Grimm, 1985).

13
The potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts is perhaps also sensors due to
the close proximity of overheated brake drums to the inner diameter of the tire.
2.2.2 Retarders:
Retarders are means of overcoming the above problems by
augmenting a vehicle s foundation brakes with a device capable of Opposing vehicle
motion at relatively low levels of power dissipation for long periods. There are
several retarder technologies currently available. T we major kinds are the
hydrokinetic brake and the exhaust brake. Hydrokinetic brake uses fluid as the
working medium to oppose rotary motion and absorb energy Hydrodynamic brakes
are often built into hydrodynamic transmissions (Foster, 1974).
Exhaust brakes use a valve which is fitted into the exhaust pipe
between the exhaust manifold and silencer. When this valve is closed air is
compressed against it through the Open exhaust valve by the piston rising on the
exhaust stroke. In that way the engine becomes a low pressure single stage
compressor driven by the vehicle s momentum, resulting in a retarding effect3
being transmitted through the transmissions the driving road heels. The power-
producing engine is converted into a power absorbing air compressor.
This approach could put a lot of stress on the cylinder and exhaust
system. So it may require extra engineering efforts to implement this system. As a
brake applied to the engine, exhaust rakes can only absorb as much power as the
engine can deliver. Butte power absorbed in braking is usually reader than the power
absorbed in driving. Compared with these retarders, electromagnetic brakes have
greater power capability, simplicity of installation and controllability.
2.3 LOCATION:
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy
all the energy requirements of braking at high speeds, without the use of friction.
Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid vehicles),
electromagnetic brakes have, better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems
that friction brakes face as we mentioned before.
Typically, electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the
transmission line of vehicles, as shown in figure. The propeller shaft is divided and
fitted with a sliding universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange 0n the
brake.

14
 The brake is fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration
mounting. The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct
impingement of air on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air flow
movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively insignificant
effect on the air flow around tire areas and hence on the temperature of both front
and rear discs. So the application of the retarder does not affect the temperature of
the regular brakes that way, the retarders help to extend the life span of the regular
brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for emergency situation.
2.4 ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM:
The electric wiring diagram of the installation is shown in figure. The
energization of the retarder is operated by a hand control mounted on the steering
column of the vehicle. This control has five positions: the first is off , and the four
remaining positions increase the braking power in sequence.

This hand-control system can be replace? by an automatic type that

can Operate mechanically through the brake pedal: In this case, the contacts are
switched on successively over the slack movement of the brake pedal. The use of an
automatic must be crippled with a cut-off system operating at very low vehicle speed
in order to prevent energization of there retarder while the vehicle is stationary with
the river maintaining pressure on the brake pedal. Both the manual control and the
15
automatic control activate four solenoid 'contractors in the relay box, which in turn
close the four groups of coil circuits within the electric brake at either 24 volts or l2
volts, as appropriate

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES:

It was found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative
power which represents twice the maximum power output of a typical engine, and
at least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake these performance of
electromagnetic brakes make them much more competitive candidate for alternative
retardation equipment’s compared with other retarders. By using the electromagnetic
brake as supplementary retardation equipment, the frictions brakes
can be used less frequently and therefore practically never reach high
temperatures. The brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring
maintenance, and the potentially brake fade problem could be avoided. In research
conducted by' a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic brake
assumed 80percent of the duty which would otherwise have been demanded of the
regular service brake. Furthermore, the electromagnetic brake prevents the dangers
that can arise from the prolonged use of brakes beyond their capability to dissipate
heat. This is most likely to occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient at high
speed. In a study with a vehicle with 5 axle sand weighing 40 tons powered by an
engine of 310b.h.p traveling down a gradient of 6 percent at a steady speed
betwe3e5n and 40m.p.h, it can be calculated that the braking power necessary to
maintain this speed is the order of 450h.p. The braking effect of the engine even with
a fitted exhaust brake is approximately 150h.p. The brakes, therefore, would have to
absorb 300h.p, meaning that ach brake-in the 5 axles must absorb 30h.p, which is
beyond the limit of 25h.p. the a friction brake can normally absorb without self
destruction.
The electromagnetic brake is well suited to such conditions since it
will independently absorb more than 300h.p .It therefore can exceed the
requirements of continuous uninterrupted braking, leaving the friction brakes cool
and ready for emergency braking in total safety.

16
 The installation of an electromagnetic brake is not very difficult if there
is enough space between the gearbox and he rearm axle. It does not need subsidiary
cooling system. It does not rely on the efficiency of engine components for its use,
as do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The electromagnetic brake also has better
controllability.
The exhaust brake is an on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes have
very complex control system. The electromagnetic brake control system is an
electric switching system which gives it superior controllability. From the foregoing,
it is apparent that the electromagnetic brake is an attractive complement to the safe
braking of heavy vehicles.
2.5.1 Thermal Dynamics:
Thermal stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by means of
the convection and radiation of the heat energy at high temperature. The major part
of the heat energy is imparted to the ventilation air which is circulating vigorously
through the an of the heated disc. The value of the energy dissipated by the fan can
be calculated by the following expression:
QMCP=D q
Where;
M = Mass of air circulated;
Cp = Calorific value of air;
Dq = Difference in temperature between the air entering and the air leaving
the fan;
The electromagnetic brakes has excellent heat dissipation efficiency
owing to the high temperature of the surface of the disc which is being cooled ned
Also because the flow of air through the centrifugal fan is very rapid. Therefore, the
cutie temperature of the disc material could never been reached the practical location
of the electromagnetic brakes prevents the direct impingement of air n the brakes
caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air flow movement within the vehicle 18
found to have a relatively 1n51gn1tlcant effect on the air flow and hence temperature
of both front and rear discs. Due to its special mounting location and heat dissipation
mechanism, electromagnetic brakes have better thermal dynamic performance than
regular friction brakes.

17
2.6 DISC BRAKE:
Experiments with disc-style brakes began in England in the 18905;
the first ever automobile disc brakes were patented by Frederick William
Lanchesitne r his Birminghafamc tory in 1902, though it took another l half century
for his innovation to be widely adopted. Modem-style disc brakes first appeared on
the low-volume Crossley Hotshot in 1949, although they had to be discontinued in
1950 due to design problems. Chrysler's Imperial division also offered a type of disc
brake from 1949 through 1953, though in this instance they 'were enclosed with dual
intimal-expanding, full-circle pressure plates. Reliable modern disc brakes were
developed in the UK by Dunlop and thirst appeared in 1953 on the Jaguar C-Type
racing car.
The Citroen D8 of 1955, with powered inboard front disc brakes, and
the 1956 Triumph TR3 were the first European production cars to feature modern
disc brakes. The next American production cars to be fitted with disc Brakes were
the 1963 Studebaker Avanti and the 1963 Chevrolet Corvette.

These brakes offered greater stopping performance than

comparable drum brakes, including resistance to "brake fade" caused by the
18
overheating of brake components, and recovered quickly from immersion (wet
brakes are less effective). Unlike a drum brake, the disc brake has no self-servo effect
and the braking force is always proportional to the pedal force being applied by the
driver. Many early implementations located the brakes on the inboard Side of the
driveshaft, near the differential, but most brakes today are located inside the wheels.
Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were first introduced, since
these vehicles are more demanding about brake performance.
Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger
vehicles, although many use drum brakes on the rear wheels to keep costs and weight
down as well as to simplify the provisions for a parking brake. As the front brakes
perform most of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable compromise.

The design of the is varies somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but
others are hollowed out with fins joining together the disc's two contact surfaces
(usually included s part of a casting recess). This "ventilated" disc design helps to
dissipate the generated heart d is commonly used the more heavily loaded front
rotors. l Many higher performance brakes have holes den led or cast through them.
This is known as cross drilling and was originally done in the 1960's on
racing cars. Brake pads will outgas and under use may create boundary layer of gas
between the pad and the rotor hurting braking performance. Cross drilling was
created to provide the gas someplace to escape. Modem brake pads do not suffer as
much from out gassing problems and often the purpose is cosmetic. Rotors may also
be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing
dust and gas. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not
used on road cars because they quickly wear down brake pads, however, this removal
of material is beneficial to race cars since it keeps the pads soft and avoids
verification of their surfaces.
On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet
conditions because the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the
disc and the pads. Poorly-made cross drilled rotors (such as those made by simply
drilling through a plain faced rotor) may crack at the holes under used us to metal
fatigue. 1. l New technology now allows smaller brake systems to be fitted to
bicycles, mopeds and now even mountain boards. The market for mountain

19
bike disc brakes is very large and has huge variety, ranging from simple, mechanical
(cable) systems, to highly expensive and also powerful, and 6pot hydraulic disc
systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes.
Disc brake rotors re commonly manufactured out of a material called grey
"'0 The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture grey iron for various
applications. For normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is
J43] G3000 (superseded to 610). This specification dictates the correct range of
hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties that are
necessary for the intended use.
Historically disc brake rotors were manufactured throughout the world
with a strong concentration in Europe, and America. During the period from 1989
to 2005, manufacturing of brake rotors has migrated predominantly to China. Today,
almost 90% of brake discs and brake drums are manufactured in China and exported
globally. Leading manufacturers in China include Laizhou Sanli, MAT (Midwest
Air Technology), Win here, Long, and Hamming.

20
 CHAPTER 3
WORKING METHODALOG

3.1 COMPONENT USED

 Wheel
 Wiper motor
 chain
 solenoid switch
 Transformer
 Voltage reducer (12v&5v)
 Push button

21
 CHAPTER 4
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
4.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric
motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric
vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as
a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric
.motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as
heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an elect’s motor
but use a secondary retarder brake that is effectively a generator with an internal
short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-
mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but
nowadays are often just called electromagnetic brakes as well).
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the
friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The
brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in
some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon carbon or ceramic
matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel,
friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake
caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached heel to slow or
stop. Brakes convent motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become so
effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. On automobiles, disc rakes aero fen
located within the wheel

Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping

performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are
less prone to break fade; and disc brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet
brakes are less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe,
which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its
braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the brake pad by the
braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever. This tends to give the
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driver better feel to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to bell mouthing
, and trap worn lining material within the assembly, both eases of various braking
problems. A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads
that press against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The term dim
brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum.
When shoes press on the outside of the drum. it is usually called a clasp brake. When:
the drum is pinched between two shoes. Similar to a conventional disc brake. it is
sometimes called a pinch drum brake. Though such brakes are relatively rare. A
related t) per called a band brake uses a mime belt or band wrapping around the
outside of drum.

Drum brake

4.1.1 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC BRAKING

Electromagnetic brakes have been used is supplementary retardation
equipment in addition to the .regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically.

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 This is why they used to be referred to as electromechanical brakes. Over
the years, EM brakes became known as electromagnetic, referring to their Actuation
method.
4.2WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle
bearing. The wheel is one of the main components of the heel and axle which is one
of the six simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects
to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load,
or performing labor in machines. Wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a
ship's wheel, steering wheel, pitch’s wheel and flywheel. Common examples are
found in transport applications. A wheel greatly reduces friction by facilitating
motion by rolling together with the use f axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a
moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity, or
by the application of another external force r torque.

WHEEL

4.3SENSOR .
A device which provides a useable output in response to a specified
measurements. Sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical).Sensors is pervasive.

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 They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other
applications.

Accuracy:
The agreement between the actual value and the measured value
Resolution:
The change in measured variable to which the sensor will respond
Repeatability:
' Variation of sensor measurements when the same quantity is measured
several times
Range:
Upper and lower limits of the variable that can be measured
Sensitivity and Linearity:
It is Gives a High Sensitivity.
4.3.1 Position sensors
Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the
Position of some object with reference to some reference point. There was once a
time when position sensors were used for detecting motion in industrial systems,

25
aircraft, 1 ships, and other large systems. Accelerometers, Which measure motion in
as many as three axes, were used measure vibration in machines for predictive
maintenance or in aircraft wings for test.
4.3.2 Passive Infrared Sensor
A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that
measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most
often used in PIR-based motion detectors. PIR sensors allow w you toss ensue
motion, almost always used to detect whether a human has moved in or out of the
sensors range. They are small, inexpensive, low-power. easy to use and don't wear
out. For that reason they are commonly found in appliances and gadgets used in
homes or businesses. PIRs is basically made of a piezoelectric sensor, which can
detect levels of infrared radiation. Everything emits some low level radiation, and
the hotter something is, the more radiation is emitted. The sensor in a motion detector
is actually split in two halves. The mason for that is that we are looking to detect
motion (change) not average IR levels. The two halves are wired up so that they
cancel each other out. If one half sees more or less IR radiation than the other, the
output will swing high or low.

4.4 BUMPER
l Bumper beams are one of the important structures n passenger cars. For
which we need to have careful design and manufacturing in order to ensure good
impact behavior. The new bumper design must be flexible enough to reduce the
passenger and occupant injury and stay intact in low-speed impact besides being stiff
enough to dissipate the kinetic energy in high speed impact. The bumper beam is the
key structure for absorbing the energy of collisions. Since, this is energy absorbing
structure suitable impact strength is the main requirement for such a structure, this
research analyses the parameters that directly affects impact characteristics and
proposes easily achievable modifications resulting from impact modeling on
commercial bumpers.

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4.5 ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT
A microcontroller is a small, low-cost computer-on-a-chip. An integrated
circuit that contains many of the same items that a deglttop computer has. such as
CPU, memory, etc., but does not include any human interface devices like a
monitor, keyboard, or mouse. Microcontrollers are designed for machine control
applications, rather than human interaction.
This usually includes: An 8 or 16 bit microprocessor (CPU). A small amount of
RAM. Programmable ROM and/or flash memory. Parallel and/or serial [/0 Timers
and signal generators. Analog to Digital (A/D) and/or Digital to Analog (D/A)
conversion: > It is used to run dedicated code that controls one or more tasks in I the
operation of a device or a system.
Also called embedded controllers, because the microcontroller and
support circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control.
Devices that utilize microcontrollers include car engines, consumer electronics
(VCRs, microwaves, cameras, pagers, cell phones), computer peripherals
(keyboards, printers, and modems.), and test/measurement equipment (signal
generators, millimeters).

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4.6 WIPER MOTOR:
Wiper motors are devices in the wiper system that functions on a power
supply in order to move the wiper blades in a smooth motion. Like other motors, the
wiper motor rotates continuously in one direction which is converted into a back and
forth motion. Its composition entails a lot of mechanical linkages each playing a role
in initiating the movement. The gearhead motor is the type of wiper motor known
for its abundance in torque.

4.7 TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy
between two or more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer
produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive
force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be
transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two

28
circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described the induced voltage
effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil.

4.8 PUSH BUTTON:

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple
switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons
are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal.[1] The surface is
usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily
depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, although many un-
biased buttons (due to their physical nature) still require a spring to return to their
un-pushed state. Terms for the "pushing" of a button include pressing, depressing,
mashing, slapping, hitting, and punching.

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 CHAPTER 5

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

5.1 WORKING

In our project we are using an electromagnetic brake which will actuated by

external power supply produced by switch. When running condition of the vehicle
sensor is used to sense the object which is close to the vehicle and connected to the
electromagnetic brake which is actuate byte signal. Simultaneously the signal passes
through the electronic control unit which will actuate the solenoid switch.

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 CHAPTER 6

ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE

6.1 ADVANTAGES
• No friction loss
• Less wear of components.
• Fully electronically controlled.
• Potential to regain energy lost in braking.
• No need to change brake oils regularly.
• No oil leakage.
• Problem of brake fluid vaporization and freezing is eliminated.
• Less maintenance cost.
• Longer life span compared to conventional brakes.
• No need of abs
6.2 DISADVANTAGE
 Failure to act as a holding device
 Usage of electric power for braking
 Less effective under very low velocities

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 CHAPTER 7
APPLICATION
7.1 APPLICATION
1. Two wheeler.
2. Four wheeler.
3. Used in all type of light motor.
4. Used in automobile industries

32
CHAPTER 8

33
COST ESTIMATION

34
S.NO DESCRIPTION QUANTITY COST IN RS

1 Wiper motor 1 2100

[24V]
2 Solenoid switch[5- 1 1800
9V]
3 Wheel 1 1500

4 Frame[3*2] - 800

5 Chain Sprocket 1 650

6 Transformers [AC- 2 1000

DC]
7 Push Button 1 450

8 Electrical kits - 1000

9 Mild Steels Plates - 500

10 Wires - 100

11 Welding - 500

12 Piezometer 1 500

13 Stay bolts &nuts 10 100

TOTAL 11,000

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 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION

The wheels of progress spin on and on, as do the wheels of everyday

vehicles. While the cycle of progress need to be stopped or slowed, the wheels of
cars, trains, and roller coasters must at some point cease Spinning. No longer must
they grind to a halt either; electromagnetic brakes can eliminate frictional limitations
and improve efficiency, all the while employing a more powerful retarding system.
Both electromagnetic braking systems (EBS) and eddy current braking systems
(ECB) are decelerating devices employed in rotating mechanisms. Traditional
frictional systems apply surface to surface contact on the rotational component. ECB
function by way of two discs positioned laterally to the rotational component that
impede rotation by generating an electromagnetic force that works counter to the
initial direction of rotation, slowing down the component.
The elimination of surface contact contributes to increasing energy
efficiency. The implementation of ECB into the wheelhouses of automobiles instead
of current friction-based systems will decrease. fuel consumption by limiting energy
wasted in unnecessary heat transfer. Bumper is used to avoid damage of the vehicle

36
 REFERENCE

1. http://en.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Electromagnetic- brake
2. Automotive Chassis: brakes ,Suspension ,and Steering By Tim Gilles
3. http://Scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd
5440202339731121/unrestricted/CHAP2 -DOC.pdf
4. ‘’Future of Car Suspensions’’ , http://WWW .Wikipedia.com
5. G.B.S. Narang, ‘’Automobile Engineering’’ , Khanna Publishers, Delhi,
1991 , pp 671
6. William H. Crowse, ‘’Automobile Engineering’’ . Donald. L. Anglin,
‘’Automobile Engineering’’.

37