UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

System DALTA First Semester, SY 2019-2020

Lecture Note 1
Topics: Meaning of Statistics & Its Branches
Population, Sample, and Sampling Techniques
Variable & Data
Scale of Measurement
Reliability of Instrument

What is Statistics?
Is concerned with the concepts and techniques employed in the collection, presentation, analysis
and interpretation of data (Walpole,2000). Simply stated, statistics is the science of data.

Why Study Statistics?

Many fields require an intelligent analysis of data, so the study of statistics is a valuable
preparation for a variety of careers. In the academe, statistics has become an indispensable tool
in research on various fields including natural sciences, education, business and economics,
agriculture, social sciences, medicine and others.

Statistical literacy, the ability to follow and understand arguments based on data, is a vital skill in
many professions and areas of study. It is important then that we are able to read data critically
with comprehension, and evaluate claims or reports more intelligently.

The Two Major Areas of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics is concerned with the methods for collecting, organizing and
describing a set of data so as to yield meaningful information (Walpole,2000). The focus
is to summarize data to simpler and more understandable terms.
2. Inferential Statistics comprises those procedures for drawing inferences or
generalizations about characteristics of a population taken from its sample.

Population and Sample

Population consists of the totality of observations under consideration, whether it be groups of

people, animals, or objects and whether their numbers be finite or infinite (Walpole,2000). So a
population is an entire group of people, objects or events which have at least one characteristics
in common, and must be defined specifically and clearly. The number of observations in a
population is called the size of the population, usually denoted by N.

Sample is a finite number of objects selected from the population, that is, a subset or part of the
population. The number of observations in a sample is called the size of the sample and is usually
denoted by n.

MAED 403
(Educational Statistics w/ Computer Application)
UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
System DALTA First Semester, SY 2019-2020

Sampling Techniques

Sampling is the process taking a portion of population, making observation on this smaller group
and then generalizing the findings too the larger population.
A. Probability Sampling is a process of selecting a sample in such a way that all individuals
in the defined population have an equal and independent chance of being selected as
a sample, the process being called as randomization.

Simple Random Sampling. This type of sampling technique uses the concept
of lottery method of getting a sample.
Systematic Sampling. Is a sampling technique in which individuals are selected
𝑁
from a list by taking every kth name (𝑘 = ) .
𝑛
Stratified Sampling. It is the process of selecting sample in such a way that the
population is divided into non-overlapping groups or strata and selected
through proportion.
Cluster Sampling. It is a sampling process in which groups, not individuals, are
randomly selected. It is a result from a two-stage process in which the
population is divided into clusters (geographic areas) and a subset of the
clusters is randomly selected.

B. Non-Probability Sampling is the process taking

Accidental or Convenience Sampling. It is a process of getting a sample whoever
only is available during the period.
Quota Sampling. It is a process of getting a sample through quota system.
Purposive Sampling. It is a sampling process done based on a set of criteria
which according to the researcher suits the purpose of the study.

How to Compute the Sample Size?

The Slovin’s Formula

𝑵
𝒏 = 𝟏+𝑵𝒆𝟐 where: n = sample size ; N = population size ; e = desired margin of error

The Cochran Formula

𝒁𝟐 𝒑𝒒
𝒏𝟎 = where: n0 = sample size ; Z2 = is the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts
𝒆𝟐
off an area α at the tails; (1 – α) equals the desired confidence level,
e = the desired level of precision ; p = is the estimated proportion of an
attribute that is present in the population, and q = 1 - p

MAED 403
(Educational Statistics w/ Computer Application)
UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
System DALTA First Semester, SY 2019-2020

Variable and Data

Statistical data are the raw materials of statistics. They are information derived from counts,
measurements, observations, interviews, experiments and other techniques. The data originally
measured are referred to as raw data.

A variable is a characteristic of the objects under observation that takes on different values for
different cases. It is any trait that can differ in quality or in quantity from case to case.

Types of Variables

A. According to the nature of the attribute of objects they classify

Qualitative Variable – classifies objects or cases according to the type or quality of
their attributes.
Example: gender, marital status, religious affiliation

Quantitative variable – classifies objects or cases according to the degree or

amount of an attribute.
Example: weight, height, age

B. According to the nature of the values they take on

Discrete Variable – if it has a basic unit of measurement that cannot be subdivided
(countable, expressed as whole numbers)
Example: faculty size, student enrolment, hospital bed capacity

Continuous variable – if its measurement can be subdivided infinitely (can assume

infinitely large number of small, fractional values on a continuum)
Example: weight, height, volume, distance traveled

C. According to Scale or Level of Measurement

Nominal
The lowest level of measurement in which observations are simply classified into
categories with no necessary relationship existing between the categories.
Example: civil status, gender, religious affiliation

Ordinal
Variables that are measured on an ordinal level have the characteristics of a
nominal variable plus the advantage that the categories can be ordered or ranked
from low to high.
Example: stress level (high, moderate, low) ; ranks (1st, 2nd, 3rd); socio-economic
status (upper, middle, lower)

MAED 403
(Educational Statistics w/ Computer Application)
UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
System DALTA First Semester, SY 2019-2020

Interval
Variables that are measured on an interval level have the characteristics of
nominal and ordinal variables but in addition, the categories are measured in
terms of a standard unit of measurement, thus, have equal intervals between
categories and zero point is arbitrary.
Example: test scores, temperature in centigrade or Fahrenheit

Ratio
Variables that are measured on the ratio scale have all the properties of an interval
scale plus a real zero or a true zero point which indicates the absence of the
characteristics measured.
Example: income, length, weight, number of children in a family, student
enrolment

Reliability of Instrument

Reliability refers to the consistency of the scores obtained-how consistent they are for
each individual from one administration of an instrument to another and from one set of items
to another.
1. Test-Retest Method
2. Equivalent-Forms Method
3. Split-Half Method

MAED 403
(Educational Statistics w/ Computer Application)