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The article presents a historical narrative model designed to encourage analytical thinking. My historical narrative
inquiry model (a) teaches procedural knowledge (the process of “doing” history); (b) enhances interpretative skills; (c)
cultivates historical perspectives based upon evidentiary history; and (d) encourages student authorship of historical
narratives. The instructional model emphasizes small- and large-group activities, including oral presentations, discus-
sions about primary documents, and considerations relative to the creation of written history. Students generate their own
historical narratives in order to articulate their perspectives. The purpose of the model is to facilitate students’ historical
understandings by developing more empathetic perceptions of the people of the past.
tive to enable students to develop rich, genera- history — as the inherent communicative
tive — as opposed to passive — historical structure of historical rendering — opens new
understandings. I propose that understanding possibilities for generating historical empathy.
the fundamental relationship of narrative to
Before undertaking a study of past figures, alternative forms such as chronicles and annals
historians must consider and evaluate their lack the ability to illustrate history’s complexi-
own lives, relative to their attitudes and ties, including characterization, human action,
modern influences (VanSledright, 2001). Thus, and conflict innate to the historical plot (Ri-
the historian moves beyond empathetic regard coeur, 1980; White, 1984).
to a rich level of historical understanding: Narrative, on the other hand, embeds the
multiple layers of causation and human action,
Accepting empathetic regard as an act of maintaining the ability to present information
sorcery forces us, I think, to continually in linear form while still preserving the over-
re-examine the illusions we project on lapping aspects of the plot by “Turning to
our ancestors and their actions and inten- narrative activity…the time of the simplest
tions. Such re-examinations push us to story escapes the ordinary notion of time
look at how we work with historical evi- conceived as a series of instances succeeding
dence and attempt the contextualization one another along an abstract line” (Ricoeur,
process. In turn, this pursuit demands 1980, p. 170). The ensemble of human rela-
that we understand ourselves more fully. tionships, actions, and dynamics unravels
(VanSledright, 2001, p. 66) through narrative delivery which Ricoeur
succinctly explains:
The self-understanding developed through
historical investigation parallels Pinar’s (1995) A story describes a series of actions and
notion of currere: By working from within, the actions made by a number of charac-
student delves into the past only to discover an ters…these characters are represented
inward realization of his or her own existence. either in situations that change or as they
Historical empathy demands considerable relate to changes to which they then re-
effort and time from the teacher and students. act. These changes, in turn, reveal the
Historical studies should include three essen- hidden aspects of the situation and of the
tial elements to augment the growth of empa- characters and engender a new predica-
thetic responses: (a) the investigation of a wide ment that calls for thinking, action, or
array of sources, (b) the exposure to multiple both. (p.170)
perspectives, and (c) sufficient time for explo-
ration (Lee, 1983). To become a cogent The power to invoke inquiry, analysis, and
catalyst for change, historical empathy must judgment is found in the unique vantage point
assume prominent pedagogical recognition by afforded by narrative: The reader may move
challenging the facts-based history classroom. backward or forward or return to different
points along the linear sequence. The reader
History and Narrative may also dissect and scrutinize specific parts
or choose to examine the story as a whole,
Though the perspective-forming power of thereby producing Gestalt-like understandings
narrative still remains largely untapped in the (King, 2005). Thus, historical narratives
area of history education, it offers a valuable possess an untapped, multi-linear potential
component to the improvement of historical through the interweaving of human action,
empathy. Because history educators view motives, social constructs, group dynamics,
narrative mainly as a form of passive delivery disruptions, and deviations. The multiple
rather than as medium for inquiry (Levstik & layers of the historical narrative facilitate
Barton, 2001), they fail to harness its interpre- analytical thinking through the principle of
tative nature. Although scholars may seek to repetition — patterns of repeated experiences,
divorce history from the storytelling tradition,
events, and movements unfold (Bruner, 1990; (Holt, 1995; King, 2005; Mink, 1978). Histori-
Ricoeur 1981). cal accounts are value-laden due to the inquir-
In the historical narrative, time is shared by ing perspective of the historian. Thus, “in the
society; thus, public time establishes a sense of selection of topics, the choice and arrangement
community between the reader and the agents of material, the specific historian’s ‘me’ will
described. Ricoeur (1980) defines narrative’s enter,” and despite attempts at objectivity, the
role as the enactor of within-timeness, meaning historian “remains human, a creature of time,
the connection between “being in time” and place, circumstance, interest, predilection,
“telling about it” (Bruner, 1990; Ricoeur, culture” (Beard, 1935, p. 83). The challenges
1980). Narratives then impart a renewed inherent within historical narratives stem from
kinship between the historical present and the the cumbersome problems of historical schol-
historical past as Ricoeur explains, “The art of arship itself (Berkhofer, 1995). Allowing
storytelling retains this public character of students to examine conflicting historical
time, while keeping it from falling into ano- narratives helps students to recognize historical
nymity. It does so first, at time common to bias and to weigh the evidence.
actors, as time woven in common by their Through their work with elementary and
interaction” (p. 171). Change agents, within middle school students, Levstik and Barton
the constraints of public time, act in a foreign (1996a; 1996b; 2001) used historical fiction
world — a world shared by the agents’ con- and trade books, and their research revealed —
temporaries and the modern observers. Nota- in contrast to the textbook — the increased
bly, narratives may present history from a dual benefits of reading narrative accounts of
angle — the mode of the past and the present history: supporting imaginative entry, provid-
— and consequently, agents may be viewed as ing moral weight to analysis, emphasizing
both the cause and as the product of a histori- ethical dilemmas, stimulating interest, and
cal movement (Ricoeur, 1984; White, 1991). formulating judgments. This approach, how-
Through narrative, one may come to real- ever, proved problematic because the children
ize the heroes, the symbols, the structure, and rarely questioned the authenticity of narrative
the climate of a time period. The agents’ texts, confused fact and fiction, and relied on
actions “produce meanings by their conse- emotionally charged responses to formulate
quences, whether foreseen and intended or judgments. VanSledright and Brophy (1992)
unforeseen and intended, which become and VanSledright (2001) found similar short-
embodied in the institutions and conventions of comings with elementary students who vocal-
given social formations” (White, 1984, pp. 26- ized unfounded romantic notions about history.
27). By highlighting human action, historical Thus, narrative functioned as a two-edged
narratives often foster judgments through the sword: Stories encouraged imagination and
recounting of human behavior. This poses offered coherent structures, yet they also led to
powerful implications for the development of the conflation of unrelated details and naïve,
historical empathy, especially in consideration fanciful elaborations.
of the motives, aims, and actions of human These concerns pose valid challenges to the
beings. teaching of the historical narrative as genre.
The evaluation and comparison of multiple Notably, the concerns stem, in part, from the
narratives, such as competing narratives, micro void of an early elementary, critical social
narratives, private narratives (i.e., autobiogra- studies curriculum; instead, curricula centers
phies, biographies, personal narratives), and on the self, the family, and the community.
grand narratives (or the universally accepted Heritage acculturation overrides historically-
history of a people), enables students to grounded instruction, as indicated by the
evaluate history from multiple perspectives mythical narratives often depicting famous
As a class, generate a list of topics and questions that Using the National Archives collection of World War II
interest the students. Conduct an online scavenger pictures from http://www.archives.gov/
hunt to find the answers. research/ww2/photos, create photographic timelines
illustrating events, people, and places from the war.
Collect and share colorful stories and facts about Using enlarged maps, toy armies, and toy ammunitions,
World War II. Students may share the stories by re-enact the story of World War II. Students can create
preparing mini-skits, drawing cartoon strips, or their own maps and props before beginning the game.
participating in storytelling groups. See the World War II map collection at the University
of San Diego: http://www.history.sandiego.edu/
gen/ww2Timeline/Maps.html
Explore the nature and purposes of history. Identify and understand the process of historical
inquiry.
Using audio or video recorders, conduct humorous Teach the concept of perspective by asking students to
impromptu interviews for students to ask people examine optical illusions found online or in I-spy
provoking questions about history. Consider the books. Inform the students that history can be consid-
following questions: What is history? What do ered from multiple angles.
historians do? Is history true? Why study history?
Present five objects representing what history is and Draw cartoons representing the process of historical
why people should study the subject. The students or inquiry: ask questions, investigate secondary sources,
the teacher may bring the objects from home. investigate primary sources, consider multiple points-
of-view, and write and share your version of history.
Figure 2. Strategies for the contextual beginnings phase for a sample unit on World War II.
IMPACT OF
SPECIFIC PEOPLE
POLITICAL
INFLUENCES
SOCIAL
INFLUENCES
GRAND EVENT
EVENT STORYBOARD
Identify students’ interests. Formulate questions for histori- Identify and understand the
cal investigation. process of historical inquiry.
Group the students into interest Using the question guide by Good Play a game of “Pictionary” using
teams. Create mind maps depict- and Brophy (2003), formulate important words associated with
ing what students already know potential questions for research. historical inquiry and World War II.
about World War II. List potential Students may need sample Generate a list of terms such as
topics that students would like to prompts. When ready, select an secondary document, primary
explore further. overarching question to fill into document, historical narrative,
the Vee diagram. perspective, and bias.
Figure 4. Strategies for the in-depth questioning phase for a sample unit on World War II.
Secondary source analysis improves comprehension, builds a knowledge base, and facilitates in-
quiry. Students also need exposure to a wide array of sources depicting multiple perspectives (Davis,
2001; Lee, 1983; Riley, 2001; Vansledright, 2001; Yeager & Foster, 2001). For example, a teacher
introducing the Cold War may consider sharing both the United States and the Soviet perspective.
Additionally, the teacher is not limited to traditional secondary historical narratives; as recommended
by Bage (1999, p. 37), the storied genre includes the following forms:
Autobiographies myth
Biographies narrative visual art forms (e.g., some diaries
court proceedings & cases paintings, tapestries, murals, etc.)
descriptions oral histories & presentations
educational & performance drama personal anecdotes
essays or elements of them poetry
explanations of events procedural descriptions
film recounts of events in the past
folklore & folktales reminiscences
games & simulations sayings
legends songs
letters television (especially in news, media reports
life stories & representations investigative & documen-
memories programs) tary)
monologues titles, terms, & pronouns
museum displays written fiction-stories & novels
The use of more artistic, mythic, and/or 3. What does the account reveal? (the-
persuasive media within the storied genres matic development)
should not replace sound, factual, secondary
historical accounts. Storied genres involving 4. What is missing from the account?
broader interpretative elements (i.e., art, Why? (selection of information)
fiction, or biases accounts) can be analyzed
according to authenticity, impact, and cultural 5. How probable does the narrative ac-
representations (Bage, 1999; Husbands, 1996). count appear to be? Or how much of
The deconstruction of narrative texts may the account is true? Not true? (his-
involve the following considerations: torical truth)
1. Who is the account written for? (audi- 6. What might be the impact of this ac-
ence) count on its audience? (influence)
2. What is the purpose of the account? 7. How does this account compare with
(theme) my view? With other accounts?
expansion of
white/ American land Westward Oregon Trail
way of life acquisition settlement
Settlement of
Texas
Indian
Removal
Led to
Treaty of (1848)
Texas Guadalupe Hidalgo
Revolution
War with
Mexico
Some historians argue
The graphic organizers can be used as platforms for small- and large-group discussions.
Read and interpret Deepen contextual Deconstruct historical Distinguish between mythical
secondary sources. understandings. narratives. and factual history.
After reading personal Using personal narra- Write the deconstruc- Examine mythical depictions of
narratives, draw tives and stories about tion of narrative texts World War II in film/literature.
symbols representing people in the war, questions (p. 22) on Compare findings to secondary
the overall meaning of conduct a living history sets of cards. Discuss accounts. Use graphic organiz-
the text. Suggested museum, where the answers to the ers such as T-charts or Venn
narratives include Lost students in costume questions in small diagrams to represent ideas. The
Battalion: Railway of present vignettes. groups. Record smart art graphics included in
Death (Thompson, Students may add maps findings in a journal, the Microsoft Office 2007 suite
1994) and Cruel Was and artifacts to the research log, and/or on can be used to create com-
the Way (Courington, museum displays. the Vee diagram. pare/contrast organizers
2000). Selections from http://www.office.microsoft.com
both are appropriate for
grades (7-12).
Figure 6. Strategies for secondary source analysis phase for sample unit on World War II.
dence, and the formation of conclu- by embedding procedural skills and facts into
sions as measured against accepted this memory, the think-aloud functions as a
historical narratives. Grouping strate- powerful learning experience (Caine & Caine,
gies may aid struggling students, in- 1991). On occasion, students may enjoy
crease cooperation, and create a dis- conducting think-alouds by talking independ-
cussion forum. ently into an audio recording device. For group
settings, I capture the spirit of the think-aloud
Wineburg (1991a; 1994; 2001), Levstik by using a talking stick that students pass from
(2001), and Yeager and Doppen (2001) have person to person.
used think-alouds to facilitate analytic process- Wineburg (1991b; 1994) conducted a se-
ing during primary document analysis. By minal study on historical cognition by conduct-
definition, a think-aloud is the active process ing a series of think-alouds with six historians
of verbally speaking out loud one’s thoughts who interpreted primary documents from the
while engaging in some sort of intellectual American Revolution. Based upon the histori-
activity (Ericcson & Simon, 1993). The think- ans’ responses during the think-alouds, Wine-
aloud is an effective instrument in facilitating burg (1994) developed a cognitive model of
cognitive processing by providing a consistent, historical texts representing the nature of this
interactive approach to improve reading type of thinking. I have chosen to translate
comprehension and contextual interpretations. these concepts into a series of guiding ques-
By activating the natural, spatial memory and tions as possible student prompts (Figure 7).
1. What resources, attitudes, and views do you (the practicing historian) bring to your interpretation of the
document?
2. What is the overall meaning of the text? Why?
3. What specific passages or phrases reveal pertinent information? Why?
4. How do those specific passages and phrases impact the general meaning of the text?
5. What does the document tell about the visible aspects of the event — or those things that could be heard
and seen by an eyewitness?
6. What does the document tell about the inside aspects of the event, such as meaning the hidden emotions,
the private thoughts, or the personal intentions of the people involved in the event?
7. How is the document an event in itself, that is, how and in what way was the document recorded?
8. What might be the intentions, hidden emotions, and purposes of the person(s) who created the docu-
ment?
9. What type of language is used in this document? Why does this language reveal? For example, docu-
ment recorders may carefully select certain words over others to emphasize specific points? Which
words or phrases seem purposely selected? Why?
10. How does this document compare to the other documents studied? What possible historical truths are-
supported or rejected by the document?
11. How does the document change or support your view of the event?
12. If you were to tell the story of the event after reading this document, what story would you tell? Why?
In addition, the Vee diagrams (Figure 3) are designed to assist students in working and reworking
their ideas and should direct students toward perspective conclusions.
Analyze primary documents by placing images and For each student, keep Compare findings to other
texts on large pieces of butcher paper (Figure 9). research folders containing primary and secondary
Draw arrows, write words, and draw symbols to journal entries and Vee accounts. Use graphic
represent impressions. The prompts for primary diagrams. Handout 1 will organizers that show
document analysis (Figure 7) will help generate assist students in keeping a relationships between
thinking. log of their impressions. ideas. See Figure 6 for
recommendations on
Microsoft’s smart art
graphics.
Figure 8. Strategies for primary source analysis phase for a sample unit on World War II.
Returning to the optical As a pre-writing exercise, Using their written historical narratives,
illusions (Figure 2), discuss in prepare storyboards for the students will prepare an art or multimedia
small- or large-groups the narrative (Figure 11). Write and piece representing their conclusions.
students’ developing perspec- edit several drafts of the narra- Possibilities include dramatic perform-
tives. Using Handout 2, have tives. Create illustrations to ances, poetry, drawings, sculpture,
each student write his or her accompany each narrative. The paintings, websites, Power Point presen-
own perspective about their final copy can be assembled into tations (highlighting findings), oral
topic. a class book with a title page and storytelling, digital documentaries, and
table of contents. musical slideshows.
Figure 10. Strategies for the student authorship phase for a sample unit on World War II.
Figure 11. Seventh-grade student’s sample of a storyboard from the Texas Revolution. The blue and
red lines represent two different plot lines and how those plots interact.
Write reflective essays about Prepare students to serve on panel List the conclusions derived from the
the conclusions derived from discussions. Each panel will repre- historical inquiries. Rate the conclu-
the students’ historical sent the perspectives of the historical sions according to the criteria: almost
inquiries. Alternatively, inquiry teams. Alternatively, individ- certainly true, probably true, partially
small- and large-group ual students may play the role of a true, unlikely, very unlikely. Identify
discussions can occur. historian. The class will prepare gaps and uncertainties. Consider
questions and ask those questions to possibilities for additional research.
the members of each panel.
Figure 12. Strategies for philosophical/argumentative reflection phase for sample unit on World War
II.
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