CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Background

Pakistan is a multilingual country where people speak diverse language varieties in

different regions. Around 6 major and 57 minor languages are spoken in the country.
Urdu is the national language of Pakistan and is spoken by 7% of the population.
Rahman(1996) estimates that the English and Urdu are the languages of the domains
of power that includes the government, corporate sector, media and education. Pashto
is the provincial language of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa and it is the second largest
language of Pakistan spoken by 15% of the population. Multilingualism is a complex
phenomenon that includes the study of the knowledge of, not only the use of two or
more languages but also the larger social and cultural implications. Pashto, like other
languages of Pakistan is affected by the extensive use of English in varied social
situations and contexts. The use of a foreign or second language words or phrases in
the first language is technically termed as ‘code-mixing’. Investigation of a language
enables us to find out what code-mixed patterns are triggered due to factors like
language gap, societal factors, stylistic motivations etc. Code -mixing, as in other
multilingual contexts, has achieved a footing in Pakistani bilingual societies as a
verbal means of communication. The shift of language items occur in both formal and
informal communications and varied social contexts. Empirical research on the area
has revealed that important communication strategies are served by the practice of
mixing or alternating languages. Pashto political talk shows are investigated for the
use of code mixed language and how this practice indexes affiliation with certain
social groups and social identities are being negotiated, switched and constructed by
the speakers in a formal conversation.
1.2 Code Mixing
1.2.1 Operational definitions

Bilingualism

Bilingualism is the ability of a person to speak two or more languages. However it is

difficult to provide an exact definition as a person may describe themselves as bilingual
but may mean only the ability to converse and communicate orally. Others may be
proficient in reading in two or more languages (or bi-literate). A person may be bilingual
by virtue of having grown up learning and using two languages simultaneously
(simultaneous bilingualism). Or they may become bilingual by learning a second
language sometime after their first language. This is known as sequential bilingualism.
To be bilingual means different things to different people. To Montenegro and Ricardo
(2012), bilingualism is characterized by the alternation of two languages. For Moreno
(2009) bilingualism is the native like proficiency of two languages. Rampton (1990)
suggests replacing terms such as 'native speaker' and 'mother tongue' with language
expertise, language affiliation and language inheritance.

Code

A particular style, variety of a language is simply referred to as code. Chakrawarti(2011)

has compared ‘code’ with a ‘system’ that people use to communicate with each other in a
particular manner. Wardaugh (2006) has also suggested that the word ‘code’ can be used
to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. Ping
Liu asserts the same concepts in this way that ‘a code is a rule for changing a piece of
information into another language which might be the second language of speaker (2006,
p.3).

Code-Mixing

Code-mixing can be defined as the switching or mixing of two or more languages within
a single utterance. The switch can take place on a word level, sentence level or at
clause/sentence level. Ayemoni (2006) states in his paper ‘code switching and code
mixing that several scholars have attempted to define code-switching and code-mixing.
Among them are Amuda (1989), Atoye(1994) and Belly (1976). For Hymes (1974) code
switching is “a common term for alternative use of two or more languages, varieties of a
language or even speech styles”. Bokamba (1989) defines both concepts thus:
Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two distinct
grammatical (sub) systems across sentence boundaries within the same speech
event... code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes
(bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes),phrases and clauses from a co-
operative activity where the participants, in order to infer what is intended, must
reconcile what they hear with what they understand.

Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis or CDA is an approach to discourse analysis in which two

senses of the term discourse the linguistic sense and the critical theorist‟s sense-are
equally relevant. The ‘critical’ in CDA refers to a way of understanding the social world
drawn from critical theory. Within that paradigm reality is understood as constructed,
shaped by various social forces. Dr. McGregor (2004) in his paper states that “our words
are never neutral”. This makes the fact even clearer that in critical discourse analysis
observations are conducted as to how different meanings in a society are conveyed
through text or by the demonstration of power. “CDA sees itself as politically involved
research” (Titscher et al, 2000, p.147).

Identity, Code mixing and Discourse

Edwards (2009) stipulates that “individual identities will be both components and
reflections of particular social (or cultural) ones, and the latter will always be, to some
extent at least, stereotypic in nature because of their necessary generality across the
individual components.” It has been established that language does not stand alone, but is
related both directly and indirectly to social, political, historical, and other extra-linguistic
factors (Spolsky 2004). However, extra-linguistic, identity, as Blommaert (2005)
contends, is context dependent and involves “a semiotic process of representation,”
which includes symbols, narratives, textual genres, national categories, and socially
constructed categories, such as age, gender, and profession.
1.2.2 Code mixing as a Socio-cultural Practice

1.3 Pashto Language

1.4 Language and Identity in Political Talk Shows

1.5 Significance of Research

The study will prove to be significant due to its focus on one of the widely spoken regional
language of Pakistan, i.e Pashto. The research is an investigation of the process of code-mixing
from quantitative and qualitative perspectives. The change in Pashto that has occurred in present
times, will be presented through the quantitative part of the research. It will document the
frequency of code-mixed patterns of language and the consequential linguistic change in
lexical/structural categories.

The other facet of study will look into the aspect of identity. The study of participant’s careful use
of semiotic linguistic resources, in a formal platform of political talk shows will give insight into
the strategies adopted for the purpose of identity construction. This aspect will allow the readers
to understand the phenomenon of identity construction in a formal conversation and also the
pragmatic functions achieved during the process. The study is also useful from a cultural
perspective as it will provide evidence of the practices of Pashto speakers in attempt to create
their identity, or the use of English for the construction of hybrid identities that is, the identity as
a Pakhtoon, political spokesperson, educated person, media person, spokesperson or common
man. These strategies can also be looked as resources for conveying power or lack of it and
making certain agents subtly disappear from texts.
The study can be used as an example to signpost the change in the present socio-linguistic
scenario of Pakistan and as a tool to predict the track of future socio-linguistic changes.

1.6 Aim of the Research

The aim of this research is to investigate mainly the code mixed patterns of English in
Pashto language; the impact of the use of linguistic choices on the construction of identity
in Pashto political discourse will also be investigated. Following objectives will also be
met in the process of research study:
 i. To analyse the grammatical/structural categories of English that are code mixed in
Pashto and what is the frequency of this code mixing?

ii. To examine the structural constraints on the use of English language items in
Pashto speech?

iii. To investigate whether and in what ways the code-mixed patterns of language
construct identities formed temporarily in interaction?

iv. To explore how linguistic choices and primarily code-mixed language in a Pashto
political talk show index a participant’s membership/affiliation in, with or against
a certain social group (political group, class, culture etc.)?

v. To investigate how alternation between linguistic codes helps in switching identities, in

this case a Pashto speaker choosing Urdu and English repertoire to create, and/or shift
hybridized identities-various individual and social identities such as; identity as a
host or a guest, as a male or female, as a representative of a political party, as a
speaker of a certain language, as a member of a certain social group.

1.7 Research Questions

The focus of this research study is to explore what code mixed patterns of English
language are found in Pashto; and what is the impact of the use of code-mixed linguistic
choices on the construction of identity in Pashto political discourse. Following are some
of the questions that the study intends to answer:

i. What grammatical/structural categories of English are code mixed in Pashto and

what is the frequency of this code mixing?

ii. What are the structural constraints on the use of English language items in Pashto
speech?
 iii. Whether and in what ways gender plays a role in the determining code mixing
practices and consequently impacting the construction of identity?

iv. How linguistic choices in a Pashto political talk show index a participant’s
membership/affiliation in, with or against a certain social group (political group, class,
culture etc.)?

v. How alternation between linguistic codes helps in switching identities, in this case a
Pashto speaker choosing Urdu and English repertoire to create, shift and/or hybridized
identities?

vi. How power creates identity through code mixing in relation to various individual
and social identities such as; identity as a host or a guest, as a male or female, as a
representative of a political party, as a speaker of a certain language, as a member
of a certain social group.

1.8 Delimitation of the Research

Following are some delimitations of the present research:

- The data is collected from the Pashto Political talk shows due to the nature of the present study i.e
code-mixing in the language used in interaction and its implication on the identity construction.
- Code-mixing and structural analysis of Urdu lexical items in Pashto is not examined. Pashto
language in both formal and informal verbal conversation incorporates Urdu lexicon and because
of its extensive use in everyday speech, a separate study solely dedicated for the study of code
mixing of Urdu in Pashto is required.
- In depth analysis of the English code-mixed items in Pashto in done whereas for the discourse
analysis, some code-mixed patterns from the program are examined and explained.

1.9 Structure of the Research

The first chapter provides the introduction of the thesis, the significance, research questions,
objectives and delimitation of the research. Some operational definitions of the key concepts are
also given. In the second chapter, the relevant literature is provided that gives the background for
the present research and states the status of the thesis. In chapter three, the methodology adopted
for the collection, presentation and analysis of the data is explained. The analysis and discussion
of the code-mixed Pashto language is included in chapter four. In the last chapter, the findings of
the research are given and the contribution and recommendations for further research in the field
are given.