A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
“LPG GAS LEAKAGE DETECTOR”
SUBMITTED TO:
Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)
(University Of Technology Of Madhya Pradesh)

In partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
2010-2014

SUBMITTED BY
STUDENT NAME
Under the guidance of
Mr. Sanjay Singh Kushwah
(HOD EC DEPT.)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GWALIOR INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, GWALIOR
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL (M.P.)

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project entitled “LPG GAS LEAKAGE DETECTOR”
which is being submitted by STUDENT NAME In partial fulfillment for the award
for degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electronics & Communication
Engineering) of Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyala, Bhopal (M.P.), is a
record of student’s own carried by them under my guidance and supervision. To
the best of my knowledge, the matter presented in this project has not been
submitted for the award of any other diploma or degree certificate.

Head of Dept.
Prof. Sanjay Singh Kushwah
(EC Dept.)

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

GOD is always with us, above us to bless, below us to support, before us to guide,
behind us to protect, beside us to comfort and inside us to sustain.

Every shining building has a firm foundation beneath it. There are various persons
who led us to walk on a proper path to reach on our destination. The work of this
project is a tough involvement and it cannot be accomplished without some
superior guidance. Working on this project has been a great experience for us.
There were moment of anxiety, when we could solve a before the time expected.
It is our pleasure in talking this opportunity to express our sincere thanks and
deep sense of gratitude to all those people who extended their precious time and
valuable guidance during our project period. We would like to mention the name
of those persons to whom our sincere thanks our Attribute for their invaluable
guidance and help in completion of this project.

First of all, we would like to express our profound sense of gratitude to

Prof. Sanjay Singh Kushwah (Head Of EC Dept. of GIIT), who always gave us his
precious suggestion and valuable encouragement regarding this project.

Sincerely Thanks to all.

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 CANDIDATES DECLARATION

STUDENT NAME hereby declare that the work presented in this project entitled
“LPG GAS LEAKAGE DETECTOR” in partial fulfillment for the award of the
degree of the bachelor of engineering is a record of my own work carried out
under guidance of Prof. Sanjay Singh Kushwah (Head Of EC Dept. of GIIT) We
have not submitted the matter presented in this project report for any another
degree or diploma.

STUDENT NAME
ROLL NO.

4
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1 - OBJECTIVES

Chapter 2 – DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION

Chapter 3 - CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Chapter 4 - PCB LAYOUT

Chapter 5 – BLOCK DIAGRAM

Chapter 6 - DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENT

Chapter 7 - PCB ETCHING

Chapter 8 - TEST PLAN

Chapter 9 - CONCLUSION

Chapter 10- BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 Chapter 1
OBJECTIVES

The primary objects of the present project to provide a novel means for safely detecting any

malfunction of a pressurized gas system in order to prevent accumulation of combustible gases

so that damage or explosion due to such an accumulation of gases is prevented. Another object

of the present invention is to provide a novel safety means for detecting the leakage of gas into

the area of an appliance when the appliance is in a shutdown condition and not in operation. Yet

another object of the present invention is to provide a novel gas detection and monitoring system

which is economical to manufacture and which may be readily installed in conventional trailers,

boats or the like which are normally dependent upon a stored supply of pressurized gas. Typical

installation areas being gas yards (Bullets), gas banks with multi cylinders in manifold, user

production departments / utility areas like kitchens. Ideal sensor for use to detect the presence of

a dangerous LPG leak in your car or in a service station, storage tank environment. This unit can

be easily incorporated into an alarm unit, to sound an alarm or give a visual indication of the

LPG concentration. The sensor has excellent sensitivity combined with a quick response time.

The sensor can also sense iso-butane, propane, LNG and cigarette smoke.

The proposed project is for detection of LPG Gas leakage , it is so designed that if there is LPG

leakage then it can detect it and show it on screen with buzzing a alarm

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 Chapter 2

DESIGN DESCRIPTION
This system helps you to upgrade your safety standards, comply statutory requirements on

environmental commitments and most important and basic function being prevent accidents and

protect life and property from disaster. In the past, it has been a conventional practice to employ

combustion apparatus such as a furnace, heater, stove or LPG kit in cars, which utilizes a

combustible vapor or gas to produce heat energy when properly ignited. In the use of

combustible apparatus in which a combustible gas such as natural or liquid propane gas is burned

in heating boilers, domestic water heaters, ovens, stoves and the like, the apparatus or appliance

is generally of an automatic recycling type. That is to say, the equipment is generally in

operation for short periods of time after which is shut down for a short period of time. The

equipment has intermediate operation and the appliance is generally started and stopped at the

signal of an automatic controller, such as a thermostat, which may be actuated by temperature,

pressure, or the like. The LPG Kit installed is many times installed inside the car creating

possibilities of large accidents. This type of appliance/Kits is normally unattended by any

operating personnel, since it is automatic in operation and, therefore, one hazard encountered in

the use of such an appliance is the possibility that during a standby period or a period in which it

is not in operation, a gas leak may occur thereby resulting in a large accumulation of combustible

gas which can produce an explosion if the detection is not quickly noticed. Although some

sophisticated detector means have been provided, it is contemplated that the indicator means

should be simple and economical so that the entire system may be readily incorporated into

mobile trailers, campers, boats and other vehicles or living quarters having appliances dependent

upon storage of pressurized gas.

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In this circuit we used MQ-6 sensor for gas leakage detection. MQ-6 sensor composed by micro

AL2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2) sensitive layer, measuring electrode and heater are

fixed into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net. The heater provides necessary work

conditions for work of sensitive components. The enveloped MQ-6 has 6 pin, 4 of them are used

to fetch signals, and other 2 are used for providing heating current. Here MQ-6 sensor works on

basics of combustion process, and output is given in variable voltage form, so, when LPG gas is

leakage voltage at the output pin of MQ-6 is increased and we use IC2 (Op-amp LM324) as a

comparator for compare the LPG leakage with respect to normal condition. Output of comparator

is fed to IC1 microcontroller (ATMEL 89S52) and corresponding coding LCD is display gas

leakage and give another instruction to buzzer.

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 Chapter 3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig . 3.1 Circuit Diagram

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 Chapter 4

PCB LAYOUT

Fig . 4.1 PCB Layout Diagram

10
 Chapter 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM

OUTPUT INPUT
SYSTEM
POWER SUPPLY

Buzzer Controller

MICROCONTROLLER

SECTION

INPUT SENSOR

MODULE

LCD SECTION

Fig . 5.1 Block Diagram

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 Chapter 6

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENT

6.1 Transformer
6.2 Bridge Rectifier
6.3 Capacitor
6.4 Voltage Regulator
6.5 Resistor
6.6 Led
6.7 Microcontroller
6.8 Crystal Oscillator
6.9 MQ-6 Sensor
6.10 LCD Display(Alphanumerical)

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 6.1 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between
its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf.) or voltage in the secondary
winding. Transformers can be used to vary the relative voltage of circuits orisolate them, or both.

Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing

hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are used in
electronic and electric power applications. Transformers are essential for
the transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the
turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside

13
the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with
the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately
stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not
directly a power loss (see Stray losses below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing
the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under
heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the
operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field
around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic
bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-
circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that
exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for
safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency
transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings.

Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can
be shown that if the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding leakage reactance-to-
resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers
would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in
parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the
impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and
X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500
kVA units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~
4.75

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 6.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.

When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output,[1] it is known as abridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as
compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary
winding.

The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of
the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit was invented by Polish electrotechnician Karol
Pollak [3] and patent was recorded in 14 Jan, 1896 under the number DRP[4] 96564. It was later
published in Elektronische Zeitung, vol. 25 in 1897 with annotation that German physicist Leo
Graetz also was researching this matter at that time.[5] Today the circuit is still often referred
as Graetz circuit or Graetz bridge'.

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According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin
Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current is assumed to flow
through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in
a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of
applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the
discussion below the conventional model is retained.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply
terminal via the blue(negative) path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this
is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC
input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed
backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects
the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals.

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Prior to the availability of integrated circuits, a bridge rectifier was constructed from "discrete
components", i.e., separate diodes. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component
containing the four diodes connected in a bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.

POWER SUPPLY

A simple power supply from 220V AC to 5 VOLT DC using transformer, rectifier and dc
voltage regulating IC 7805 .

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 6.3 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by
a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated
by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to
one coulomb per volt.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often calledplates, referring to an early means of construction. In
practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has
an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow

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A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even
a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed
to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external
electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces,[11] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of
one volt across the device

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

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Dielectric materials

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These
dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a
vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low
losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in
radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary
plates, with no significant air space between them.
In order to maximize the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to have as
high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible.

Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic materials.
Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance.
However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film
capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in
timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies.
Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications,
although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly
categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with
temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors
are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too
expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors are
used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used
in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-
insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.

Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The
second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic

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capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual
loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality
capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of
the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While
widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them
unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period
(around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the
capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes (for instance, in older
equipment, arcing in rectifier tubes). They can be restored before use (and damage) by gradually
applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period of
30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. Unfortunately, the use of this
technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by
operation below its normal power

range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such
remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full
output voltage even with reduced input.

Capacitance instability
The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors,
this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and
storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a
smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie
point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over
time.[26] Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic
capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per °C. It
can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the
temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be either positive or negative, sometimes
even amongst different samples of the same type. In other words, the spread in the range of
temperature coefficients can encompass zero. See the data sheet in the leakage current section
above for an example.
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb
sound waves resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the
capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity.
The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing

21
feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field
between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate
audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.

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 6.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (78XX)
The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the
family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805
has a 6 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage
regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related
line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs
can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although
smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of
36 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though
smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).

Advantages
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of
power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage
regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the
regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may need
substantial engineering expertise to implement.

78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They have
protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications.
In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide protection not only
for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.

Disadvantages

The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum amount
(typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from

23
certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires 5 volts using 6-volt
batteries will not work using a 7805).

As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the same as
the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage, this
means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the 78xx will be more than
the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as heat. This means both that for
some applications an adequate heatsink must be provided, and also that a (often substantial)
portion of the input power is wasted during the process, rendering them less efficient than some
other types of power supplies. When the input voltage is significantly higher than the regulated
output voltage (for example, powering a 7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency
can be a significant issue.

Individual devices in the series

There are common configurations for 78xx ICs, including 7805 (5 volt), 7806 (6 volt), 7808
(8 volt), 7809 (9 volt), 7810 (10 volt), 7812 (12 volt), 7815 (15 volt), 7818 (18 volt), and 7824
(24 volt) versions. The 7805 is common, as its regulated 5 volt supply provides a convenient
power source for most TTL components. Each device in this series has minimum input voltage to
be maintained to get regulated output.
Part Number Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (V)
7805 +5 7.3
7806 +6 8.3
7808 +8 10.5
7810 +10 12.5
7812 +12 14.6
7815 +15 17.7
7818 +18 21.0
7824 +24 27.1

Less common are lower-power versions such as the LM78Mxx series (500 mA) and LM78Lxx
series (100 mA) from National Semiconductor. Some devices provide slightly different voltages
than usual, such as the LM78L62 (6.2 volts) and LM78L82 (8.2 volts) as well as
STMicroelectronics L78L33ACZ (3.3 volts)

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 6.5 RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms.

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the
circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are
also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of magnitude. When specifying
that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require
attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes
be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum

25
working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause
the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications
can be important in high-frequency applications. In alow-noise amplifier or pre-amp,
the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise,
and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the
resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized
according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or
terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a
very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and mega ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured
in siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an
ohm: . Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical
resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country
to country. Two typical symbols are as follows;

American-style symbols. (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC-style resistor symbol

26
The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation
avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol
for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of
8.2 kΩ. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be
expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For
example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω. The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter
'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a
printed circuit diagram.

Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen
across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum
of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same
resistance R, is given by NR. Thus, if a 100K ohm resistor and a 22K ohm resistor are connected
in series, their combined resistance will be 122K ohm— they will function in a circuit as though
they were a single resistor with a resistance value of 122K ohm; three 22K ohm resistors
(N=3, R=22K) will produce a resistance of 3x22K=66K ohms.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage),
however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine
the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be
computed:

27
So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with to a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm
resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725
ohms. The greater the number of resistors in parallel, the less overall resistance they will
collectively generate, and the resistance will never be higher than that of the resistor with the
lowest resistance in the group (in the case above, the resistor with the least resistance is the 5
ohm resistor, therefore the combined resistance of all resistors attached to it in parallel will never
be greater than 5 ohms).
The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case
the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this
can be calculated using:

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into

smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more
sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been
replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite
vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner
resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix
methods can be used to solve such a problem.

28
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This
can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual
resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected
in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.
Fixed resistor

A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One end of each
resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the
remaining (common) pin –pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.

Lead arrangements

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting Through-hole components typically have
leads leaving the body axially. Others have leads coming off their body radially instead of
parallel to the resistor axis. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology) while
high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.

Carbon composition

Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio Carbon composition resistors
consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to
which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic.
Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were

29
wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was
painted for color-coding of its value.

The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered) carbon and an
insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is
determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher
concentrations of carbon a good conductor result in lower resistance. Carbon composition
resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for general use
now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress
(carbon composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-voltages). Moreover, if
internal moisture content (from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment) is
significant, soldering heat will create a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon
composition resistors have poor stability with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at
best, only 5% tolerance.[5] These resistors, however, if never subjected to overvoltage nor
overheating were remarkably reliable considering the component's size.

Carbon composition resistors are still available, but comparatively quite costly. Values ranged
from fractions of an ohm to 22 mega ohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no longer
used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding controls.[6]

Carbon pile

A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact
plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These
resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, for example in testing automotive batteries
or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors
in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred
watts.[7] A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators,
where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage. [8] The
principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.

Carbon film

Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1 kΩ carbon film resistor a carbon film is deposited on an
insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying
shapes, coupled with theresistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500 to
800 μΩ m), can provide a variety of resistances. Compared to carbon composition they
feature low noise, because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without
binding.[9] Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C.
Resistances

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Printed carbon resistor

A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. Inside a 1989 vintage Psion II
Organiser Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB)
substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Whilst this technique is more common on
hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically
quite large, and can be in the order of 30%. A typical application would be non-critical pull-up
resistors.

Thick and thin film

Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount device)
resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than
thin films, but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors)
or the surface (SMD resistors).usually different consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet)
conductors such as tantalumnitride (TaN), rutheniumoxide (RuO2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth
ruthenate (BiRuO7), nickel chromium (NiCr), or bismuth iridate (BiIrO).

Metal oxide film

Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides such as tin oxide. This results in a higher
operating temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film. They are used in
applications with high endurance demands.

worse than that of a composition resistor.

Foil resistor Wirewound

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High-power wire wound resistors used for dynamic braking on an electric railway car. Such
resistors may dissipate many kilowatts for extended times.

Types of windings in wire resistors:

1. common
2. bifilar
3. common on a thin former
4. Ayrton-Perry

Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or
rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded
plastic, or anenamel coating baked at high temperature. These resistors are designed to withstand
unusually high temperatures of up to +450 °C.[6] Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors
are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher
power wirewound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an
insulating layer is used-- if the outer case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes described as
"cement" resistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional cement. The aluminum-
cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is
dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat
at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may
be rated for 1,000 watts or more.

Ammeter shunts

An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value
in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually
accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt,
where the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two
solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on to an insulating base. Between the blocks, and
soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of low temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current
32
connections, while much smaller screws provide voltage connections. Shunts are rated by full-
scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such meters are adapted
to the shunt full current rating by using an appropriately marked dial face; no change need be
made to the other parts of the meter.

Grid resistor

, load testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations.[13][14] In heavy-duty
industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled lattice of stamped
metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial grade resistors can
be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of current, with a range
of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in applications such as dynamic
braking and load banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC
distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment
The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to
the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit
topology.

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 6.6 LED - Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[7] LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used forgeneral lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962,[8] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and
integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[9]LEDs have many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of
many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances.
LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

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 6.7 MICROCONTROLLER

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM,
32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-
level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In
addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

35
36
 6.8 Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very
precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric
resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as
crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in
similar circuits.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for
consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz
crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.

37
 6.9 PIR Sensor
Sensitive material of MQ-6 gas sensor is SnO2, which with lower conductivity in clean air.
When the target combustible gas exist, The sensor’s conductivity is more higher along with the
gas concentration rising. Please use simple electrocircuit, Convert change of conductivity to
correspond output signal of gas concentration. MQ-6 gas sensor has high sensitity to Propane,
Butane and LPG, also response to Natural gas. The sensor could be used to detect different
combustible gas, especially Methane, it is with low cost and suitable for different application.

Character

* Good sensitivity to Combustible gas in wide range

* High sensitivity to Propane, Butane and LPG

* Long life and low cost

* Simple drive circuit

Application

* Domestic gas leakage detector

* Industrial Combustible gas detector

* Portable gas detector

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 6.10 LCD DISPLAY(ALPHANUMERICAL)

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven
segments), animations andoon.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command
and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the
cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn
more about internal structure of a LCD.

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Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

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 Chapter 9
PCB ETCHING PROCESS

STEP 1. Take a plane copper plate and print layout over it.

Step 2. Dip this plate into ferric chloride solution. And wait till unnecessary copper remove out
from plate.

Step 3. Now dry and clean it.

41
Step 4. Now drill all soldering pad and a PCB(printed circuit board) ready to placed component.

42
 Chapter 10
Test plan

1. All printed circuit board short circuiting are checked by multimeter.

2. Check the Power supply provide for system.

3. Switch on the push button, then all circuitry at workable condition.

4. Check the conditions of sensors.

5. Do it sure that system are proper working condition.

6. Do it sure that microcontroller based module are working condition.

7. Check all IC connection.

8. Check Power Supply and all supply volts.

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 Chapter 11
CONCLUSION

Hence by the help of this project we can make automatic leakage systems which works on digital

output from op-apms. This can help us economically and also can restrict the use of wastage of

energy source, and also big thing for safety. This system can be the future project with minimum

cost because the sensors and other peripheral device are not much costly and these all

components are easily available in market. The microcontroller used in it is very used and cheap

in market.

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 Chapter 12
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Our special thanks to Prof. Sanjay Singh Kushwah (Head Of EC Dept. of GIIT) for helping us in

this project.

We also give special thanks to Technopoint Info (p) Ltd. to for helping us and guide us in our

project in his lab, Google.com and Wikipedia .com help us in finding the design and better

performance.

About microcontroller the best reference we get is “The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded.

Systems. By MA Majidi “

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