Coasts 4/9/2015 10:54:00 AM

Coasts
• Coasts are the boundary between the ocean and the land.
• their character is determined in part by:
– whether they are on an active or passive margin,
– the amount of wave energy it receives
– slope of the land
– Sea Level (has one of the greatest effects on coasts because it changes where the land
meets the sea)
Sea Level
• Sea level is always changing
• Longterm, widespread changes in sea level are called eustatic changes
Eustatic changes occur because:
– the amount of water in the ocean is changing
– size of ocean basins are changing
– the expansion and contraction of seawater due to temperature
Example: Eustatic change occurred after the last ice age when a lot of water was bound up
in ice caps and glaciers
• Coast of Florida used to be 125m lower (most of the continental shelf used to be land)
• 5 m higher would put New Orleans and Miami under water
Classifying Coasts by Processes
• Erosional Coast: dominant processes remove coastal material
• Depositional Coast: have beaches that are steady or growing due to accumulation of
sediments
Erosional Coasts
• High wave-energy coasts; lots of wave action due to many storms and a long fetch
• Examples: Maine, West Coast of the US, British Columbia, Southern tips of South America
and Africa
– the west coast of the US and British Columbia due toy extremely long fetch of the Pacific
• Dominated by rock (sea cliffs, rock pinnacles)
• Over time, erosional forces will create a smooth shoreline due to the refraction of waves
– Refraction concentrates wave energy at headlines
Depositional Coasts
• Low-energy coasts, often protected and not subject to frequent, large wave action
• Dominated by sediments
• Ex. Gulf of Mexico
Beaches
• Wave energy and particle size of sediments can determine beach slope
– courser (larger-size) grains are higher on the beach where the slope is steeper
– smaller-sized grains (sand/silt/mud) where the slope is shallower/flat
*this is due to the way sediments are distributed by wave action (longshore drift)

Dunes:

Sediment Transport on Beaches

• Longshore drift: the movement of sediment along the coast by wave action
• Longshore currents: currents that run along the coast and can transport sediments
Sediment Transport on Beaches can change intensity with Seasonality
• Summer
• Winter (stronger storms)
*Sediment transport is greater in the winter due to higher wave action
Coastal Cells
• The input and output of sand on a beach is balanced in a coastal cell
• Most sediment arrives from rivers, is moved along the coast, and then removed by waves
(often down submarine canyons thus forming turbidity currents and providing the sediments
we find in the continental slope, the continental rise and the abyssal plains).
Louisiana Coast
• While the Gulf Coast is a depositional coast, Louisiana’s coast is ‘eroding’ due to the land
subsiding, rising sea level, and lack of input of sediments. (Infrastructure built along the
Mississippi River to control flooding has cut off the source of sediments to the coastal area.)
Other Features of Depositional Coasts **constantly changing features**
Headlands – protects bays within
Sand Bars – always moving
Sea Islands –
Barrier Islands – built of sediments deposited offshore of a coastline
• dependent upon constant input of sediment to maintain their position and size
• in a constant state of flux
• Jettys can affect sediment transport by disrupting the longshore drift of sediment.
• Without constant deposition, erosional forces move and change the islands. (Barrier
islands are dependent upon a constant input of sediment.)
Dauphin Island – example of how nature and human construction have collided on a barrier
island
• sensitive to strong wave activity and storm surges
• Hurricanes both erode, and deposit sediment on barrier islands.
– Hurricane Ivan changed the elevation and eliminated the “road” in the middle of the
island. (Elevation decreased on the Oceanside and increased in the area around the road.)
– Hurricane Katrina dramatically changed the island by moving the sediment from the ocean
side to the bayside and removing sediment/houses from the oceanside. (road nonexistent)
Deltas
• Form in areas where there is a broad continental shelf and low tidal action
• Delta’s don’t form in erosional coasts due to increased erosional forces.
• River-dominated: strong freshwater discharge dominates
– Ex: Birdfoot Delta of the Mississippi River
• Tidal-dominated: freshwater discharge is overpowered by tidal currents whereby seawater
and tides make the water salty or brackish (influx of seawater up into the delta)
• don’t see much sediment discharge influence outside of the delta because the tide is
pushing up into the river
– Ex: Ganges River in India
Glaciers Built Coastal Features
• Glaciers transport sediment

– as they advance and deposit it at their margin as the retreat

Moraines – built by glaciers (sediment that is deposited by glaciers)
• Ex: Cape Cod in Massachusetts
– Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard are islands that were formed as sediment built up
around glacial deposits.
– Elizabeth Islands formed as the glacier retreated and left a recessional moraine along
cape cod.
* The original deposition of sediment and rock by the glaciers helped to give the final
resulting shape of this coastline.

Human Activity Shapes Coasts

• Human activities can change the balance of sediment deposition and erosion
• This occurs through activities that either decrease sediment delivered to coastal areas or
by building coastal structures that change or eliminate the longshore drift.
Structures: Breakwater – a visible wall that is constructed offshore for the purpose of
absorbing wave action, thus creating calmer area near the coast to make boating and
swimming safer.
• 1931, no breakwater
- can affect a depositional coastline by
• 1949, breakwater constructed
- dramatic difference in the shoreline
- leads to more deposition of sediment just inshore of the breakwater because the
breakwater prevents wave activity from reaching the beach thus removing or moving
sediments with longshore drift
• 2007, breakwater deteriorated
- Wave action eroded the large deposit of sand that had been in place behind the
breakwater, thus returning the shoreline to it’s original location.
Structures: Groin – built to stop the transport of sediment in a longshore drift
- placed perpendicular to the coastline
- sediment builds up along the groin and cant move any further so there is an erosion of
sediment on the other side of the groin
- can change the beach profile
Structures: Seawalls – built to decrease wave activity protect structures from large waves
and storms
-erosion happens replace the sand that’s being eroded behind it.
Importing Sand
- better than building structures that greatly alter the shoreline
- disadvantages are that it is mined from offshore at a very high cost, disrupts the
communities offshore, and it’s a much finer grade than sand found on beaches, thus erodes
faster and has to be replaced often
We Love the beach…
- Struggling to find ways to balance protection of the environment and original state litigate
the loss of sand and protect coastal structures.
- will become more and more important with rising sea level which is going to put coastal
communities at greater risk of erosion and storm surge in the future

What wave behavior concentrates wave energy at a headland? How will this shape the shoreline over time?

Refraction concentrates wave energy at headlands. This will create a smooth shoreline over time

What is a eustatic change in sea level? What are the causes of such a change?
These are longterm, widespread changes in sea level caused by the amount of water in the oceans changing, changes in sizes of

ocean basins, expansion and contraction of seawater due to changes in temperature

What characterizes an erosional coast? What is an example?

Erosional coasts have lots of wave action and are dominated by rock. Examples are Maine, British Columbia, Southern tips of South

America and Africa

What is a coast?

The boundary between the ocean and the land

What are some of the factors that determine the character of a coast?

Whether the coast is on an active or passive margin, the amount of wave energy, and the slope of the land

What is balanced in a coastal cell?

The input and output of sand on a beach

If the Louisiana coast is a depositional coast, then why is so much coastline disappearing?

Subsidence of the land, rising sea level, and the lack of input of sediments from rivers due to man made diversion structures is

causing the erosion of the Louisiana coast

What is longshore drift?

the movement of sediment along the coast by wave action

What is the source of most sediments in the coastal zone?

River input

What is the general relationship between beach slope and grain size of sediments on a beach?

The steeper slopes have larger grains and the flattest parts of a beach have sediments of the smallest grain size

What characterizes a depositional coast? What is an example?

Depositional coasts are low energy, they are protected and not subject to frequent, large waves and are dominated by sediments. An

example is the coasts in the Gulf of Mexico

What are longshore currents?

currents that run along the coast and can transport sediments

What is a tidally dominated delta? What is an example?

A delta where freshwater discharge is overpowered by tidal currents. The Ganges river system is a tidally dominated delta

Describe generally how a hurricane would impact a barrier island

Sediment is eroded on the seaward side of the island and deposited on the landward or bayside of the island

What are barrier islands dependent upon to maintain their size and position?

A constant input of sediment

What is a river dominated delta? What is an example?

A delta where strong freshwater discharge dominates. The Mississippi River delta QUESTION 7

Moraines are deposits that build coastlines. How were they deposited and what is an example of coastal features built by moraines?

Moraines were deposited by advancing glaciers and left behind when the glaciers retreated. Cape Cod is an example of a coastal

feature built by moraines

Where are you likely to find a river delta?

In an area with a board continental shelf and low tidal action

How do breakwaters alter the coast?

There is an increase of sediment deposited behind the breakwater due to the decrease in erosional forces because the beach behind

the breakwater is protected from wave action

How do human activities affect coasts?

Through activities that decrease sediment delivered to the coast and building coastal structures that alter the erosion and

depositional patterns on the coast

What is a groin and why is it built? How does it affect the coast?

Groins are structures that extend from the beach to the water to counter erosion by trapping sand. Groins change the deposition

patterns on a beach by trapping sand on the up current side but having increased erosion of sand on the down current side

Why is importing sand not a perfect solution to beach erosion?

The sand is generally mined offshore and is finer grain than the beach sand and so erodes more quickly

Why are seawalls built and how do they affect the coast?

built to protect structures from large waves and storms by decreasing wave activity; must constantly replace the sand that’s being

eroded behind it

8 quiz questions
Ocean Chemistry 4/9/2015 10:54:00 AM

The Water Molecule

Water is an incredible solvent

• Water is a compound, made up of two elements, one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen (H2O)
• These atoms are held together with chemical bonds--electron sharing (covalent bonds)
• Water is a polar molecule, positive and negatively charged ends
– It is the angular shape of the molecule that gives it this property
• When the polar water molecule encounters compounds held together by opposite charges
(ionic bonds), it pulls them apart
Chemistry Definition Review
• Ion - an atom or molecule with an electrical charge
• Ionic bond - bonds that form between ions of opposite charges
• Mixture -- different substances are mixed, but retain their original properties
• Solution -- a combination of one or more substances that has uniform properties (no
substance retains it’s original properties)
• Solvent -- Substance in a solution present in the greatest amount (water)
• Solute -- Substance that is dissolved in a solvent (sodium)
Water Cycle
What is Seawater made up of?
Salinity
• The measure of total dissolved inorganic solids
• Seawater is typically composed of 3.5% dissolved materials
• The world’s oceans contain 5.5 trillion tons of salt
• Salinity is expressed as parts per thousand (‰), 35‰
• This is more commonly expressed as practical salinity units, psu, a dimensionless ratio of
conductivity
Properties of Seawater
• Heat capacity - decreases with increasing salinity
• Freezing -- decreases with increasing salinty
• Evaporation - occurs at a slower rate with increasing salinity
• Osmotic Pressure -- pressure exerted on a biological membrane with the external salinity
is different from the internal salinity
Source of Dissolved Components
• Dissolved crustal rock
• But, the primary ions in river water are bicarbonate and calcium, while the primary ones
in seawater are chloride and sodium
•?
• Excess volatiles -- dissolved components in seawater not accounted for by weathering of
the crust
• These components are contained in higher concentrations in the mantle
Forchhammer’s Principle
• Principle of constant proportions
• The ratio of the major salts in seawater is constant even if the total concentration changes
Measuring Salinity
• Because of Forchhammer’s principle, we only have to measure the concentration of one
constituent to calculate the total salinity
• Chloride is most abundant and easy to measure
• Chlorinity -- total mass of halogen ions (chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine…)
• Salinity (‰) = 1.80655 x Chlorinity (‰)
• Water was collected and a method using silver nitrate was used to measure chlorinity and
calculate salinity
• Refractometer -- measures the index of refraction of the water and salinity can be
calculated from this
• Now we typically use a salinometer or conductivity cell
• This measures the electrical conductivity of seawater, the concentration of ions, and this is
converted to salinity
Why doesn’t the Ocean get Saltier?
• The Ocean is in chemical equilibrium, the proportions and amounts of dissolved salts per
unit volume of water stay the same
• Dissolved constituents are removed at the same rates that they are added
• All the water in the ocean is thought to cycle through the seabed at mid-ocean ridges
every 1-2 million years
Residence Time

• The average length of time an atom of a particular element stays in the ocean
• Dissolved constituents are removed by being bound into sediments, used by organisms for
shells (silicon, calcium)
• Sediments are returned to the mantle at subduction zones, recycling
Residence Time
• Depends on chemical activity of atom
**Amount of an element in the ocean / (divided by) Rate at which the element is added to
or removed from the ocean**
• The mixing time of the ocean is 1600 years
• If an element remains in the ocean longer than the mixing time, it will be evenly
distributed
Dissolved Constituents
• Conservative Constituents: occur in constant proportion or change slowly (chloride,
sodium, etc.)
• Nonconservative constitutes: tied to biological or seasonal cycles (oxygen, carbon dioxide,
silica, calcium) (very short residence times); dissolved O2, CO2, Silicon, Ca+2, NO3-, PO4-
3, Al+3 (absorbed on clay sediment particles)

Dissolved Gases
• The gases in the atmosphere dissolve in seawater based on their solubility

• Water temperature affects solubility

• Colder water dissolves gases more readily
• Nitrogen--most abundant dissolved gas
– Used by living organisms to build proteins
– Atmospheric N must be ‘fixed’ by bacteria to be biologically available
• Oxygen--second most abundant dissolved gas
– Source is photosynthetic activity by marine plants and plankton
Carbon in the Ocean

• Carbon dioxide dissolves quickly in the ocean from the atmosphere but outgasses (moves
from ocean to atmosphere) more slowly
• 60 times more carbon dioxide in the ocean than the atmosphere
• Combines with water to form carbonic acid and so water can hold more CO2 than other
gases
Sequestration of Carbon in the Ocean
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) combines with calcium to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• Animals use calcium carbonate to build shells
• Shells sink to the bottom after the animals die and become sequestered in the sediments
and form limestone rock
• Most of the Earth’s surface carbon is stored in sediments
Vertical Gradients in Gas Concentrations
pH
• The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
• Acid -- a substance that releases a hydrogen ion
• Base -- a substance that combines with hydrogen ions
H20 H+ + OH-
• An excess of H+ ions makes a solution acidic
• An excess of OH- ions makes a solution basic
pH Scale
• 7 is neutral
• 7-14 is basic
• 0-7 is acidic
• This is a log scale, differences are huge
• Seawater has a pH of about 8
Why is Seawater Basic?
Buffering Capacity
• If the pH of the ocean changes, the rate of the chemical reactions that create Carbonate,
Bicarbonate, and Carbonic will adjust to maintain equilibrium
pH Changes with Depth
• Factors affecting pH
– Temperature
– Balance between photosynthesis and respiration
Calcareous Oozes

• CCD determines pattern of accumulation of calcareous oozes

Ocean Acidification
•
What is a nonconservative constituent? What is an example?

A constituent that is tied to a biological or seasonal cycle (oxygen, carbon dioxide, calcium)

What is salinity? What is an average value of salinity in percentage and psu?

The measure of total dissolved inorganic solids; 3.5 psu

What is the mixing time of the ocean? What is true of any element whose residence time is greater than the ocean mixing

time?

The mixing time is 1600 year. Any element whose residence time exceeds 1600 years will be evenly distributed throughout the

oceans

How are dissolved constituents removed form the ocean?

They are bound to sediments and returned to the mantle at subduction zones where they are recycled

What are the two most abundant ions in seawater?

Sodium and Chloride

What is a solute? Give an example

A solute is the substance that is dissolved in a solvent. Seawater would be an example

What is Forchhammer's Principle?

The ratio of the major salts in seawater is constant, even if the total concentration changes

What is residence time?

The average length of time an atom of a particular element stays in the ocean

What is the main source of dissolved constituents in the ocean?

Dissolved crustal rock, delivered to the oceans by rivers as part of the water cycle

What is a solution?

A combination of one or more substances that has uniform properties (the components do not retain their original properties)

Why are we able to calculate total salinity by only measuring the concentration of chloride ions?

Because the ratio of chloride to the other ions is constant (Forchammer's principal) so if we measure the concentration of one,

we can calculate the total concentration

How does salinity affect the heat capacity and freezing point of water?

They both decrease with increasing salinity

What is the source of sodium and chloride in the ocean?

Volcanic activity

What is a solvent? Give an example

The substance in a solution that is present in the greatest amount. Water is often a solvent

What is a mixture?

A combination of two substances in which each substance retains its original properties

What is an ionic bond?

A bond that forms between ions of different charges

If Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere at a concentration of 78%, why is it present in seawater at only 48%?
Gases dissolve in seawater based on their solubility. Nitrogen is not as soluble in seawater as oxygen or carbon dioxide

How does temperature affect the solubility of gases in seawater?

Solubility increases as temperature decreases. Colder water dissolves gases more readily

Why can water hold more carbon dioxide than other gases?

Carbon dioxide combines with water when it dissolves to form carbonic acid so the concentration of carbon dioxide in seawater

is being constantly depleted and more carbon dioxide is free to dissolve

What is an acid? Over what range of the pH scale do we define a substance as an acid?

An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions. pH values from 0-7 are acids

How does the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide change in the first 1000m of the water column?

Oxygen decreases and carbon dioxide increases

What is the average pH of the ocean? Is the ocean acidic or basic?

The average pH is 8. The ocean is basic

How is the pH of the oceans changing overall?

The pH is decreasing; the oceans are becoming more acidic

Where is most of Earth's surface carbon stored? How does it get there?

Most of the carbon is stored in ocean sediments. carbonic acid combines with calcium, producing calcium carbonate. Animals

use this to build shells and when the animals die, the shells sink to the bottom sediments.

Briefly describe the oceans buffering capacity to changes in pH

If the pH of the ocean changes, the rate of the chemical reactions that create carbonate, bicarbonate, and carbonic acid will

adjust to maintain equilibrium

What is pH?

The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution

What is the Calcium Carbonate Compensation Depth? (CCD)

The depth at which calcium carbonate accumulation equals its dissolution

13 quiz questions
Introduction to Life Processes 4/9/2015 10:54:00 AM

Life – a series of cycles; both in energy and in chemicals

Energy

• All living organisms require energy

• Consumers – organisms that get their energy from consuming other organisms

• Producers - convert energy from the sun or chemicals into organic matter

Producers can get this energy through 2 different processes.

– Photosynthesis

– Chemosynthesis

**both of these occur in the ocean**

Two Methods of Primary Production: Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use energy

from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide and water into different carbohydrates (starches and sugars) and oxygen.

The pigment chlorophyll absorbs and briefly stores the light energy needed to drive the reactions. Water is broken

down in the process, and oxygen is released. In chemosynthesis, a very similar thing is happening as in

photosynthesis, except a light energy from the sun is no longer necessary for the reaction to take place. Instead,

organisms that undergo chemosynthesis combine carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The energy to bond carbon

atoms into glucose and the byproduct sulfate, comes from breaking the chemical bonds holding the sulfur and

hydrogen atoms together in hydrogen sulfide.

1. Photosynthesis – the dominant process of converting energy to organic matter (carbohydrates)

• Organisms use the pigment chlorophyll to convert photons from the sun into carbohydrates.

• The types of organisms that undergo photosynthesis in the ocean are: phytoplankton (single-celled plants), some

bacteria, seaweeds and other large macrophytes.

• Photosynthesis is expressed as grams of carbon per meter squared per year (gC/m2/yr).

In photosynthesis, plants use energy from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide and water into different

carbohydrates (starches and sugars) and oxygen. The pigment chlorophyll absorbs and briefly stores the light

energy needed to drive the reactions. Water is broken down in the process, and oxygen is released.

- Carbohydrates are the organic matter that will be transferred from one trophic level to another (the things the

consumers will eat).

Typically, oceanic primary productivity in this water column will bind 120 grams of carbon into molecules of glucose

each year.

-This means if we take a one-meter square area (column) on the surface of the ocean (that goes all the way to the

bottom) and measure the amount of carbon that is turned into organic carbon, we will get a general measure of

photosynthesis. (tells us how productive an area is)

Oceanic Productivity

OCEAN average=120 LAND average=150

• In comparing the productivity of ocean communities vs. terrestrial (land) communities, probably the most

important areas of production that occur widely throughout the ocean are the Shelf Plankton community (plankton

that live over the continental shelf) and the Open Ocean community.

- The net primary production (amount of gC/m2/yr produced and therefore available to higher trophic levels) are

not particularly high in comparison to other communities but the Coral Reef and Kelp Bed communities have levels

of productivity that are on the same range as the very productive tropical Rain Forest community on land.

- Habitats like the coral reef and kelp bed that have so much primary productivity to offer are areas where there is

a great amount of diversity in life in general.

• The regions of higher primary production than others:

- along the equator (an area of upwelling, so nutrients are being brought to the surface)

- along coastlines of continents

- near the poles (where there’s a great amount of nutrient loading)

2. Chemosynthesis – the conversion of energy in simple carbon molecules to carbohydrates

• It is the action of breaking the chemical bonds of the hydrogen sulfide that allow the reaction to take place and

for the production of carbohydrates and sulfate: a byproduct.

• Takes place at hydrothermal vents and in the sediments

- ex. beach area or mudflat (stinky sulfur smell is from the sulfate being produced in the sediments where

chemosynthesis is taking place.

• Bacteria are the organisms that are undergoing chemosynthesis.

In chemosynthesis, a very similar thing is happening as in photosynthesis, except a light energy from the sun is no

longer necessary for the reaction to take place. Instead, organisms that undergo chemosynthesis combine carbon

dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. [six 6 molecules of carbon dioxide + 6 molecules of oxygen + 24 molecules of

hydrogen sulfide] to form glucose (CH2O)x. (Other products include molecules of sulfate and water.) The energy to

bond carbon atoms into glucose comes from breaking the chemical bonds holding the sulfur and hydrogen atoms

together in hydrogen sulfide.

Energy Transfer (Whether the energy comes from photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, there is a general pattern of

energy transfer.)

• Energy from the sun or chemicals can be stored and passed on to other trophic levels. [is used by

producers/photosynthesizers then the energy they produce is passed on as chemical energy (carbohydrates, etc.)

to consumers] Consumers/respirers eat this, utilize the energy for growth and reproduction, then some of that

energy might be lost to space through the energy of movement and waste heat (entropy)

- Photosynthesizers – green plants, algae, and specialized bacteria

- Respirers – animals and decomposers and plants at night

• Every time energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, it is reduced. (It is generally reduced by

1/10th.)

Trophic Transfer

• The energy is reduced by a factor of 10 each time it’s transferred.

- Trophic level 1: 10,000kg of primary producers (or phytoplankton) will support about 1000kg of small herbivores.
- Trophic level 2: 1000kg of primary consumers (zooplankton) will support about 100kg of small fish.

- Trophic level 3: 100kg of consumers (small fish and larvae) will support about 10kg of mid-sized fish.

- Trophic level 4: 10kg of consumers (midsize fishes) will support about 1kg of top consumers (tuna).

- Trophic level 5: 1kg of tuna. (For every 1kg of tuna produced, 10,000kg of primary producers are needed.)

Food Web – a group of organisms linked by different feeding relationships in which often consumers at each trophic

level can consume a number of different organisms such that trophic transfer does not occur in a simply, straight

chain or line.

• At any given level that energy is being transferred, there may be multiple consumers.

- Ex. Krill eating phytoplankton / but Krill is being consumed by penguins, fish, squids, and even whales.

**It becomes increasingly complex to track how energy is flowing through food webs and to understand how

changes in one part of the food web might affect other parts of the food web.

Biogeochemical Cycles – when atoms and molecules move between living and non-living entities

• Through the action of biological or geological processes, chemicals are being transferred back and forth.

• The pathways and rates of movement of these molecules are termed biogeochemical cycles.

*The two most important chemical elements used by organisms in their metabolism are Carbon and Nitrogen.
Carbon Cycle – the largest biogeochemical cycle

• Carbon is the most important building block for life.

*Carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere. This gas is highly soluble; more so than nitrogen or oxygen (which are

available at higher concentrations in the atmosphere). Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can become dissolved in

the ocean and this dissolved carbon dioxide can be taken up by phytoplankton and used for photosynthesis. The

resulting carbohydrates can be passed up through the food web to higher trophic levels where it is respired… giving

off CO2 (carbon dioxide) as they breathe. Carbon can also be sequestered in the sediments by: 1. The

decomposition of organic matter (which can result in fossil fuel deposits) and 2. The burial of shells made of

calcium carbonate. Some of this carbon can be uplifted to the land in the form of limestone and then returned to

the atmosphere through processes on land. In the end, carbon can be returned to the atmosphere via respiration

of marine organisms or land processes and the cycle can start over.
Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrogen must first be ‘fixed’ to make it biologically available (bound to oxygen or hydrogen)

• Organic forms of nitrogen

– Ammonia NH4+

– Nitrate NO3-

– Nitrite NO2-2

Other Important Elements

• Phosphorus - important nutrient used for cell building

• Silica - critical for some shell building organisms

• Iron - necessary for photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, though not in large quantities

Limiting Factors

• Any factor necessary for life or growth that is present in the least favorable amount is the limiting factor

• Light

• Temperature

• Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, silica)

Light

• Open Ocean
• Coastal Ocean

Temperature

• Most ocean water is cold

• Warmer water is only found at the surface and in tropical regions

• Temperature affects metabolic rates

• Most organisms are adapted to the temperature regime they live in

Salinity

• Water moves across membranes to maintain chemical equilibrium

Nutrients

• Nutrients are available to primary producers as dissolved constituents in seawater

• The higher the cells surface:volume ratio, the more efficiently nutrients are delivered throughout the interior of

the cell

Zones of Marine Environment

Natural Selection

• In any group of organisms, more offspring are produced than can survive to reproductive age

• Random variations occur in all organisms and some of these can be passed on to offspring

• Some of these inheritable traits are favorable and increase the probability of the organism surviving

• Individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce and the favorable trait accumulates in

the population--it is selected

• The environment does the selection, if the environment changes, the traits that are favorable will also change

Peppered Moth

• Icons of Evolution by Jonathan Wells

Adaptation

• Marine organisms are adapted to their particular suite of environmental conditions

• Natural selection has been at work for millions of years guiding the evolution of the organisms we see today

Convergent Evolution

Classification
• Modern Classification is based on evolutionary history

What is a consumer?

An organism that gets its energy from consuming other organisms

What are two of the ocean communities that have the highest net primary production? What is the community with the

lowest?

Coral reefs and kelp bed have the highest net primary productivity and the open ocean has the lowest

What is a producer?

An organism that converts energy from the sun or chemicals into organic matter

What is a food web?

A group of organisms linked by different feeding relationships in which often consumers at each trophic level can consume a

number of different organisms such that trophic transfer does not occur in a simply, straight chain or line

What is chemosynthesis?

The process by which carbon dioxide and a chemical like hydrogen sulfide are combined to produce carbohydrates and sulfate

using the energy from broken chemical bonds

What is photosynthesis?
The process by which carbon dioxide and water are converted into carbohydrates and oxygen using energy from the sun

What happens to energy each time it is transferred to a higher trophic level?

The energy is reduced by a factor of 10 for each trophic transfer

What are three other important elements and what are they used for?

Phosphorus--used in cell building, Silica--used in shell building, Iron--necessary for photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation

What is the largest biogeochemical cycle and what are the basic steps in the cycle?

The carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is dissolved in the ocean and taken up by phytoplankton through

photosynthesis. The carbon is transferred through the food web to higher levels where it is respired again as carbon dioxide.

Carbon can also be transferred to the sediments by decomposition and burial of shells made of calcium carbonate. some of this

carbon can be uplifted to the land in the form of limestone and then returned to the atmosphere through processes on land. In

the end, carbon can be returned to the atmosphere via respiration of marine organisms or land processes and the cycle can

start over.

What does 'fixing' Nitrogen refer to? Why is this important?

Binding it to oxygen or hydrogen. This makes it biologically available

What are the basic steps in the nitrogen cycle?

Nitrogen can enter the ocean through runoff or from the atmosphere. Nitrogen can be brought to the surface from deeper

water through upwelling. Bacteria fix the nitrogen and producers can then use it to build organic matter and pass through

other trophic levels. Nitrogen may settle to the bottom through decomposition or be released again to the atmosphere.

What is a biogeochemical cycle?

The pathway and rate of movement of atoms and molecules between living and non-living entities

What controls the vertical zonation of the pelagic zone?

Light and increasing depth

In a low nutrient environment, why is it advantageous to be a small cell?

Small cells have a higher surface to volume and so can deliver nutrients from the surrounding water more efficiently

throughout the cell

Which vertical zone of the pelagic area of the ocean contain the euphoric zone?

The epipelagic. The eupohotic zone is defined based only on light. The epipelagic and euphotic zones are often exactly the

same

If the salinity of seawater is greater than the internal salinity of an cell, what will happen?

Water will move out of the cell to attempt to maintain chemical equilibrium and the cell will shrink and shrivel

What is the neurotic zone? The pelagic zone?

The neurotic zone is the ocean area that extends from the coast over the continental shelf. The pelagic zone extends from the

edge of the continental shelf throughout the rest of the open ocean

What is the eupohotic zone?

The surface zone of the ocean where there is enough light present for both vision and photosynthesis

What is a limiting factor? Give three possible examples

Any factor necessary for life or growth that is present in the least favorable amount. Light, temperature, and nutrients are

examples.

How does temperature affect organisms? Why is it usually not a limiting factor?

Temperature affects metabolic rates. It is usually not a limiting factor because organism are adapted to the temperature

regime where they live.

On average, to what depth does light penetrate in the open ocean? In the coastal ocean?

600 m in the open ocean and 100 m in the coastal ocean

What is convergent evolution?

When animals with similar lifestyles who are not closely related evolve to have similar traits, such as a streamline body shape

for swimming

What is adaptation?

Acquiring certain traits in a population that make the organisms successful in the particular suite of environmental

conditions they encounter

What is natural selection?

Random variations produce traits that are more favorable for the survival and reproduction of an individual and so those

traits are passed onto subsequent generations at a higher rate than other traits

What is our modern system of classification of animals based on?

Evolutionary history

What environmental change caused the peppered moth population to change from predominantly white to predominantly

dark?

Pollution due to the Industrial Revolution

11 quiz questions
Plankton 4/9/2015 10:54:00 AM

Plankton
• Drift with the currents
• Do not swim strongly against horizontal currents
• Do undergo some of the largest daily migrations of any organisms
• Are faster in relation to their body size than any other organisms
Phytoplankton: single celled organisms that use photosynthesis (plants)
– Primary Producers
– Autotrophs: make their own food
Zooplankton: single or multi-cellular organisms (animals)
– Consumers
– Heterotrophs: consume other organisms
Plankton are Classified by Size
• Hugely diverse group of organisms
• Massive Size range
• Base of all aquatic food webs
Picoplankton
• Bacteria
• Can account for up to 80% of primary production in some areas
• Often dominate low nutrient areas
• Heterotrophic bacteria very important consumers
• Prochlorococcus
Microbial Loop
• Large amounts of carbon are recycled in this loop and never move onto higher trophic
levels
Microbial Loop can be responsible for
- can be attacked by viruses
- can be consumed by other bacteria or mirozooplankton

Phytoplankton:
• Nanoplankton
• Microplankton
• Mesoplankton
- 2 microns- several millimeters
Coccolithophores
• Autotrophs
• Use calcium carbonate to make shells
• Live in surface waters
• Often found in Arctic areas
Dinoflagellates
• Autotrophic and Mixotrophic—undergo photosynthesis but also consume other plankton
-advantageous when there is little sunlight or limiting nutrients
• Most have flagella and are highly motile
• Produce red tides
• Some species produce toxins and can produce harmful algal blooms, HABs
- shellfish poisioning
Diatoms
• Important primary producers
• Use silica to create shells called frustules
• Often dominate upwelling regions—high nutrients
• Reproduce by dividing
- valve separates, new
*silicia shell is the reason for this strategy
Limiting Factors: Review
• Autotrophs need light, CO2, water, and nutrients
• Light and nutrients are the two main limiting factors
• Nitrogen, Phosphorus, or iron might be limiting but NEVER Carbon – there is always plenty
Where is Primary Production Highest?

• Measure oxygen or carbon incorporated into carbohydrates

• Clear = production + respiration
• Dark = respiration
• Clear-Dark = Net primary production
Where is Primary Production Highest?
• Clear-Dark = Net primary production
• C-D=+
• Production greater then respiration
• C-D=0, C=D
• Production equals respiration
Where is Primary Production Highest?
• C-D= -
• Production less than respiration
Where is Primary Production Highest?

Compensation depth
+ above, - below
Temporal and Spatial Patterns in Primary Production
-more production in areas of upwelling (along the equator and coastline) because of
increased nutrient loading
* special-vertical, light-horizontal
- Temperate oceans like the North Pacific have the most productive primary production in
the Spring due to phytoplankton

Zooplankton – 2 types
• Holoplankton: always a member of the plankton community
• Meroplankton: spends part of its life cycle in the plankton (larval fish, crabs, etc.)

Microzooplankton
• Single celled heterotrophs
• Examples: Flagellates and Ciliates
- flagellates in this category are strictly heterotrophic (no mixotrophic)
Foraminifera
• Amoebas
• Have a calcium carbonate shell (shells are often found buried in sediment)
Copepods
• Most abundant multi-cellular organism on Earth
• Are faster than a fighter jet in relation to their body size during escape jumps (used to
escape predators)
• Undergo daily vertical migrations of hundreds of meters
Diel Vertical Migration
• Stay at depth during the day and migrate to the surface to feed at night
- This strategy is to avoid being consumed by visual predators
Mesozooplankton - krill
• scientifically called Euphausiids
• Important prey for whales and many other large marine organisms (especially in the
Southern Ocean)
• Their swimming may also cause important mixing due to turbulence as they undergo their
daily migration
Mesozooplankton – jellies that all have gelatinous bodies
• Large variety of gelatinous zooplankton
• Some are colonial, some are individuals
Meroplankton
• Larval stages of many different organisms
• May spend weeks to a year in the plankton
• Examples: Shellfish, fish, crabs, lobsters etc.
- look nothing like their adult counterparts
* Reason is so they can disperse their young to different locations in hopes that they’ll find
suitable habitat.

What are phytoplankton? How do they get energy and carbohydrates for life and growth?

Phytoplankton are single-celled organisms that use photosynthesis to generate energy and carbohydrates

What are zooplankton? How do they get energy and carbohydrates for life and growth?

Zooplankton are single celled or multi-cellular organisms that consume other organisms to get energy and carbohydrates

Why would bacteria (picoplankton) often dominate in low nutrient conditions?

They are small in size and so have a high surface to volume ratio and so are better able to move nutrients from the cell

membrane to all parts of the cell

What are plankton?

Plants and animals that cannot swim strongly against a horizontal current

What is the microbial loop?

The recycling of carbon between bacteria, flagellates, viruses, and a dissolved pool of organic matter

How are plankton classified?

By size

What are some characteristics of diatoms?

They are autotrophs, they have silica shells, they often dominate in high-nutrient conditions like upwelling zones

What are some characteristics of dinoflagellates?

They can be autotrophic or mixotrophic, they have a flagella and are highly motile, some species can produce toxins and cause

harmful algal blooms

What does it mean to be an autotroph? A mixotroph?

An autotroph makes it's own food and carbohydrates through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. A mixotroph can make it's

own energy and carbohydrates but can also consume other organisms

What substance is NEVER limiting for life and growth?

Carbon

What is the compensation depth?

It is the depth where the rate of respiration equals the rate of photosynthesis

In a light/dark bottle experiment, what processes can occur in the light bottles? the dark bottles?
In the light bottles, both photosynthesis and respiration occur. In the dark bottles only respiration can occur

What are some of the characteristics of Coccolithophores?

They are autotrophic, live in surface waters, and have calcium carbonate shells

In what season do we see the highest rates of photosynthesis in temperate regions?

Spring

What are microzooplankton?

Microzooplankton are single-celled heterotrophs such as flagellates and ciliates

What are some examples of meroplankton?

Larval fish, crabs, and shellfish such as oysters are all meroplankton

What are some characteristics of copepods?

They are the most abundant multicellular organisms on Earth, they are incredibly fast for their body size when making an

escape jump, and they typically undergo diel vertical migration

What are some characteristics of foraminiferans?

They are amoebas and have a calcium carbonate shell

What is diel vertical migration and why do organisms undergo it?

DVM is a behavior in which organisms stay at depth during the day and migrate to the surface at night to feed. They do this

to avoid visual predators

What are some characteristics of euphausiids or krill?

They are important prey for whales and other large organisms, they may also be important in helping to mix ocean water due

to the turbulence they generate when they vertically migrate

What are holoplankton? Meroplankton?

Holoplankton are plankton for their entire life cycle. Meroplankton only spend part of their lifecycle as plankton

11 quiz questions
Quizzes 4/9/2015 10:54:00 AM

QUIZ 8 (Coasts)

A beach community is consulting you to find out what they can do to increase the size of their beach, but they don't want to build

any structures on the beach itself. What structure would you recommend and why will it work?

They could build a breakwater offshore. The structure will decrease the wave action on the beach that is behind it and so decrease the

rate of erosion and the beach will increase in size as more sediment is retained on it.

What type of coast is the Louisiana coast? Name three reasons why it is eroding

It is a depositional coast. The coastline is eroding due to the subsidence of the land, increases in sea level, and a lack of sediment

input due to human activities such as building diversions.

You are visiting your rich uncle who has a house near the coast. You arrive at night and hear the pounding of large waves on the

beach. Your uncle says that is typical, it happens all the time. When you get to see the coast in the morning, what do you expect it to

look like and what type of coast would it be classified as? What geographic location might your uncle's house be located in?

an erosional coast; you could expect to see a lot of rock; could be located in Maine, the west coast of the US, British Columbia,

southern tips of South America and Africa.

What is a eustatic change in sea level? Name two factors that would cause it to change

A long-term, global change in sea level. Possible factors are the changing shape/size of ocean basins, the amount of water in the

ocean basins, and changes in volume of water in the oceans due to changes in temperature… (the expansion and contraction of

seawater from ice caps melting increasing sea level).

Briefly describe how sediment is brought into, moved through, and then removed from a coastal cell.

Sediment is inputted from rivers, then moved along the shore through two mechanisms: currents and longshore drift. The sediment

eventually leaves the cell through wave action that moves it offshore thus balancing the amount of sediment input and output of the

coastal cell.

The smallest sand grains on a beach are often closest to the waters edge. Why?

The area by the water is typically the area of the beach with the lowest slope.

What type of delta is the Mississippi river delta? What characterizes (defines) this type of delta?

The Mississippi River (Birdfoot) Delta is a river dominated delta where freshwater output dominates tidal forces and a characteristic

bird foot shaped pattern of distributaries is formed. River dominated deltas are formed on a broad continental shelf with low tidal

action and is characterized by strong freshwater discharge.

Wave action will eventually create a straight coastline with no headlands projecting into the ocean. Why is this? Be sure to mention

the appropriate wave property

Wave action is concentrated at headlands due to refraction and over time, erosional forces create a smooth shoreline.

QUIZ 9 (Ocean Chemistry)

What is the CCD? In your answer, be sure to mention what happens at the Ccd, below it, and why

CCD (calcium carbonate compensation depth) is the depth at which calcium carbonate accumulation equals its dissolution and where

below, the pH gets low enough that calcium carbonate is dissolved. Below the CCD, calcium carbonate is dissolved and not

accumulated because the pH of the water is lower (more acidic).

You are part of a group of scientists discussing different implications of increased salinity in the world oceans. One scientist says that

thankful, increased salinity will have no effect on the ocean's ability to help moderate global temperatures, it will still provide the same

thermal buffering it always has. Do you agree with this? Why or why not?

You should disagree. Increased salinity decreases the heat capacity of water so the oceans will not have the same ability to buffer

against changes in temperature

What is the average pH of the ocean? How is this maintained?

The average pH is 8. If the pH of the ocean changes, the rate of the chemical reactions that create carbonate, bicarbonate and

carbonic acid will change to maintain equilibrium.

What are the two major ions in seawater? What is their source?

Sodium and chloride. Volcanic activity is the source of these ions.

You are sent seawater samples from around the globe to perform some basic chemical analyses on. You find that the concentration

of one element that you analyze is the same in all the samples. What does this tell you about it's residence time? Why? You need to

use a specific number.

It's residence time must be 1600 years or greater because that is the mixing time of the oceans. Any element that has a residence time

longer than 1600 years will be evenly distributed throughout the oceans. (divide by the rate at which the element is added to or

removed from the ocean)

Why is water such a great solvent for sodium chloride? Be specific about the properties of the water molecule that make this possible

and the bonds that hold sodium chloride together.

Water molecules are polar molecules and when they encounter compounds held together with ionic bonds, they can pull them apart

with the positive side of the water molecule surrounding the negatively charged atom (chloride) and the negative side of the water

molecule surrounding the positively charged atom (sodium).

Which single ion is measured to calculate salinity? Why do we only need to measure one?

The concentration of chloride is measured to calculate salinity. We only need to measure one because of Forchammer’s Principle

which states the ratio of major ions is constant so if we measure the concentration of one, we can calculate the total concentration.

All of the major constituents in seawater are present in a constant ratio even though the concentration changes.

Briefly describe the water cycle

Water evaporates from the ocean and off land. The water is then released as precipitation over the ocean or the land. Precipitation

falling on land flows into lakes and rivers and groundwater reservoirs. It can also be bound as ice in glaciers. This water then

eventually flows into rivers and streams that lead to the ocean and the process begins again.

Which dissolved gas is present in the highest concentration in the oceans? Why?

Carbon dioxide. It is immediately converted to carbonic acid when it dissolves thus allowing more carbon dioxide to be dissolved in

the ocean.
QUIZ 10 (Introduction to Life, Plankton)

What are the basic processes in primary production? Give the starting products, what energy is applied to the, and the ending

products.

Carbon dioxide and water are converted into carbohydrates and oxygen with the energy of light (the sun).

Briefly describe why the population of peppered moths changed from being predominantly white in color to predominantly

black. What is the term for this?

The moths were camouflaged on birch trees when they were white and so avoided predators and this was an advantageous trait.

When the trees became blackened by pollution, black moths had the advantage of camouflage and they had a greater rate of survival

to pass on their genes due to their lower risk of predation. This process is natural selection

What has to happen to Nitrogen before it can be biologically available?

Nitrogen must be fixed. Bacteria perform the task of fixing nitrogen (binding it to oxygen or hydrogen).

What is a biogeochemical cycle?

The biogeochemical cycle is the pathway and rate of movement of atoms and molecules between living and non-living entities.

(Through the action of biological or geological processes, chemicals are being transferred back and forth.)

How does carbon enter the ocean? How is it removed from the water column?

Carbon enters the ocean through carbon dioxide being dissolved in the ocean. Carbon is removed when shells (calcium carbonate) or

other decomposing organic matter is buried in the sediments.

Comment: The major mode of carbon removal: Carbon is removed when shells (calcium carbonate) or other decomposing organic

matter is buried in the sediments

What is the euphoric zone? State the processes that can occur in this zone

The eupohotic zone is the zone at the surface of the ocean where there is enough light for photosynthesis and vision.

Comment: (yes, the surface layer of the ocean)

What is a limiting factor?

Any factor necessary for life or growth that is present in the least favorable amount or shortest supply (such as light and nutrients).

You are presented with a simple food chain: phytoplankton - zooplankton - planktivorous fish - small predatory fish-top consumer

fish. Use your understanding of how energy is lost at each trophic level and determine what the amount of phytoplankton must be to

produce 1 kilogram of top predator fish.

You would need 10,000 kg of phytoplankton because there is a 10 fold loss of energy at each step in the food chain. 10,000 kg

phytoplankton, 1000 kg zooplankton, 100 kg planktivorous fish, 10 kg predatory fish, 1 kg top consumer fish

You place a cell into a solution. You observe that the cell rapidly increases in size and appears 'full'. What is happening? What is the

salinity of the solution compared to the salinity in the cell?

Water is moving from the solution into the cell. The salinity of the solution is less than that inside the cell and the water moves across

the membrane to achieve an osmotic balance.

Comment:
water is moving in, but it is because the salinity inside the cell is greater, so water moves in to dilute the inside of the cell.

Question 1
There is a group of phytoplankton and a group of zooplankton whose fossil remains
would not be preserved below the calcium carbonate compensation depth. Name each and
why they would not be preserved below the CCD.
The phytoplankton are coccolithophores and the zooplankton are foraminiferans. They both
have calcium carbonate shells and so would not be preserved below the CCD.
Comment: left blank
Question 2
You are analyzing plankton samples on a microscope with a special laser light that makes
any chlorophyll glow red. You see many phytoplankton with numbers red glowing dots
where their chloroplasts are. You then see a flagellate that you know consumes other
organisms to feed and to your surprise it has several red glowing dots inside it too! What
would explain this? (use a specific vocabulary term in your answer)
This flagellate is mixotrophic. It consumes other organisms but can also undergo
photosynthesis using chloroplasts
Comment: left blank
Question 3
Some zooplankton vertically migrate hundreds of meters a day which takes a huge amount
of energy. Name the term for this behavior, briefly describe it, and state what the
advantage would be to an organism that performed this behavior.
The behavior is diel vertical migration. Organisms remain at depth during the day, then
migrate to the surface at night to feed, and return to depth during the day. The advantage
is that an organism will avoid visual predators who can see them during the day.
Comment: and where are the plankton during the day vs night time?
Question 4
What are meroplankton? Give two examples.
Meroplankton are organisms that spend part of their life cycle as plankton. Examples include
crabs, fish, and shellfish such as oysters and clams.
Question 5
You are given two surface water samples. One is from an upwelling region and one is from
a nutrient poor open ocean area. What type of phytoplankton do you expect will be
dominant in each sample? Why?
You would expect larger cells like diatoms to dominate the upwelling sample because there
are plenty of nutrients and they can outcompete small cells. You would expect small cells
like bacteria (pico plankton) to dominate the nutrient poor area because they can
outcompete large cells with their higher surface to volume ratio
Comment: why are the very tiny plankton dominant in nutrient poor areas?
Question 6
If an organisms can vertically migrate hundreds of meters a day, why would it still be called
plankton?
Because it cannot swim strongly against horizontal currents
Comment: left blank
Question 7
What vertical zone of the ocean do you think all phytoplankton live in? Why?
Phytoplankton live in the eupohotic zone. They need light to undergo photosynthesis to
create energy and carbohydrates for life and growth
Comment: left blank
Question 8
You are conducting a clear(light)/dark bottle experiment at three depths, 10 m, 20m, and
30m. At the end of the experiment, the bottles are retrieved and set on the deck of the
ship, but the labels have washed off and they are now mixed up. You label the pairs of
bottles A, B, and C for both the clear and dark bottles. You then measure the dissolved
oxygen in all 6 bottles. The results are: Clear A=3 B=1 and C=5; Dark A=3 B=3 and
C=3. Which clear bottle is from which depth? What depth is the compensation depth
at? How do you know?
The order of the clear bottles is 10m=C, 20m=A, and 30m=B. The compensation depth is 20 m because
that is depth in which production equals respiration because respiration was the same in all the dark
bottles, 3.
Comment: left blank