A Problem-Based Learning,

STEM Experience
by Amy Abbott

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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

“T
ake a look at the tag in the back of your t-
shirt. Where was your shirt made?” I posed
this question to a class of 30 sixth-grade sci-
ence students and listened to the many names of for-
eign countries called out: “Indonesia,” “China,” “Ban-
gladesh.” Only twice did I hear “Made in the U.S.A.”
My students appeared surprised and inquisitive. Why
are so many items of clothing made in such faraway
places? They noticed the trend, and it piqued their cu-
riosity; the hook was a success! (Note: You may choose
to bring in t-shirts to ensure that many countries are
represented.)
In this problem-based learning (PBL), STEM activi-
ty, students use their content knowledge and engineer-
ing design–process (EDP) skills to engage in inquiry.
PBL affords students the opportunity to grapple with
problems and resolve them. Incorporating real-world
problems into science learning enables the teacher to
guide, probe, and challenge student thinking. Students
become self-directed owners of the problem as their in-
quiry drives their exploration, enabling them to make
meaningful connections between the disciplines and
career fields (Barell 2007).

The PBL experience

Teaching students to embrace problems as opportuni-
ties through an inquiry-based approach is a great in-
structional investment, especially when the scientific
problems you bring into the classroom mimic those
found in society. The PBL experience begins with the
teacher introducing a real-world problem that serves
as the foundation for the activity. The problem must
be not only scientific and purposeful but also include
missing pieces of understanding that students can un-
cover through self-discovery and research. A suggest-
ed timeline for a six-day PBL unit is shown in Figure
1. (Note: To further familiarize yourself with PBL, visit
the Resources list at the end of the article.)
Step 1: The PBL scenario
The following PBL activity could be situated in a unit
that features pollution, environmental impacts of hu-
man and natural disasters, ecosystems, or conserva-
tion. Students should have prior content knowledge of
pollution and natural resources, in addition to experi-
ences with generating inquiry, note-taking, conducting
research, and working collaboratively in groups.
After looking at the t-shirts, the activity begins with
presenting the real-world scenario that establishes the
need for an investigation. Introduce students to the
situation shown in Figure 2. Give each student a copy
of the situation and read through it as a class.

FIGURE 1 Suggested PBL timeline

Day 1 Days 2 and 3 Days 4 and 5 Day 6

Step 1: The PBL scenario Step 4: Researching the Step 5: EDP Step 6: Student reflections;
Step 2: Introducing problem celebrate successes
students to the tasks
Step 3: The learning board

* This timeline assumes 60-minute periods for each day.

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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013)
• The chart below makes one set of connections between the instruction outlined in this article and the NGSS.
Other valid connections are likely; however, space restrictions prevent us from listing all possibilities. 
• The materials, lessons, and activities outlined in the article are just one step toward reaching the performance
expectations listed below.

Standards
MS-ESS3: Earth and Human Activity
www.nextgenscience.org/msess3-earth-human-activity
MS-ETS1: Engineering Design
www.nextgenscience.org/msets1-engineering-design

Performance Expectation
MS-ESS3-3. Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the
environment.

Dimension Name or NGSS code/citation Matching student task or question

Science and Asking Questions and Defining Problems
Engineering
Practice Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions
Disciplinary ESS3.C Human Impacts on Earth Systems
Core Idea
ETS1.B: Developing Possible Solutions
• A solution needs to be tested, then modified on the
basis of the test results, in order to improve it.
• Models of all kinds are important for testing
solutions.
taken directly from the activity
Students consider the many possibilites
of what they must uncover to further
investigate the problem.
Students submit a written portfolio to
the United Nations to offer alternative,
“greener” methods that factories might use
to protect the environment.
How can you apply scientific principles to
design a filter prototype as a solution to
protecting Earth’s natural resources (e.g.,
local waters)?
Brainstorm possible solutions for testing.
How can you then modify your prototype
based on the results to improve it?

Crosscutting Connections to Engineering, Technology, and How can the findings of scientific research
Concept Applications of Science and construction of innovative technologies
address societal and environmental needs
(i.e., protect natural resources over time)?

Connections to the Common Core State Standards (NGAC and CCSSO 2010)

Text Types and Purposes:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.2
Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic
and convey ideas, concepts, and information through
the selection, organization, and analysis of relevant
content.
Production and Distribution of Writing:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.4
Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are appropriate to
task, purpose, and audience.
Range of Writing:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.6.10
Write routinely over extended time frames (time for
reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a
single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-
specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.

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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE
Step 2: Introducing students to the tasks
As you introduce students to their tasks (Figure 2), ask
them to view phenomena through the eyes of a scien-
Activity introduction and
FIGURE 2 instructions issued to students
Introduction
Chemicals are everywhere, and we are constantly
exposed to them. Some keep us healthy and some
are harmful, but all leave a chemical fingerprint.
Today, most clothing, including the shirt you are
wearing right now, is produced in a foreign country
where working standards may not be closely
regulated for environmental controls for waste
products. A recent report highlighted the common
practice in some foreign nations of disposing excess
dyes directly into their waters. It has been reported
that rivers turn the color of the dye being used that
day as waste products containing heavy metals and
salts are dumped. While some agencies claim no
harm has or will come from dye dumping, others
protest that these released chemicals negatively
impact water quality and environmental health.
Student tasks
The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
has become aware of the toxic dumping of chemical-
waste dyes, and they have hired you to investigate
the extent of the problem. You will need to first
research the problem and determine the human and
environmental impacts of the dumping. Next, you will
submit a written portfolio with your research findings
to the United Nations. As part of your solution to the
problem, you will need to offer alternative, “greener”
methods that factories might use to protect the
environment.
EDP
Calling all engineers! In an effort to reduce the
harmful effects of dye dumping, you and your
engineering team will design and build a prototype
filtering system that will remove the dyes used in the
manufacturing process. This filter will be positioned
at the clothing factory’s drainage pipes, or the point-
source from which the waste water (i.e., pollutants)
is released into the nearest water site. A successful
filter will have been vetted through the EDP so that it
reduces the amount of chemical dyes released into
the local waters.
36
tist or engineer. In doing so, you will elevate their level
of thinking and the quality of their investigation, which
encourages them to view their work as purposeful.
(Note: You may opt to end this project with the student
tasks if there isn’t time or materials to complete the
engineering piece.)
Step 3: The Learning Board
The next step of PBL is to introduce your students to
the Learning Board by providing individual boards to
the students (see Figure 3). When I introduced my
students to the Learning Boards, they demonstrated
great curiosity and began to buzz with conversation
and questions. I had anticipated their excitement due
to the open-ended nature of the problem. As a class,
students became engaged as we filled in the columns
of the Learning Board with their ideas, presenting one
at a time. This is a critical stage for establishing a firm
understanding of the problem in need of solutions.
The goal is to activate student understanding of the
situation. On large chart paper at the front of the room,
record “What Do We Know About the Problem” ideas
from students, in their exact words. Ask students to
return to the problem stated in the task and tap into
their prior knowledge. Students’ prior knowledge will
vary, so ensure they are revisiting the problem and at
least pulling out specific details from the scenario you
have presented to them. (Note: Ensure students are fill-
ing in their individual boards with the ideas written on
the main Learning Board at the front of the room. Your
role is to facilitate the conversation, while the ideas
should come directly from students.)
Still working as a class, lead students through
“What Do We Know About the Problem?” Ask them
to consider the many possibilities of what they must
uncover as they further investigate the problem. The
many gaps in the problem enable students to generate
further inquiry by thinking about what they must find
to determine possible solutions.
Finally, ask students to consider “How will we find
our answers?” to find answers and solutions. Respons-
es should range from research sources, such as news-
paper and journal articles and authentic websites, to fil-
ter materials, such as two-liter bottles, sand, and plastic
piping. Emphasize the importance of first researching
the problem to fill gaps in understanding before jump-
ing into engineering solutions to solve the problem.
At this point in the activity, students should not yet
establish a plan of action. They will revisit this part of
the Learning Board after they begin their investiga-
tions and have ideas for possible solutions. (Note: To
assist students with generating ideas for the Learning
 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

FIGURE 3 Sample Learning Board

What do we know about What do we need to find How will we find our
the problem? out? answers? What is our action plan?
Wastes are being dumped Harmful chemicals: How • newspaper articles We will use our
into local waters in foreign much is too much? (international) environmental and Earth
countries. What regulations, if any, • scientific journal science knowledge in such
Most clothing is are in place? articles a way that will allow us to:
manufactured in second- Which countries and • databases (e.g., 1. report the effects of dye
and third-world countries. companies are dye Wordbook) dumping to the United
Environmental controls dumping? Nations in the format of
• library texts a portfolio.
are limited and working What “green” alternatives
standards are not • environmental reports 2. offer greener
exist?
continuously regulated in • media streaming clips alternatives, based on
these countries. What are the short- and research, to the textile
long-term environmental • websites (e.g., EPA)
Companies deny they are and human health impacts companies.
• experts in the field
the cause or that there is a of dye dumping? 3. create a filter prototype
problem. that would be inserted
What organisms are at the point-source
There are human and impacted most? How does
environmental impacts of the waste waters.
this affect the food chain? (Note; We will only be
from the heavy metals and
salts. • How educated is working to remove a
the public about this dye substitute that does
The United Nations problem? not contain any heavy
is seeking help from metals or salts.)
chemists and engineers to • What are the heavy
investigate. metals and salts? What
chemical reactions take
• Greener alternatives place after dumping?
and a prototype filter
are needed.

Board, consider individual homework assignments or
small-group reading assignments in class that align
with topics embedded in the problem.)
Step 4: Researching the problem
Researching the problem could take place in the class-
room or in the school library; students need access to
computers, the internet, and reading materials. Prior
to beginning the activity, plan well in advance with a
library media specialist to gather research materials
for students to access. Consider gathering articles
from scientific journals, library texts, current articles
from international media, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency regulations, and media clips for students
to view. A guest speaker from a local organization is
also a nice surprise for students, if possible. Topics for
resources might include environmental pollution, en-
vironmental health, chemical spills, point-source and
nonpoint-source pollution, and historical information
about textiles.
To begin researching, place students in collabora-
tive groups of four for an activity called Research Ex-
pert Jigsaw. This structured activity will help them
further uncover content knowledge and delve deeper
into the problem. (Note: The Research Expert Jigsaw
process can be differentiated for students by their level
of “readiness.” Students can be grouped based on their
reading level or the difficulty of the topic you assign
them to research. Know which students will require
more or less support in this process.) You have choices
as to how students will record their research: in sci-
ence notebooks, on lined paper or graphic organizer,
or via electronic note-taking.

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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

Students start in their “home” groups of four, to sider asking students, “What do you know about the
which each student is assigned a different journal ar- engineering design process?” or “How might an engi-
ticle or media resource from which to obtain useful neer or scientist test a product?” as a formative assess-
qualitative and quantitative data. Take a moment for ment, prior to giving them the chart.) When scientists
each student to announce his or her topic to the group. and engineers use it in the field, it may take several
Next, upon teacher direction, individuals who have trials before a prototype is considered ready for pro-
been assigned the same resource are broken into “ex- duction. Therefore, you should explain how the EDP
pert” groups. Once moved into expert groups, students may test students’ patience, especially because they
collaborate with reading, gathering pertinent informa- may experience multiple trials and errors.
tion, and sharing ideas with one another. During these
moments, it is critical to monitor students’ note taking Designing the blueprint
to ensure information is accurate and sufficient. Final-
In this design challenge, the six phases featured in the
ly, transition students back into their original “home”
EDP diagram (Figure 4) will strategically lead students
groups with their research findings. Direct students
through the process of designing a (prototype) filter
on how to take turns teaching the information (i.e., re-
for the dyes. Although Phase 1: State the Problem has
search) to their peers. While one student is teaching,
already been introduced, you may choose to revisit this
all others should be taking notes. (Note: Attempt to cul-
as a class. Phase 2: Generate Ideas becomes the brain-
minate the research experience by bringing the class
storming phase, to which students will work collabora-
together for an overall consensus regarding what was
tively in small groups of four to generate possibilities
found in the resources. You can also revisit the Learn-
for a solution. (Note: These could be the same groups
ing Board and continue to fill in “What We Know.”)
students were in before or different ones.) Provide
Before transitioning from PBL to EDP, allow stu-
each student with a plain sheet of white paper to draw
dents to demonstrate their understanding of their re-
and label a prototype design. In order to label the blue-
search by asking them the following questions:
print accurately, some background content knowledge
• What big ideas related to the issue were you able from science and math is required, such as knowing
to uncover? the properties of various materials and metric mea-
surements. As the facilitator, walk around the room
• What major findings that can help address the
and monitor students, provide guidance, and probe
problem stood out from your research?
with questions as needed. For example, ask students,
• What new scientific understandings have you “Why do you think your filter will work?” Flexibility in
acquired?
• What proposed solutions do you have to offer? The Engineering Design
FIGURE 4 Process (EDP)
• How has this experience helped you better
understand scientific concepts?
• How has this experience made you more globally
aware as a scientist?
After answering these questions, the class should re-
visit the Learning Board and generate a plan of action
for the EDP. (Note: This step can be completed as a class
or in research groups.) Students should start with the
words “We will …” and continue with “… in such a way
that …,” finishing with the final actions students are to
complete. Be sure to glance over students’ statements to
ensure they are on the right track to completion.

Step 5: Engaging students in EDP

Students will now return to the initial problem present-
ed in Figure 2. To prepare for the EDP, share a visual
NASA

representation of the diagram (Figure 4) with students

and discuss how it is an iterative process. (Note: Con-

38
 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE
timing is key during this phase, because groups natu-
rally develop ideas at different rates. Request that stu-
dents generate at least four ideas to share before they
enter the next phase.
How to plan for innovation
Engineers strive for innovation, creativity, and novelty
to solve problems in the field. It is during Phase 3: Se-
lect a Solution where students will bring their ideas
together to share, compare, and select the most prom-
ising solution from their group. I begin this phase by
modeling the SCAMPER method (substitute, combine,
adapt, modify, put to other uses, eliminate, rearrange),
which is an idea-generating strategy that is useful for
generating creative ideas for innovation (Treffinger,
Isaksen, and Stead-Doval 2006) (Figure 5). For sim-
plicity purposes I begin by drawing a roller skate on
the board, but potentially you could begin with any
common item students are familiar with (e.g., broom
or a chair.) Using students’ ideas, we use SCAMPER to
turn something ordinary into the extraordinary. (Note:
This modeling should take about 10 to 15 minutes.)
For example, I ask the class, “What could we substi-
tute for wheels?” “How might we modify the laces?”
and “How might you combine the idea of a roller skate
with something else to make it multifunctional?” As
students share ideas, I modify the picture at the front
of the room. This strategy prepares students to share
their understandings of efficiency and innovation in a
collaborative manner to generate the best blueprint de-
sign for their prototype.
Next, in Phase 4: Build the Item, student groups
are ready to transform the ideas for the filter from a
The SCAMPER method
FIGURE 5 (Treffinger et al. 2006)
S Substitute: What might you use instead?
C Combine: What things might be combined to form
new ideas?
A Adapt: What might be changed or used in a
different way?
M Magnify or “minify”: What might be made larger or
smaller?
P Put to other uses: How might something be used
or applied in a new way?
E Eliminate: What could be deleted or trimmed?
R Reverse or rearrange: What if the parts could be
restructured in a different way?
detailed, two-dimensional blueprint into a three-di-
mensional, final product—the prototype. At this stage
of development, consider reminding students that the
blueprint is not necessarily in its final form; it may be
modified at a future point depending on the prototype’s
redesign and retesting needs. You can revisit previous
conversations about the EDP’s iterative and fluid na-
ture.
Constructing the prototype
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (NGSS
Lead States 2013) encourage middle school students
to use systematic methods to compare solutions and
see which ones best meet criteria and constraints. The
standards also ask students to test and revise solutions
numerous times to arrive at an optimal design. Phases
4–6 of the EDP diagram align with these standards, as
they have students focus on the construction of a pro-
totype, evaluating success through testing. The results
may require students to revisit previous phases and re-
evaluate.
Prior to the first day of construction, ask students
to bring in various materials from home that the group
will need; however, additional items may be pooled
for the whole class to use (Figure 6). During a prior
class period, I placed a Supply Wish List in the room
for students to record so the class could plan accord-
ingly. Begin collecting materials weeks before begin-
ning the project. I found it helpful to send out a memo
to families expressing the need for materials. Teachers
should specifically request “clean” or slightly used ma-
terials. Try to separate materials into clearly labeled
bins. (Note: If there are not enough materials brought
from home, consider reaching out to school and com-
munity members for support.)
During the construction phase (Figure 7), I stopped
by each group and informally assessed students’ abili-
Sample supply list for prototype
FIGURE 6 construction
• clean two-liter • newspaper
bottles • duct tape
• sanitized sand • plastic tubing
• coffee filters • charcoal pieces of
• sanitized gravel various sizes
• unused plastic
sponge pieces
• cotton balls
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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE
ties to effectively communicate and collaborate during
the production process. I used a clipboard and note
sheets to take anecdotal notes along the way, which I
later used to provide feedback to my students. Addi-
tionally, I monitored basic safety standards throughout
the prototype construction and testing processes. Stu-
dents were required to use indirectly vented chemical
splash goggles during construction, testing, and disas-
sembly of filters; wear appropriate dress for laboratory
work (such as an older set of clothes); and immediately
FIGURE 7 Students construct their filters
PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR
40
report all accidents and spills, no matter how trivial
they may seem at the time. To prevent accidents, I also
cut all materials for students.
Trial and error
After completing the previous phases, students are
now prepared to carry out Phase 5: Evaluate, and
Phase 6: Present Results to test and evaluate, and re-
view and redesign, respectively. Students will use their
prior and present knowledge of properties regarding
their choice of construction materials. Sample ques-
tions to ask students might be, “Why did you choose to
use these materials?” and “Can you explain how your
prototype is expected to work?” Additional questions
may come from students during construction, particu-
larly while designing, as they engage in trial and error.
For example, the students may want to know, “How
many trials are permitted?” Purposeful and strategic
planning time is required as students decide on what
steps to take and how to implement their plans in a
collaborative manner.
Testing should take place during a single class pe-
riod in a location with several sinks for water access
(Figure 8). The work can be messy, so large plastic
bins to catch filtered water will be needed. To simulate
the “waste water,” I chose to add drops of food coloring
to one quart of water. (Note: You will need to decide
how dark or light to make the water.)
Tell students that any successful removal of dye
should be celebrated. Although crystal-clear water
would be ideal, this may be the first time students
are working with the EDP. Therefore, students’ work
should be assessed formatively, with emphasis on
content knowledge, process skills, and final product
(a rubric is available with this article’s online supple-
ments at www.nsta.org/middleschool/connections.aspx).
To dispose of filter materials, first consider what can
be reused and recycled. Large garbage bins may be
needed for the remaining materials.
Be aware that students work at different rates and
on varying levels. In recognition of the spectrum of
abilities and needs in a class, it may be appropriate to
provide scaffolding questions to guide students’ think-
ing during sticky moments. You can ask students:
• How close did you get to your original plan? What
happened exactly?
• Do you see a way to improve your design?
• What new construction methods might lead to an
improved version?
• Which measurements might need to be revisited?
 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE

FIGURE 8 Students test their filters Planning

• How will we organize our time, access
resources, and find our answers?
• How will we define the problem and
generate the best solution(s)?
• What constraints might we encounter
that could limit possible solutions?
Monitoring
• How well is the construction process
going according to our plan?
• If our ideas aren’t working, how might
we combine different solutions to
create new solutions?
• What new questions are we asking as
a result of surprises along the way?
Evaluating
• How has this experience helped
us become more globally aware
as researchers, scientists, and
engineers?
• Where and how can we apply the new
ideas we’ve learned?
• What worked well while constructing
our prototype? How did we handle any
obstacles or constraints?
To culminate the experience, students
PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR

should return to their small groups to

Step 6: An interdisciplinary approach with
writing
Consider incorporating literacy skills by having stu-
dents engage in scientific journaling and portfolio writ-
ing. Moments of personal journaling can occur periodi-
cally throughout the PBL and EDP processes.
Throughout the journaling process, sets of reflec-
tion questions to guide student thinking are most ben-
eficial (Barell 2007):
submit a final, written portfolio addressed
to the United Nations. The portfolio
should address the call for researched so-
lutions to the problem with suggestions
for greener alternatives to address envi-
ronmental concerns. Consider including
the following prompts for students:
• In what ways was science content
knowledge applied to your work? (Note: This
question should be tailored toward your
standards/objectives.)
• Why does this type of scientific and engineering
investigation matter?
• How is this work beneficial to solving real-world
problems?
Teachers can also ask students to display and share
their work (i.e., prototypes and portfolios). A Gallery

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 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS: A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, STEM EXPERIENCE
Walk would enable students to view one another’s
work and provide peer feedback.
I use a rubric to assess students’ levels of scientific
understanding and their progress throughout PBL
and the EDP (see a sample rubric with this article’s
online supplements). Focus on the environmental and
Earth science objectives that align with your curricular
unit during assessment. Any rubric you use should be
given to students prior to beginning the task so they
understand your expectations (Marzano 2007). The
processes of conducting research and engaging in the
EDP should remain formative in nature, so effective
feedback for future experiences would be most benefi-
cial for students.
Through their research, students learn about the
harmful effects that synthetic dyes can have on hu-
mans, wildlife, and the environment, especially when
these hazardous chemicals are found in high concen-
trations. Native Americans and Europeans from previ-
ous centuries used natural methods to dye cloth from
crushed flowers, fruits, and rooted vegetables, which
can provide a greener solution to a modern problem.
To culminate the experience, consider holding a
class discussion about why companies might consider
dye dumping at all. Ask students:
• What do you suspect are their motives?
• Why do you suppose companies might not be
using “greener” methods to begin with?
• Why might companies resist using “greener”
alternatives suggested to them?
Celebrate your successes
If this is your first time implementing PBL or the EDP
in your classroom, don’t be afraid to take risks, both
with yourself and with your students. Remember to dis-
cuss with students the fact that these experiences may
look, sound, and feel unfamiliar. Know your students’
readiness, prior experiences, and even reservations
before starting PBL or the EDP.
Be prepared to accept the fact that good scientific
investigation can be messy. Some of my students were
not fully comfortable with the open-endedness and am-
biguity of our PBL/EDP experience. For example, one
student expressed her anxiety when she asked me,
Amy Abbott (amy.abbott@vbschools.com) is
a gifted resource teacher in Virginia Beach,
Virginia. She is also a doctoral candidate in
the Curriculum and Instruction program at Old
Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia.
42
“What if I can’t get my filter to work and I fail?” I reas-
sured her by saying, “This is all about the journey, not
the destination. Besides, the only way you could fail is
by not trying in the first place.”
When it’s all said and done, this experience is about
providing your students practice with authentic scien-
tific work. Make sure to bring your class together and
discuss your successes. Ask questions such as, “How
did maintaining an open mindset help you along the
way?” and “What did you gain from the experience, and
how might this better prepare you for the future?”
Preparing for the future: 21st-century skills
What our global society will look like in 20 years re-
mains a mystery; however, it is incumbent upon us
as educators to equip all students with the skill sets
necessary for career readiness and college prepared-
ness in the 21st century. Not since the Space Race has
there been such a concerted effort to expand STEM
horizons in K–12 education in the United States. Our
country will continue to rely on a diverse, literate pool
of individuals to meet the known challenges upon us,
as well as those to come. ■
References
Barell, J. 2007. Problem-based learning: An inquiry
approach. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Marzano, R.J. 2007. The art of science and teaching.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2015. My
NASA data: Engineering design. http://mynasadata.larc.
nasa.gov/engineering-design.
NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science
Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org/
next-generation-science-standards.
Treffinger, D., S. Isaksen, and B. Stead-Doval. 2005.
Creative problem solving: An introduction. 4th ed. Waco,
TX: Prufrock Press.
Resources
Duch, B.J., S.E. Groh, and D.E. Allen. 2001. The power of
problem-based learning. Steerling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
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