Donahoe&Palmer-Learning&Complex Behavior PDF

LEARNING AND
COMPLEX BEHAVIOR
JOHN W. DONAHOE
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
PALMER
AJ i ,VN AND HAijijrv

London Tnnjntn Sydney Tokyo Singapore
L,
Inc.
vii
Cover K.
C 'over Harbison 1 » OF 1
1
Difficulties in Understanding Complex Behavior 2
to 2
TTze of Unobserved Events in a Science of Behavior 3 Methodological Approach 4
The Role of Unobserved Events in a Science of Behavior 8 The Inferred-Process Approach 8
Copyright © by Allyn and The Biobehavioral Approach 10
A Division of & Inc. in 14
i 60 Organized, Complexity in Evolutionary Biology 14
Needham Heights, Massachusetts 02194 in a of 18
Selectionist Approach to Complexity 18 Implications for Complex Behavior } 20
All rights No of the by notice may be or 27
in or by or photocopying,
" '•. 27
or by the of the
owner.
• ;>i
, 31
of Social Impediments to a Selectionist Account 31 Uncovering the Origins of Complex'Behavior 32
33
Donahoe, John. W, Eliciting Function: Reflexes 33 Motivating Function: Deprivation and Sensitization 35
Learning behavior / John W. C. Palmer. 37
p. cm. Procedures for Studying Selection by Reinforcement 37 Conditions Required for Selection by
Includes references Reinforcement 39 A Principle of Selection by Reinforcement 49 A Biobehavioral Principle
ISBN 0-205-13996-5 of Selection by Reinforcement 54 , \
1. Learning, Psychology of. 2. Behaviorism (Psychology) Concluding Comments 59
3. Cognitive psychology, I, Palmer, David C, 61
II
Eno1 notes 62
153.1*5— -
J
CIP • 68
Introduction ftH
in the of
S/M i if if ifv of Sf ie( if d r nvirntMrm Behavior Relations 70
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 S n i n u i i K Of itPtTtl»7fnrinn 71
^nmwus l "iietnti-a'^'r oj,e f

».vr ^r^îaiion Training 76 Beyond Simple Stimulus
81
on 154—155 and 201 Tfe Mio Mistook His Wife for a of 85
© 1970, 1981, 1984, by by of 86
Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. 87
IV
• « IN THE 89 , , r " ;r^ 177

'vcr-n • 89
Kîewi'M, 89 ^- r< , 'direct Perceiving J78 Perceiving
o« 91 92
of Selected Relations 93 I Jc rcei v j ng 1 1 » v an diit : f 7f ;
95 l
\n lit MI r of in* 1 '/.ivr/' t j /,•./•<•/// /.v/ /* /î // -/i •>! a >cn ory Invariti'ii i ( vural Invariants
] r ! IO
Elicitors as Reinforcers 95 Reinforcers and the 96 it. tin \:JU''tuu j j IL!L / SV .S' v '.•:<"•/ '7 1/ P^.lv^^n - * v Invariant ^
of Acquired Reinforcers on Temporal Contiguity 99 of Acquired Reinforcers on Peiceiving 194
Selection of Complex, Behavior 101 P/)i\\\'ensof v Ke^nlfii nie\ / 9' />//<?> />/ etdiion of Fol\M nsory Regularities 196
of History 106 Effects of Eiivifoiinitiil Puvmrnment Relations 200
Discrepancies in Experienced Learners 106 ' Discriminative Function of 207
Reinforcer-Elicited Responses 107
204
of 109
205
Schedules of Reinforcement 109 Molar and Molecular Accounts of Selection 112
Contingencies with Aversive Stimuli 114 Shaping 115
118
8 » 211
I 19
211
as 212 /
5 « OF 125 Memor^\is a Cumulative Product of Selection ^l"s Thf Durability of Memory 216 Stimulus
125 Change and Retention 218 . Effects of Later Learning on Retention: Retroaction Effects 219
Strategies of Interpretation 126 222
129 Methodological Implications of the Reminding-Remembering Distinction 224
Varieties of Stimulus Classes 130 Interpretation of Discriminative Classes 131 225
Fading 136 KcmirHJiny in Sfifti f-t ei tn Mcimn\ run cduJc* 225 'Reminding in Serial-RecognitioH
138 ri t >c cc««, c , 222 A\ ,,t;.tj;,^ :„ C^J A\, ^" Procedures 230
Functional Stimulus Classes 133 Equivalence Classes 133 233
147 234
Origins of Response Classes 147
148
149 9 « OF 237
Environmental Guidance In the Experienced Learner 237
A'ji^'Htion 240
'I'LR 6 * All NC,
5f J/,WT I i>nifitwent .'I*1 ill t/(t >/ t'f/nponent 241 Inhibitory Processes in Activation
r aner.it ^J
Beiid-vicâl Elicci^ t»i AL.UVJUUJJ ^""dU'-rns 242
and A f t e n d i n u riunnif iî ot (fiiti'' -/' j'ntnniv aid Activation Patterns 243 Extent of Priming 244
Ttmpofaf Effi < TA <>/? Pnnnn^ 24^ Contributions of Priming to Complex Behavior 248
famulus DifcC'i'iiii'cLiiou cifkt AaciiJjjtg 157 Mulftnlc L}nc*'runjiu.r, .-^/'///?. t / / c / x /' ] Priming and Awareness 251
;
S"'ccti\{ AfitndiiT* / V ' /r illumed Attending 159 fiJiirtîiiiiij, *-,' c
1
'onte*mal 161 Behfivt{)-i al Ob.sef \>ui.nut "'7^ P// v\iological Neuropsychological 254
l
nirfronr Ufteniyg 162 '.itcrprs'ation of the Role of Context on Attending 163 ian !pi ttcntiin inf liii(jî>iifig ^rn»
t~onnnrenr « ruidance ana Attending A vv ai f-j jess 2^6
/tr,,,^^ < 4^r//^« ! /OA / .v,,,/t on Attending 171 *- .-^^. . » , / / * / / * / , / / > . / / . v ' , . / * ' / ' . / " . /.?/- 256 Effects of Damage to the Corpus Callosum 258
172 Effects of Damage to Iniraiujnisphti it Pathways 259
173 262
1 74 263
:
''~l ^ ' • < * * I '• 270
MaT_h t .!.r._ s '-plf^, n:... ,

270
272
m/i".\a
T/tf' *>(<tfn* i>f Lfvrft *{<>\i*(*ri<.es 275
Hit* F xfcrirnenial Analysis 277
'/ //r AV-/ V " , i/ tf/vy), wu- \/,t- 'ability in 277 Stereotypy and Variability 279
'vi at t-i S 2 A-U Mf inx /•'/ oniem 283 The of Acquired in Problem 285 f u s s imok (tujws upon DJSJL bi»»ht»,havioiHi pjores^s to pp J conceptually coherent
I lie /{elf of insight /// Problem, 288 aoproaoh to u^ciLrstancling commie"' humai* befiav'T'i". '-lit hc
Conclusion 2^7 fn;ns its commitment to a seêctk»inst virvv cif tl-e origins «>f coTfiplexity.
293 with Charles Darwin's uf how the diversity of
294 b}^ In
as the
11 » 296 to be to
and to 297 of the of
of Brain Function 299 Centers: Evidence from, the 299 exist: behavior analysis, which is consistently selectionist perspective
Categorical Perception 301 303 withinpsychology; and cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology in its various
in Verbal 304 to complex behavior for of the twenty
in 307 The goals of cognitive psychology are to investigate, through research is well
Verbal Operants 309 within the in
Conforms to 312 to the of
The of In 317 is to be the By has
319 on in
320 aS T-- ' . i i t j n - .i. "J • • ^ L - L - L - : / * " : c S { i . A J V b i c - , .cirv. I"J i d t ' J U S V .Ufi.ligL ti.rcCi
321 measureineni of a l l telpv/iot vanahlP 1 *! M /* rbronob ^yp^rii^»^^ t î

the aifect behavioi. the relaiioes—
12 « 324 or
The of in the of 325 are processes. These principles
Short-Term Memory Procedures 326 Paired-Associate Memory Procedures 32 7 to
as Solving 330 the of seeking to complex human behavior, out they differ on how best
Recall Procedures: The Role of Supplementary Stimuli 331 333 to goal. , \
Recognition of the Target Response 334 A thorough exnloration of the dif
335 ht ^ t^ rv,pip|R\ bdiavior oi iîose cli^'fcrenê 0 , »s
v f
336 iniuêty ', W 'trptnization 340 340 «:'. 01 ^ n * o hci -e acv,
Lfjtcts 01 Mn<nioni, PHH-P'/W <>< ?*J Mnemonic Procedures: A Summary 342 c hr h c\ M oiul procerscr 3iid fx^rrtitj
^lic Acquisition or Mnemonic 343 piinc'plec that dercnhc those PJ.OCCSSC » V l ^ v w er, "lit I ' l U i p i o t a t u n i ^ of cc>ini"Jt;
have often not beta persuasive 10 otlici The failure t « > achieve competliiig
Anterogiade Amnesia aod Mnemonic 347 stems larj/elv lion ili% i t j j p t r r r ' j o n ct prn-'jy x/c"r^.l •_1ioit c ,•• «J«*M~! H«
The of 349 'C i i*lt> T t ui~jutianv,i-abj > y auiiy| pHK^rftfttrr* v i i wtilt J l dlij tOI)j|JieX J»enavi<"
350 psyr!mlr>ov hys been hllc.ce^s^ll^ in l e 'eahng n host c>l
351 and pieviously unrccogru/ed pJienomena in ar^HS such as percept'or, mtn>
352 i f t ^ u a ^ ^ In f^ci i l i f - s f di^coven or : b.nv^ iprt to ^>h*U i c ottrn f n ! J r c l " f hc y
354 the of
365
394 Most recently, of a of encouraged efforts to
a behavior. Within behavior
401
a resurgence of with subjects identified several phenorn-
Prefa.ce
the of the use the it Is

for the of In has Is In the as it is but to the
to be in the in in for an. of relevant
the of oo. the to
Is has a of In
are not of the In. of
to is a in ao^
a for the a of the
be are the the to are
at the neural level, the of When the is the at the of
the of the the is for an. to at the
at the of In Aids—a set of a list of technical in chapter—are
to the specific the proc- to In a Glossary at the of the all
esses by the of Finally, a a
of the the Is for an to the Is at the
of the of the of questions lie in PSI or in We
to a of A used as the for versions of the were
be the to the with
of the Tf*^ fol^wirg sprcifi^ selections wpro used by the authors 'in a one-semester
of undeigiaikuir (jun«iM-sti»ioi) i*onr^ fiir,! piovided of the
were by which be 1 (all) and 2 (pages 31-35, 3 7 - 6 J ) : 4 $9-99,-101-106, 109-112,
the of lU-i 18); j i a L b , o i p * g t s J52-157, 10i-i73). 7 177-180, 193 199 200
uiuhr ui:.x.iirfi.iSinN ô^ti. oc piVL^rsy .iru'ô - population gCiietics. The of Dar- 8 (pai»t:j ^! I- J^-^, _^l'"î^*j}, / vpa^- * ' ^«-- --^6 ^ ' > ^ j * ' . ; \ u u ) . ] 1 ip^cr, 2?«» "? .
win <! fnnrtional pmno'v-tl '>f n>*i "?•••») opip^tinn w**h g^p^rc': is known as "the 300 9 ? - ^ OK? )'î\, ?nr| j o / r > o 0 o r D/i Of, 4 ^ ( i s"<S < U - S ^ X i40-44.7 ^ 4 4 ) ^ 4 S ! }
synthesis/ or the of evolution. an to
the of to a
of complex behavior. The synthetic theory of evolution To the
has shown that the of can
the and of the A This is an it be for a to
of the of behavior would show how the cumulative of subjects, behavior? not an.
nf relatively simple îob^hîor:?1 pr^ce^r.e0, lead to fh^ rqr.nllv "pqcv re^H " pyperienre with preliininarv versions of the text indicates that its main
it) of betiaîoi :See Donahoi sort Pitliiiei. 1989, poii'U* (.'Jin r*1-" nia.î^red bv niosi Miîeiit^, ^ i v r n t i r t ^ M > i i a b i e ^'oiiimitrncni oi u I H ît'J
*1 ^nJ 19^3 to; *r;i,.t. i A i r ^ ^ r - di^ u,v ?OT I? , -ri mrsp issues.;
o v r > k i t to'i^f'/ '")d ifT" J l ^ r ! r ^5'if b i c f « * n ' — h^ ^ (> nrr SODIP s p i p p ^ s i u v r p f h n i niaif y siutlems i i a v i
|c>!Jiid u ^ e f u j . Before icadira j chapter, t^ct an id^-a nf ?be lopi^s » o v r ^ ^ d m ilH- )I;»I»K >
To flie L> looking over ilit sublieudii!g c hsicd «n ire Contents and the study quepîon,^
'i^trrl ;*t t h t cnr of °nc*h ( hiHprer 1 nep râd i- ;,ecr«oo t > ! !l
»r ^n i f ) « « j I M M J ^ v»ru ^H* im»tt«ri
IXv.uuftc itK- auliiors to provide a of l ii v; » t I. «f ( f ' - t f 1 1 1
«.' v 1t
I ' > ">
- 11
^
behavior, the be in any that enji^^ within th« texi Fead tbt- figuu captious caiefully: they arc mo'c i
ic in the it is possible to complete in texts. Aftei reading a. sccdon, biop and identify the main poiiits
portions of the its all of the a key to as a
rhapin <,, a mrgc of the and all of the be to your After a your to
These five the of see if sense." If the
behaxior is to be the Aside the for of use your
form a on the of complex words; it Is to your own words of If your
the the the
Preface
to for an.
see if to If the bk
the at the of go the list of
at the of the the at the of the to
your of If the of or I JL Jk. JL v X - ^ l ^ l ^ J s j i J . ^ w,J* *, X JL JLy J * / *..§•%. l « i_ ««J$_ * ju > Ji ~j( 1 * <« k * *,<-»*«,
at of the In try to
in a are the be for on
noise every he shifted from reverse to first!, . .

The sound of grinding gears the dec-
, is bringing my long-ago friend to mind,
is Now, as I continue to look out my window, I
The to Vivian Packard Dorsel, a or it can be remember that my friend had not known how to drive
the the of a he come from, a poor family y that pov-
to its the of behavior. erty had forced his parents to place him his
in the of brother in separate foster homes, that—on a
in I am writing words facing a fifth-floor window this—he away from the
to Vivian looks out over the campus toward the White foster home in a futile search for Ms brother.
All to our as did Mountains beyond // is winter. the snow is
we our on in softly hut steadily. Student!, bundled against is my
Meyer, we on of the cold, are trudging down the road that passes the ior the I up to
The roadway is strung out along the,side out the If you, I,
ogy. We in particularly Chum-
biey in of a hill that slopes up to mv right. Ai some distance, of the of
a i_, ^litfiL't'i^ slit 'till 'u"iud the road. He the
the to we put anrf—Demise fa^ i< tîi -J-srfjv rather heavily,
In are to the would—of course/—have You.
He.picks himself up, having suffered no apparent
fiedings contributed so to the of the book but harm, and i eswnes his L limb, ^ till farther off, a car
likely the the
not backs out of a parking place onto the road and then
the fall
' we be for we drives away. the hill. Although car
of their work, of course. Great is also to Susan Badger, Vice-Presi- Seeing the car back up, I am reminded of an out of the not
dent and Publisher at Allyn Bacon, who our to see the of incident (hat oiCMttd ves!erda\. I had been Jsur- , your memory, something you saw would.
in the of some advice to the to at nedlv backing out of a narking place and shifted you of an
prodpepu MIS- in«j»k cum rcspcrnnen to s«j. l% :-,lanii«J âsr-immu1-.,
GOT thanks also go to Jav ^. Alcxaudci, the diiist who the plete fall, a
that a as so
'iliisTrations riiai enru h the prpv^ni^tmn
Uur is to the following the for on, are to of us,
doi'hf ilri, ! nod i
A iiyii and Bscun: Mai-. N. BiaiiUt, Uiuveisny of Florida, Driinis Cogan, Texas Tech twice /'/ 1hr past -wenrv v^<" \ / but the
University; Neal J. Cohen, University of Illinois; Univer- /•; \-u nod t;i~dc hi: .me .ji -, rcJ r?jr.p^jian~ c , as "perceiving,
sity; of M. iitdi }ht>n i k new so
R. University of Fwentv veash a%o, he had Called rue out to I hi to us all.
Finally, we our to wives—Mildred Jill—who the parking lot of the apartment house in which we are very how-
lived. He had just bought his first car, and feared it we let
too the as as the he a driver's I out my
license, my friend hopped into the car to show me
I did not sec of
/. W. D. the problem. The engine started and the car -shot
backward, coming to an with a
but a of
D. C. P. Yet the my vis-
grinding of gears. Smiling, he got out of the car,
he so successfully ual not or
defect. He assured me that the car made the but in.
1
The Origins of 3
day and I my • f the of

my in I a tall is for the the are to
yet the of the is so of the of In the the of
on of bet we a set of or- the not did.
I car out of a is it ganized as the not At the the
up of the my of an of jects'
1 of the To one did not of the by the
I not in I the the of the
to of IB a in
the my the
the of to be the of jects—was of no help, since it
the to the Finally, I of a in. in
In of the is to the Is If we as all
to my to the as well How of the in an en- Still work indicated that, as of
yet, on are the are we to if are by activities, verbal behavior
I or its in the £>/ the and are it to be as as To be a .
but on It is f/ie w is of the an ob-
your with such Third, much of my behavior while I was look- up complex behavior are usually unob- server, rê of the influ-
to in you are to out the I rfiy to ences the
I out my With- by an me the his I
a in its
my as — in a for two very of
yours would as it did. position to my partly to others—rather
We the has you— reasons.'First/Sigmund Freud's
as I of my un- to As we led to the of
if — ev- fortunate my as I
eryday is the we
a part.— ing as the is be at value as an
act of a is a in say the part—of by the is is the
a of the of in
we of in a of
the on all be
rawc/z ongoing activity is inaccessible to an ob- by .many variables, it could not serve as an.
my behavior on. a. nervous server! us flit o/
by of other activities. Sec- •
These us to the
a car up led me to and
behavior, is be- tionally by as think-
had before. ial observations led him to the view trie
yond How can we under- ing, imagining, and feeling are so salient when we behavior of hurnans. as well as othei animals, was
si,11 ? fI y?t- eniei geriee of yet ob>v~i" r c our r-wii b^nivior, iht K*; w^f sjir H t ^
ihe res«»ir oi a prolonged evoJuuoâiy pacers dur
it is the of a behaviois >tudird by psychology in the 'ate i8(M>
ng yhicli (jslfe'eitf bodily strtu~tu;CA had evolved
IP oj historical events—-often to an out- v/h'^v it b^ "'wrf* 3 dis'Mpimr* vîMrMtc- ironi nmtofto
if ditten ni times m Hit tosicjiy of IIK ^pCAic...'
side observer, only partially accessible to the phy ! Hit fact that others cannot obseivc ihc.st
Since ihe structure mediating verbal behavior hod
ctLtu'ific;- ivus not f.ecn :u at1 imp^drm^n* '-n iirM
the evolved most of Ihe other structures 01
it what the said—
the a of the subject's beiuwôi -reliably JDK! v.j! rpe hunrir nia»F« »i ^MS liuhlwlv thatf"^rc "*vc"bj!
we with if we are to ûiKAUi^;/ ,VJli.* IT 'JiL'.^t '*«~»nMf I With flM OthP!
TO idly2 the unobserved activities. Aim
the is be by brain regions. Thus, it was un'ikely thai veih;.J
by the to nenavioi could be guided by the %il r?uge of
This
but is I I of to the
as the by to In
in
followed in an but the dif-
I the car up, be In. section, we in verbal behavior to' in. any
me of I up my car the review of the major to one to the predilections of the ion, Darwin's work questioned on evolution-
ary and as as
at all. the
The in 1.1 this ap- iu& j , t / - * t n f e uM*r};;i> vru '-vent, 1 ni?fi e^-tur mav
proach, is to as the he nn-asuu d .wl perhaps < firstly ii»Hm]Miltflet' »\y
no is to
the the that workets in tlieir ettorrs ro help other*. The advan- The level ol analvsK a! which orderly fuiictionn!
tee and of
the of and the tages to relations are oiitanied depends on {he nature ol iru
as a
ior, in the of to my In for under study, The conventional disiluc
as I out the for the to be by the disciplines—e.g,,
the of In an
it is to say that the the
in 1913, B,
son to the of the car up led me to my ior be to not be.ao
by that only the as
No of the
its to be is little in
is to be if
the of as is the of a of
not by
on be of the at the
The car and my are
of was to be to that if we to ral, and the se-
as
be In the of crets of well be
ing that the a I
"solved" by it to to by ap-
up my car the day or that and so1 on—we proach the at levels.12
a A of my to
ior to the func- not the
to and are from by in #/
tional observed
by the not be in If an it is
events.
The to has an of as the of a to
the gave to the a he a
of Darwin's evo- to talk, are a of in a of To
lutionary about the well be to with, an
ior and species,7 the person's without knowing anything in the history of science at a
and a of his the specific conditions the in Thus, the
in behavior. behavior, or the unobserved
the and have been a part of that early experience, events is not a distinction between kinds of eveeis
•>»c Known only thuts-^Jt \~ibul behavior, such be if it
m?i3 behavior could make iiltl^ to the Environment weie available n it DO! lequtteil SkiMt d piactitiu nologios An aiiiiit who is afraid of ciogs not only
Miidy of human behavior. Only are jieis>, ;_uideu oy fh«J r i liiiu'ai fpenepee can no runs awav nxnn dog.s- a behavior is readilv
bk of speech.8 Ilowevei, if only observable • re- piCiiiCilt VctllOu^ pllJixudlliC& liillil d aUUCCaoitli UliC appaieiit io <ni ubbejfvei— but may dlso biiuw an
>j>onses .vmsiHprod then. in he a
1.1 The methodoioji^ al approach to
bet and nonhuinans ' behavior A second for the study of This In activity, which is by the
i f v be c'oriiinuiries pu/sued. manipuJaic.s itie behjnio? ?« Y as Is
i Because and environmental the that as a of ?>omp or me to in this
be in in the Which be at the tury. no
the relations en- to and which to behavioral level. are at responses before the of the
be de- are the of ifm er I \ c I^ of to
termined jrbyM\»k»gu ai levels. of to of the on
As by the observed environment-be- do not to ob- are ob-
havior no is to un-
of behavior the served has pot it this way: "Although en- . now, as in the
observed intra-organismic on the of
conditions that be- tirely for of the physical cal world whether they are or not,
If we
all are in. .be o:b-
to to be the of the t h J i i I!*- to 'wlv r » f ^ < o j » l t t u > , i t u f uhk » i o > M t t
to a In this we be iKAvifijJ temporal g/tp- - What he s « f !
the of by to e\)u i'mental analysis ai ino cover;. invalidate- m«- J " w s < » i <t c j"'ic<- • > (
on the of the merit— ac kno\* Ir,c1g«1 as poktrnii contributor*- behavior, but it will m.*Ki HI<* r*K mic m
be at the to behavior TO understand raap> CC i i i pk i C \ '^ Tb' v • r "/
level It be our phenomen^, appeals to 'inobserveri aif- a rvrt of 3 science of
a are nectssaiy. The circumstances wfi' cJ bf Atf v/.» , m by
If we the such may be and the ner16. are so
a we lake, are disclosed in sections as are not
a the of
However, may not be as or- to
derly as the a
an We be
to the of re- We of the «£ Ae
to of the of So far,
as the of the this sis, his the of we for the
be the of our to in a of to are
the of the ef- by knowl- (a) The
forts to in the edgeable has observed. is
not be to to at the not a of
an at the but a fuzzy as
of the by the levels. the he14 ' (b) The of
in any at the of
If^we the of els of at the the
on the we di- was desirable, z/the functional at at the behavioral level. In this last section on the
rectly with technology, we the "What is of are at the behav-
are we can directly not by in ioral level, we a for
with exists. As ex- is a by a of behavior.
pands the of-events be by the at the level of is necessary for Humans, and most other organisms whose be-
of the of a (p., havior is com-
422). not to to posed of or These
tial for At of he dif- the of environ-
of the ferences the of the of
to as "a (p. 426). "I am to Mimuldhoji by ?<T«
in of not the is in the activity, ^ rcr\; "in ^ / (, -^,<- hlc - ' - ' - r * " 1 * /l
"'<< J''" 'hf
a of the of at Nerve do not h r ^ i n s m n ! 1

///<<" i"/ ]!! ? / / f / • >/ ' I i if hi (>H til Hi iUt iiiK !L\ti \ ^1 illt
for the for of are ('explained') at a va«uf% caller! a Thrc^h- wmnlub activating the :iancji
U) file nonlinear idadon cl«aiae,iojistic of muion-.- *'i
(p. old. the has exceeded the »/l,i. h imnc h p o i n t nniv after a thiesnoJH hj^ been «->-
B. F. has In incrcares IP proportion
the of at the to to in the of - 1 : ' i, u! ^ f i -^' f f > f j T *
ful of a of "The of the as the its nidiLiiiuin rate ui in neurons, in winch firing begins as soon as the stimulus
away tell us all can be smaller u i t u i , at )"Hh » f i - oc^'Mrs nnct inci^DSt'^ a1 H (*c>ubi<?i ( i I'ticds iht- niic.jit.Mfv v/
over forty ago.13 is the His of the iKUfon iciiJics j t s i he s t i m u l u s f i» ( iciiscs
1
The for
is that the of a to
in a nonlinear—i.e., not in In the the
For a In and be-
is not a In are first;
the of the In the and as the for
that are to of! 1,11 of a tvp-j? 2i of being appro- pioach lii Ihcsr expennients. the various mcn*.^-
the and
is a system.. the priate tot d phvsjcailv similar visual stiintiiub ihc nrN *inct rej)restnratu)rjs have ao n i s t i i i C d f i o i i
are not at the incoixect tesponse is liktly Io reset nhlc the wund independent of tin bchovioraJ observations, and
In. that as 22
the of the level, but are of the Fcir the B as of. the re-
Is—in one be- at the 1.3 to the voral "tee" sults. To use as
the to the and its the B T are physically of the
Thus, the may be pro- processes and the behavioral observations on of this sort have discovered an is to in circular To wit,
in many ways; i.e., by which are based.19 reliable functional relation, between in to the question.. "Why a,
ent of involving many An. from. work on. the retention of B as an R?",
are ory the inferred-process. A the type of by B io
an Even if of a set of is At intervals, the of the 'it in
to a responding, at the In to the "Hovf do
to in-
puts at in. and are the subject is a test io. (or vocal) properties How is B by its features?",
the will not he is to the he has iiiiK uonal i clarion, on is tempted to reply "Because the subject responded
to identically to in- conditions, any re- at the behaviuial level, for within 'are, which is lilt response evoked by the phys»-
puts, 17 In that are apt to be the framewo^ of an âlly similar siltnolnc R." latently circnlai "e
the individual organism Is one such <iys- for For if B approach*? natiops'" of This sort have — to paraphrase
icn) CvUiceT' f oi the ir-iiucncc- «;i .suhbrhnvioiiii In jhr i T H ( i i h o j j .>v> t-iv^n uj /Ju.m in , M > i i j i ciii,{»IJi~ M J i i f i t f i i i i i i e i n o i v S D I H H J I ^ S wcie- imVired from i Jit « I i l f c i !î!-pM/Ji f, Sh d f ) ! > J O a v b ^ r ' f k s I!) J V O i i i
stanres, even our ability to findings. the ciicular reasoning by attempting to mferrec1
is inference? •^ -\ in its way.23 A briefly processes arising from one experiment to account
^ Behavioral \ is to be stored in sensory memory, for from experiments. To the
% AnaivMs /
where it is represented in terms of its physical independent experimental findings mav be
of features Thus, at short intervals, the physical fea- accommodated by a i ommon set of inferred proc-
in a of Unobserved tures of the stimulus guide responding, ff trie inter- esses, this approach may be said to escape the trap
Fnvii onm^rtf if i*l p-OrcMniîn
ot it^fjica! Jirciiiait] v anv*; E-.; f n*eve —•:-! ;>, ^"isi-
I «v the :t! r«m ,^car ; { c ,y r fj ,.it 3,,-ppic cj;irr]r> in a second mlîred structure, bliorf leni: uiemoi v .
s
ujin --t)]e v/onliv.'hiie cor-j o 1
•ihiji«» ihf pior^' j<^ fjt / « o t f V , * | < , t l ^ *> *iC/i"")I «\l » j
/ W f ) f J V f if } ( !W«V i ^ p T Y ^ e f l t f v l lj\/ p« |< » " > | r ^ T ' ' f c ' V ( } '^\
r
MOMS hot \vepp f t i r > n\ . f o n i t f ^ t i i a ""f b^Kv"^> Inferences features or by die aiticulaioi y movements reqiuu cl extern to winch Hie ml erred pioeess appioath lias
workers at the )Cali/v,J iliir> û,^l w.liiJtirsic.tjJy hi. ..wttlc d v i, bet 1 :
.." irifiic «!K k/o»"al ic »j»o*: ,v . ' TLt inlciR vi a. v>u-.1si
can a to the 01 ariicuJaro r v effecK of the snrnuiu^ then pi^de empirical and fr.nual mounds This is not the nlace
and of in 1.3 l he inferred-process to
However, is complex behavior Hit ûstx^nsc. in ",uiiiiiiar\ iiio CI;CLI,S »»i PI» X SC\UM K » rtiAcllyZC UlL i i ; M l C ." v i c p l h . bbt » ! U ctppiOp* Jc't*
As with the methodological approach, only environ- lion- andielcntioTr-time. on the type of i espouse are 10 FOIL that iiiaiiy invest* uatcis who previouf,l>
to characterize events and
in behavioral science. In this
mental and behavioral events are manipulated and ob- attributed to chûmcs in Hit nature of ml erred mem purt>ULCl the Inferred process appioacii have heaun
served H f W P V e r f h * ' snj t » r r ^ « J _ p t ,\re c c °'MSTO 0 ' h Gi"j oifUv-ltliCo tltG jLlltdillv i
we consider two views. The first, is atrempts rn inter th*-. rMîvci^mh > , ,^+ t,ioh"ttv'<? infrt - ^ With ill
in is the oi f oi>!;i:i ti L*. cii'j ' Jhu real o; {i ,'.,i»»hf !•< ,ii— J.oin
The second, we favor, is the results of behavioral analysis alone. Intia-organismic
the events are not directly observed. II/ of the mfeired-piocess has con-
This for two of cycles of the following
of events. First,
10 The Origins of
is the no up a in the
for the of to are the to
at the or out re-
are are to in the the
the the ess the of to be
a of closely as of the To the the
3C are to in which re-
is As as the in. the " of the
are to the structure', and prr,ct s-e" I I hearsal has in the it is
the are are on logica1 conside"iticK Inferences inferences to the in the
\ i/ ?/iere HW enough for re-
the set This are not easily With slrao- \ /
and by \ / to place. Tims
is as the \
validly the postu- work at the lev- \ in a for
lated intervening events. However, the els. When the are the
are one are are
to the the in the of 1.4 hu» behavioral approach to apt to the in
the are In However, if the is too
the inferred-process The biobehavioral appioach the method- for are by the
is as of validity ological appioacn, wtjucli is confined to the behavioral
reliability/8 a as source—the physical of the
of
at an is to are to the of observed
the to for and act the the are
substantially ex- is of the biobehavioral is with intra-or- level. In
The gamsmic events. 'Unlike the inferred-process approach,
and the not to of the and
is the
By the observations of the environment is
are to be As a the the the
of are to 'the
old are biobehavioral itself to the study of
to to a
by a set of or, events.
and are even at (See 1.5.) Since is in order to
commonly, an is to salvage the
any level of analysis.32 a pathway, ac-
by
to the ones. A of tivity primary, sensory
is to the motor of the coitex
of behavioral and func-
with. do tior can do so. Similarly, activity going di-
uoiia 1 rdaiiiMib haj- i i M p o i i f i i n 'îpii'. dnoj»s foi v 1
boa i sli ai fcfjiifi H w ai d1> oii The vnl nil \ y of thr * ilfff-i lit the biobrhavv.jral appjoacli. ftinctionj] relation,* i c c ! I v 11 • PI iiJ [ ai 7 • i) 01 <«
ontiiic interpretalioii. We piialt pom! oat siînc oi beHif aotmtv conuug irom ar-
> / t I V v C t il t f i v i i t v i » * l l l f u C I l i « H i « i » X l l d V H i i < } l c ^11 jJpf «,"-
ift^Sf «'lT f }|-tK; i^nr fift-f »/f f||ncf|;iir ;f blOhfh t ^ ' -
heji lamely clenari ihe t h u Dented ',v'tb iunciiona1. relation: i^vol^ng suhbe eas. T i n IN, '»! Oidcj n>\ to be by
wd thf ^ q w i i ^ c '*f • ihvpi vntior; and i ioral interpretation by reconsidering tlic pievious oudiloi'v tômponenK (sensory or
l i a v i c i J LvciiL, Tins*' aHf)pki)ic»iiar> fjucrion'il
begins afresh. AJtliougti pîhap- ovor^y liarsh. ^c siudv î tl«e effrit » > ( tin ()icSeiitaitiy>« jd«d t L l c - t ailK.uJaroiy moveiDeiiis
lelauons air also the prodoct of in(Jept ndeni c\
Iv dJI 'H < u T < u t . urs< ) « J i < K'l ?
tion-tinif*° ^f'l^tt^fs î1 ^bc *^ ^^ of ^n'nfQ thru o- ."ii» loiigc, ijuir into v.'ilr, ;ux required than when errors
I ir | « r v r i Ijdl fir i t »1r*L'« ini* pcnmcniLii analyses. 1.4 depicts the rela-
,f >, r j 1, , k f H^ .« . «^1 k ijv<1 1, ., f|,j,t j ( \ , , , ^ ^.. w^prj ilie icne^s «H^ i^called "a - iff>, tncf h « ' n h ' / ^ i f ^ i l features of the visual
L
tion
in fined process approach to learning and complex in the to Let us to the at iim.es, area),33
iL/^lidVi'vJj.
-i • . ?y "look" at of
As in 1.4, all
of are the of "sound"
is the the the On the it is to
inferred -process the biobehavioral approach. events are logically on the behav- subjects vocal responses to letters subbehavioral
In the the ioral be stimuli must, be recalled later. by
are exclusively on one of The de- the ' There is
12 :
Unexplained
Complex
Behavior
pa-Ltfu/n by i'oiicliJL cirii; ifiuept:titJriii cx

• uiulysrs or the pJoerhNcs by wiin 11 ihc be ha vim is
ihis approach avoids Hie logical csrcu
larity to which tHe infcn*ed-process is—-
ub Behrjv > u i r ) i Unexplained often y—prone .34
Pi(v esses Complex
Behavior
to the
from prior
t analyses. It Is Important to
be observed when the
occurs. For in the
the
the the
active in their brains during the experiment PVR
observed. What distinguishes biobtJiaviuitil ijilei-
]iiefat!'»n c irmn in^rrîr' prore«\« acfoiint^ K i-nf
? h ' » " '-* M ' i P ri". r>,t .. )r ^> ' <«. « <-• -irr* f ^\^<-,f-T\r> t\ nt th T T —rw
tlldt lilc llllCipHitCd- bdlclViuI OCCU1S, bill tlial all ui

1.6 Comparison of the reaction of the in the
Behavior Environment infefred-process and biobehavioral approaches when in trie
failures to account for complex, behavior are
FIGURE 1.5 A diagram of some of the major functional regions of the cerebral cortex, encountered ,of were the
the act receptors to activity in in the sensory (a) In the previously behavior was observed. As
(PS) cortex. This activity to activity in the (SA) cortex the processes are inconsistent with behavioral ob- "We ekfinot predict or control human
association (MA) Ultimately, activity is in the primary (PM) servations, new inferences are drawn about the charac- behavior in daily lilfe with the precision
effector activity that results in i espouses at the behavioral level. (Not shown are the many teristics of eithet newly postulated *nferred procx uses or jn the laborator}'. hut we can nevertheless use
su-bccy*"!'"*"'! iti 'i'^*"" **•''»' *^;'*j 4*''«"i "^ «—ii •? >—•••j*- -«- +i—, -— u ~ j ; - j ' - - '' ] ] 'i k , *
- -behavior.) hiobthuvioiMJ ai/)»iottrjj whui pr*. vumsb obs< • »' • (is i » »
'-Chtivlt/iu1 I'li.^rH',, in tin .)li-«-tr!«( VMIJ be h , ( " H * l i U
\Vf h r - f n« \.\/i/ i oM» ^ > » { s - « i on* J > v r ( i v . < ) « > > > f v f UM J
obsff VfltionS fl^W f Y ] ) f |-?inp-ni;i1 '»p |Urrr«, q^ »>hf'i -^ f
siaius 01 uuobset v^cl c vent^ and iiieii role in iinde 1 -
'iiixi'n,j; '>cî» T jMi \> / f / !inv' b » ^fî: ^JiPt t m ' j l . ^,
pcnmeniaJ an t i}vs?s. rciLntil'ic interpretation 0 ,
f
the of a is i fn\t i f l | \ ris'p'-;' 1 ' ' ^ rir^j! '"v v r,; sh t ir % .i |lu M . - f ^ r f r c r .
in
by its the off, and the of thn cubje^t ^ liiMoiy. And although ilioFe nro'x
as in is the as in the of ihe b;»Fic d'Uemrve between trie biobclj«»vioial es^'s 'iNjy iiiii fv c'bservahlr whc»' the
the the and the and in f en ed~ process approaches is best :»pnu'c i he hn\'inr nmir^ th^ i*onHition^ air* ^n
in the analyses
' '^C ' ' H . f i n , ' , . , U l . ,( ill , . , ,„ i t!L,n« [ui ti»w Ul»"i{>^5
are the and the the
the ob- As shown in 1 ihe imiiftVimcy of a unique to the field oi behavior, or are they
are to an of the
served. There is to the of on er- to ex- in sciences? As we at the
in the a rors in
>'" n >ir;^ * i;;, '' ' i'"f t * , f .,i we .' of the in
i ; . . H i : « , ' • ' >mptt ,. ,i , .'/Ul • ; > , » ' i')OtS Of to the of or- life
are in die of the is is by the of of a or
incomplete? the of to thtU SlijViv'i, if-|»fOCJhC^ 4 t ml vVHh Hilit 1 , i l k ft'USt K.
lower-level ge- The "offspring" of first uuuihrv io]jh«/c^ in br-c Icna i « t > f huvmj. sucn t h a i
netics mold itlar biology, is to tie- be to vary
IN the emergence of diversity OB the organic molecules avail- na TO s t j i ^ i v t aiin i i i i i i i i j i l v pjsi as i i d i u i r - t i f v
in the biological world, to at the the copy was the ocrurnpg cnvironuicnis -elect other repi^duc^np
the by of the Gfgaiiisips. /l() 'T^",c oatcomc of selection is an in .
The for its the 4.6 the the the cicasing preponderance ol the Si*iected l i t e lonii u>
ity we of its
to The tufit CnVij '/liTTiCjjt.
Is to the of all of the life ie the the the re-
behavior. This by in the can we the "parent" In ways, ' Natural environrrients coo-
to the of
this it to
complex in sciences. We are
so ago? to over tions, and
alone. In we to another
To begin, the left Ie short, of conditions. The
discipline—evolutionary biology—for
can be observed in the serve as faithful -would be se- come of these multiple diverse selections is a
in our to behavior. is ;
of the on lected. \ continual branching of the tree of life. Once a
not to the of
and physi- No to the begun, it under-the
ogy, to
us in. cal in the laboratory, the of of no of of its own —growing
behavior. on the Even if the still further. When a
to a --- StlLTC1T!!erJ or is by a
of of is we not it-— o' .!. .. , r '
in volcanic c j U i v t t v ' life
»~ In all are to fate.
the no at
in present-day The One of the of life "holds
forms.38 (An organic molecule is composed of the come a billion, years after the
was interest for us—the one that leads to our own
Biological is arguably the ultimate
hydrogen, frequently ni- and species, homo sctpicfis man). Once
of in the known
Our behavior systematically varies greatly trogen oxygen.) Organic molecules could be virus-like particles bacteria. no observer was there to see the ancient process
to the to built the in the earth's early atmos- Experimental ana]yses carried out in the labo- but once again (-omr tâct of it hap, persisted biK>
the The phere, energy as lightning, ratory are to supplv missing piece*? of the the present The carl jest fossil record of the branch-
ôiftcpn- i*, rna."*1 at 100 biliio 1 * reorooc îach and f i l l / / «*" ;iItflOU['ll IF! thr- ( -i^ of innh t f i l n i e / « > h ' i f i o OJ llir pljhVi^fr f»i\1fp>p l l s n f i l!»C » ! ; > , • , > rfjt fiiilec
r-îij-on, • " turn, 'iia/ rom^'tiirca; 0 »v ih the. ra^ch the t r v m s t r r s M I*. '»'! r>'_' &l-»i.U ^0 I i l ' l l •» (i • " / ( _ ' « ' '!i'6 " Tl »«-
nf~ il ( nî crf-ft^x»*< Nor .c AffTip^pri ^mr|pjp\ tfv r*p M'iTiv ot fnf 1 prnhahie M^p^ IP ihp H- m i r n i chnnu
'jiMia' LG oj specie:. The cart!- i: populated wJF clays at: the of or t^ : molecular eôlutûu tu.ve beer, LIV '^TMIH*' jriin^^! . I ' - ' ' > p ' V ^ - f c H 1 « M ' ' ÔOO "'* hranr s o'hei speeicr., mosi i/i \vhieh ait c\q« i i to studied, however, uid nothing that i now tai^vai niode*n hnindn r - /ITO largely nhkno^n r ^nne deal 5
MiHy u i « i ' ' ' M i L ^ i *\b, s'litrc 101 !lie ! f e^Moiiiocni . complex won't! prt vr IH !jjt» poMulzu* 1 (j hukf if she ( irnv « i ; | ? ^ | j | \ \A/|||I e v ^ U i'l' ' S f l i t M - j ^ i J r uf l>l H H i i v1 w
Within a few of r,
..
,,, v ,,„
V_»li J iJV/I i *_,
r
1 V I
, .i ^ i
«_,V V*.
n
I T » V/ V V/ >
> , ( , > . , . ,
Vî , i » J . l . / 1 , y « , « i v 1
, 11
» V \ * J K j L L t L J
is not host Kj lift, Theic aic insects in the antarc lie the of the it is a dcnionstraied how natuial sekxiion o « c u r s once ihc field v\oii of aiiihtopologistb cKpiorjjig tlif*
su suiicd !u llic i ulu tiled they ilk flout ilie waiinib of icpioJuciioi) is possible. Foi txample, if a laige fossil jeiT>iu and, iiioic- rtLriiilv. ihiou^li ilie 1-tbo
of a huninii touch: aic bactcin MI mid-oceî* a jiuii'be"" i»f l>a iriia aic r > p » i N « - » j {«> û *fHlil»i<'iK • i
-T.harb.- * v- -r, ; —r J , « . J,r ] rr.i r! - '- > o- it oii pjuiio L iat iAo k **- tilt i r iaktiiL! xjf piutcjiio. i ot*i
when ihe tlie it a itself.3" A all of the die. Some, because of already The tossil record indicates That the hominid
of watet - >(l How ic- s-jcn aiversiry olid complexity the to repro- existing in genec will survive. (inanlikc) •family branched ^Vom the olhe t i:"imatee
to be undeis>coodV duce! These the an- These ariseftOF? ai least 5 iniFfioii ye^rs ago -n z\fri^<i, Wt, arc all, m
The Origins
••• 5 " ^ " _ f ' , ( are the to is a ,

( i ><,<,» Is »,-<-* "Wj <• the are It is .«f
I
win r.- ou« _>,c-es are cm
-LLI e u
In the 1 to 3 y. u » . a lite versify.
the ap- Finally, the of the of
to This pear in the for of the
hominid, erectus, was taller—-over 150 cm complexity in the world? These are the ing to the of
(5 ft)— and his in our If
skulls, his vol- to the of in on in
ume 1,000 cc. He the the the are to
of for the are
tools, of his
he as of
of We the
The the homo
of the or
the 50-100,000
by are suffi-
years. One
the of 'fossil is cient to
the his
investigations of chemi- likely in the
to 35,000 ago. He
cal to
170 cm (5 ft, 6 in) tall, and his "Neanderthals, Can't
of the
Can't Nyah, nyaih, . . J 0f Although
was of of the the has led to are
his FIoUREi. 7 Neandertals have received ari for principles—here se- to for the of
he a of •- •'• c. • .J' f > bad press lection—-that the. can be
(1600 cc)—or of Srun c Ilic far by Gary is by
.' we the
pcniiissiOxj of CA. All
the it A is the is be in any
reserved.
the are we see in the biological is not the historical science,
trayed as fully human, they a of order-imposing principles. The the from
the of tools, as evi- laboratory ife inability to know with
hand-axes, the ceremonial burial of the dently shaped humans. of certainty the of events led to the
Iii addition to the traces of the past that persist
(See 1.7.) oiganism-specific, higher-level processes, com- complexify we see today. This characterizes his-
in the fossil record, work in
Apnp^rin** /dO— SO OOfl /pîc ^<^r» p»r»H 1p"irfi|icr 1/1 plex iry r]ppenr to be a hv-product of lower-level U n u ^ ' M,u,uur wUfjlsr-i wr are the
hzoirigy- provides
modern is lie rubspeci^s cf /IO/UP sapicrs Not only do the pioccssf such ds ihose viiiinTidii/ed by .iiHinaf origins of the universe, our or
. n l l v d C i«^-jVJU|ii1«;'i i i . f , « i , i r i i i i r - . * M~>F illc i»»,;k >!ir-!-
modern man Ms By hrleLJOp In evu'ui'ojjajy p«oiojzy. P'sine? level 01 uai oehcwioK
tcr in FAciiicc vv lieiv hie icb were fi/î Ji&euv crc the ûiiizdlio* is due aij'iiicliucd otiieoiuc oi the detioi* In the
in his they Ms of iowrr-lr vc J nrore c s^*> Th<- (iiTryil'ifi^'p icnon •'^ on act the
in a the nuiural selection is sufficient to account for the of our With a
a The Cro- the »oaU'h Deleter orâiiismp mid llinrrn 'iionnivTjN of the
Magnon in caves, evolution. wiiiioui appeau ng 10 principles e\pJiritl> im a of the but the
on Comparisons of their indicate thathomi- pose conespoiideDcc may not be the can be
of of Thirci natsirgl QpU r t i o n deiTi"r!St?rit''r4C ^h' 5 ' rel- -
the to the go- is 5Mj§7-
8 to 10 the •N f ! ;p impk pro- CSMT? , ».>pui,ttii ^ jeûaiedi\ % \ c« to for the but the is
Gradually in apparently in to the 6 to 8 i f i»e, i-ây pro-due^ i,real diveis-ty as well as i>i util- not a necessary consequence of its principles.^"*
the Cro- the ized romp^yHy, Th^ diversity nf aperies i:. l^sli are to we
the by the are 99% of are iiiony to the of which «s ••.in the of
the in In of capable The realizat»o^ that !owe^ level processes in
t > » ' v / < , f t » . , - , [ » ; -ated: " W e a r e for the 1 the of A. of
r»w *M- .nr uii M>rant of how ignorant we are." The so, the for is the of is
|..Sr-)i r t \ . i . ' , i U it we the in the "preparation" to live in. the
will of by ing the of the
No the se- cal the in to let the Only to the
quence of up a in The the is the "prepare"
our of the of or- act us for the
in the re- to in to the of are in a
of how it it the is. always
for as the the of in the The a
has by evo-
of the of the
lutionary but we
selection, retention,^ with the music the environ-
we did the
in the of the of Once variability exists, the anew or—in the of
We be if, by the
tion, a selection process favors some char- in the species—changes When the at
in our
the ity be The the of selection in
ary biology, our for the of
are the of "rationality," "foresight,'' "wisdom" of our
as In biologi-
cal evolution, survive to is fostered. However, when, the
are to
of of are re-
in the and—we
IN A. 'over vealed as only illusions.,
the as
OF The A to be
to the
process. By extension, principles as engines of organized complexity: Al
All oiFFelws are development of this approach, known technically
the t merge i uv of «:onmle> behavioi ihon^h splrrtjon IN povrnied l>v conditions m ^ v a i ) -
the physi- a^ selectioinsni or evolutionary epistemology. f '
cal, wouds As mem- (hpistei.-*o'.0£v id ihe sutdsvssion i,i u! d^^pli)
hi)\v Mfinc icspuJiScb ait lavHcd ovc x i oilicih. Tin iinpti'iaisily iofltjenco r u t u t e ^ e k < not* Ly dlVui^
bers of the we an VOUJPONCU uf êaichfcu such apAijiciplt- is flic- iiiajoi l o C f i s o f l h e ihr vailability on which fuiiw >Ciec»ion,s a-\. I I F
by in way, the the
and by only to be T. has" the
Mayr43 has we have the specific the of
oo the by the by a of on which act,
formation.42 As of the its for biology B. F.
Skinner4*6 a for the we charac- the of selection shows continuity and inter-
our are the of
All of all First, nal coherence.49 Thus, the objects of selection—
the other with the
be to on a direction on otherwise undi- the structure and'behavior of living organ-
rected variation, it is isms—play an in the
through ihe subsequent environments of onr homi-
ing or There is no of complexity.. However,
nid ancestors. Thus we are maue from atoms that
iiace llieir oiigins Lo tliu of llic universe, In dif- is always on conditions an role-—i.e., a
a i tltt- tlawh ie< 11on) one another in the at the of selection, For are the
genes that guide the of the to of selections.
ing of life.
i it,i*v»v A <»pglr organisms vary in their behavior the of the of on it As an of the active by
In this we the appr-'^'h uwi
i iuiji vile cu vii 1'iiin.erit to the in the the of in
we the influence the
of the nervous ^yîem ous to if a an in fly-
living organ-
isms do, worlck iffecf li is important to the Be- ing—they are the of air
ail ibh bn< wthnui *vf tr«i to the to be se- a of the flow of air
all in tin " al sect tiu itv. u't' - -s '~. t'^/ /^'io« is do a list -of so Yet not
We not in orrfer to like and for
has do vary iw to we read as on,
to the of species. We behavior.47 We Hinery" "machinery." fly! occur only in the
20
by the on
ers ics in the i'- h (
Of a
a of the 'UK*e v tndi'n'i 0 change**, ni the phv iciog} ci tlr so- (Mi L f u u f / i - ! ; -ni'^:ti uldc
we in winter jackets a iiCiôtis svHt-iii we ' r»n famine the rcJaiioiiNin]. Rf-c Jii\( i!»p priMfp < v p | f - r v i u » T i liicforv r innof hr
as of betWCi!' tlli n c ' H ' H J n S', ; ^ < - t ' i atsd U,!u:\/u,i I'lu;, «., obsitv^d in jonp itiittiiuii i'tudies riiid because rii!
for a on. the of [lie r
rbe*f,o thi'^ hitiil jnciivjtiual^ die obfrcived 111 cius* 1 'ectioiuil
We approaches, logcthci with k'luwk-uyt i-f IMMI M methods rhf selection process cannot be <~orn
to to of for are 'ection processes dusc-uvurrd i'i c oogii expeiimerLicii pletely traced. Averaûig observations acioss
to so ol behavior the nei vous system pio- different individuals only complicates the mierpie-
a of To vide the primary observational brsi> upon which * latioii of findings, since the r>ehavior <>f fjitipi^ni
a had to
the will
If the the of a
could for of selections. Different
of as the of approach. In the de-
Thus the of of the age will display
the of velopmental would to an
by the of to Iht study of behavior is not behavior or, even when, the behavior is the it'
its
selection. enjoyed by historical sciences: occur- may be the same -for reasons, a
ring during an individual's lifetime are in selectionist perspective,
a has se- observable, while 'the events from ' different is a bit
for
lected, It if it is to be for are not In however, pragmatic ethical obser/ations fôm rpecies. Although it 1^
In are The considerations impede a thoroughgoing of inatlieiiiai i cally possible 10 compute ai average, it
the of it is of the individual It is to follow niay not have clear meaning if it does I A OI
is constructed,50 If the se- even one through his o^ her liie ol Ftngle mciividnal 3-
is to occur, a lectionist of the of ir,ruidi'«k n i i p o i ^ n i ^ t i v imporant in hpii^ u! me dtiKivrnc.ie-- oi lo-i^nyGiiiai îa.
tion-— follow variation selection. In is so the ctiju nehdvjiuaj f.vi r u s Fit? mf-miore, the attempt 10
evolutionary biology, genes—the legacy of as the of achieve such a compreêp^we would so mental one of the moat fruitful
selections—are on to the offspring, how chaos. In the intrude on die person s life that the selection proc- means for studying the emergence of complex
concluding of this we identify ess would be in. unknown probably behavior.
they become the focus of further selection. Lower-
level processes on the ways. recording all of the Whatever type ol developmental study i>, used,
standing the complexity of behavior. influence the of a observations in the natural environment must be
retain the selections.
The child's first word, let alone an adulr s entire verbal supplemented b) laboratory obseivanons if basic
are to are
Hisioiical sc»euês tuui «ôi» > iiif SMH t>eLHU,>(' ilif selec 1 fc j"i piTK'^s^ sp^n^- f f i e i a* t-fi\ !M»iyficui i Dsiiaios so itibiiy Hit fe.e IT, events,
the
endJ«"«tig il^tLcr- L" Piuic'ii'iji oT c ^ ' j i i ' i K p t a ^ y b'îoir, , Dttf netû^c w- jfjpeannn ^ so manv cuii^reni combination^ r n r t
of the the analyses ol - M l T i C ' C ^ W.O>11|^W tL-l } K J i O W tiji. J i i i l i c l J SldiC Ul il'C ui^ci'idUûi 1 ^. ' Tfe ie va'iou^ corditions n oneit 1111-
the tal in the we s'i(jj\ idi'd* and his cm/ft- ^îrcfion IiiMury
with another. We for to our for Indeed, devcloDmtntal obsenâtions jre mos( "ball" after an adult ha? pointed to a hall and
briefly of the possible of behavior? olirn 11 i«:ji*cut t :i v. f o> c: ;«ppk. an iir/eMiiM»v>;
in. the now, we If is the of a stodyir.g jangu;igc acquisition might observe ihc caupe trie aclull âicl " fc hali ' or because a ball was
progress in the effects of jiitcrdCiioiis between a child and its parents ai presem^ If the piescnce oi the ball was crucial,
is of of are WP^l* I T ' }np-_Hni'Li-f inlA-r\/cilt <{ii|!^(n iK ^ f*,'^ f fnv '
rht- biological niedj<ifiisiri.s we can the /ta^j of !lfc D. «'tlopnicjilal Mudie^ in v-'hich dji
Darwin': trea.tnit.ru o by in the of the MlliC ir»cii"']QUai IS Ou?»CI Vcu at ultieieiit illilcS ell C liiCSc events iil*i\ iiilVe OCûij^d loii'.'iiK'i m tiie
tion. giant in the is the we called A 1e<^ d^nitTiblc dp n.itnr^"' n^riiT)niT*.ôi Q o nn r ^pniiAcTf*^] oM^^v'-Iv
of biological the can the of our velopisiemal tnetnod is 10 examine ihe behavior oj in the moic controlled environrrjen« of the lahon.-
underlying of different individual^ at differeni time^ Sucli <Jtud- torv i,c fpqiiiTprf to te^^f* out the imporinnt 'pf!n-
22
all "ball," or be r » - H , j s ,1 v ,, ' is to the

all "ball," or in a n it do not
t f
ones? If the but the of 'v^}tl"!îi of is
of vari- iuii>^/i { j,s the of
ous or of are in •jellying human behsviu* the su-.*"» petic'iiL °ie "blind," can
> "-k
the be a it
the in the to be for as as the ology nf the ( M « y i " » S H ) . The selecting ffftX' - of f"ht F,\/e[» \vithout the
are the for it, the and individual envnoTitnenis changt this physiological it, this
the no biology, the the
is the of by survival, new occur but the are it is
we the in of The i.e., 'they are provocative. tells us at
the in it if we are to to in in the we do we
its un- with may —-even when we are
an of this, of the upon a organ- "truthful." Moreover, it us we can
der in which the are
to be How- are the ism.55 in
All. in the are of the
ever, of
with "lowly" insects other inverte- in principle, are observable with behaviors. Further work
the
brates 100 A A Furthermore, to the be be
the or the of ar-
the of the the are but the
—i.e.,
a clam's is at in our of biological can be in-
jpepiiit th*-^ v.t'i«»i«s "silences to be
the of our they may be studied in, nonhuman animals to the formative even1-without knowledge of precise
and identified The study of learning by
a has it be in
of expei iineiiih the of
for a rightly the ap- are in
i"K\f laiioii i'i ou» êetiiJ" for the of
the of all plication of of course. There is no
be to us activity tee in an a
approach. The ap- in to the of a in the We is the of the
proach also provides important information about Although of in processes—most Behavior can be produced in
the of behavior. While the devel- the of For now, we will note that many neuro- ways. Nor can we be
to the selec- the for to is the of the to
by the over —is a for all in for behavior, the nervous system——damage to one of the
the comparative approach pursues the all niches. Once the capacity to the ph>siology and neuroanatomy underlying the brain may affect the functioning of other regions,
by over time, hoi coin pie \ selected, ii to act in of brh;r*'ior die u p p c r f r c i f v kjjowi) •'' L ci y»s ? .jn.vui't f j - l^niclijijeiiL p«,] l mp r > tltr êh.ix -or IN trtr resrh or
the cornparij on^ are '«teT we If a ing is a o)t t such complex beliavicn a> an ex;i triple djfftveni prioresses iliai; ij»c ones opeiaUns in ai>
between closely related sproes such as heiwc*en reason fo? retention of the capacity to ^ A ( <|.>p, rotM*^ of i-fii'i 1i? c'irj 'n' n '^tô^tu' T j j j f J . M i P i O f v r l oj^,'»pp fp Ff f }i,)p«- I I ' 'h'* " T ^ i f M o r a ^ n
the anthropoid (nnn1i1<e^ apes, is for an to be i n j t n y some people have disnlayed the following Ksm whai vve s«y and the other dungs we do always
in the the paiieiii ul behaviui. Vvrhen at>ked il ilie-y uan see, Lunc^puiid OH!) L ^ pkliiucntjl WIH! car dotJd'
of of is on. the They do m i r b i :îie- Re^^rdlrs^ of the uhiiiimc internreta-
the not on. the a in of or isii'i ol tJhndMCiit c<s!ti otljci iientoj)Sv\"hologior,
of is To the a eyes. yet, observations, neurological shows us
for for that the to the the of the of on the
could are be to for the book, they — that we might not otherwise see in
for A in a of to it the tell us to be
as the of of is the is of the we
the of vary, of course, on. it is the say and we do go
for mouth movements. in the environment54 horizontally. These nonver- go It us what we do
'-' The-
vvnitc we say be the are

the '^teiy
are ^%
are of
c?/ If a of by the >
ist Is to leairvJ Jl aLc litH ii)l , SlU !i cJL,% i! J l l £ iof >UL MiiffNpI jTiif, s
a be d^ bemfitj- s«jt* 'vol lh?f any genes af f ect.ii£
Environment ' )rganism
the selee it- rnviroriivtui-behaviot will become rela
behavior, a OIF liveiv nicê IP j>uo&equc*Pt ger-entnoii^
of the This occurs tor
in the way the the
the — as wiih Individual
of the Uncovering a for
pie of on the the the
of
as as In are very the
tal, of a
the of a to on its
1.9 Althokgh the environment selects the behavior of organisms,
of its is to the of the
behavior affects the environment and—in that indirect way—organisms
the of the on the by if the affect their own behavior-
Individual From a selectionist perspec- have extended "locked" into position.^ Such of affecting behavior are counterselections. Through
tive, behavioi i& ilic \micufuc. of llic joint cffccib of oiiiiiiuiiy, bjdiria than think great lliougiitb bin uu we are becoming to our the legacy of the
the aeceLual îv* 111*11 visual cnviioiin.cr.s^ J>L«.' ;ioi toLici gitiii uKfiis cannot. C/L ^Jccse^ nv ciiiiOi we are now to' our
1.^ N'^fnr^f splôtion i«; flip irr<vujnrp of thp ihf 1 ?in^p>^trfi1 or rotiterniiAfTirv ^nvir*>r»fnpn< c ^13? Through physiological we are
Is the will's forceful to our nervous systems.
of the to he
logical mediating the effects of "The of life Is not but
to the of a
the and
as sickle-cell our knowl- to the of 'fin Adolf Hitler—is
edge by the of by the of the
Ancestral the is advanced, individual Thus the
activities we by as
we ?oc IK)! yn ahjc ro aJrer those processes in very is not the
'"thinking," and the
specilic ways —althohph persoas investing our but we can a
like, l
'tr»inr| alt'^n^f: " HHU T ; :>r> rijgorfi"^ in
Environment of will
The of by the self-experinienlrtnon of thus ven r son. We do us to we
is only pan of the su» >/ As noit-d Licfoit:, a selected our icch^/iugicaf ^trisp I!K Ability to worthy.
erivironmeiu-behavioi i elation may theenvi- the- By so, we of a " 'ilre'ic 4 *
| --r s\oÔT)>
the will se- by the of s-vinv- -
linn, l i c N c u i j c i i h in o e i j H v i o i on t i i e lect are in the family, as id cult me
1.8 All behavior is to the -—occur ni many
selecting effects of the environment—-the ancestral itself.61 as effective ^\
ways are most highly cleveioDed in our own vvC iliiS,!ii Wihli, clo vvc Cdjl oi t nuiil the pluvdiciicc
environment through the action of natural selection
the individual environment through the action of «?peeies f w 1 4 ^l We Cannot nitei th? HI i » i rink' abuse i l h u r j c v novpitv, an<f ^ ' J I ' J T :
selection by reinforcement ^CSl'a' t i M V t l ' t » f " ! M e i » l i t S O l i , h i ) ^ ' i ' V t I , H'L : i K - i \ , bi~ tilC aticjjdant tlailgci :•> oi a L-OIJLT til ieti s».ineiy . Hr» vw Fftect^//- hehdVKHHl e* n gineeiin^ re.sts OD an «»pp T v k
is by able to alter the genetic processes that are the ever, the real issiu r: not ^/helbcr ODI hi havioi • hfinr) <>f how tb^ t'.nncinpo 1 '»ry '.nvironmcnr re
by by legacy of aiiecsiial seieciion&. This developing he influenced by tne environment, but what Iccts i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o i . and an infoinied
nisms. is called will the n^tnie of thai influence <• ha I I be if recbmqa^ ba c r?ri on
i The Origins of 27
of in Ms ef- • ie of
we forts to
of our and a "postdictive" a
of souls."62 is, at the
his to ts (ais M'» nie^f Ilie
The but he to rn i>L>cietiiilk in taiii^n as rh'Jt tc j «n
view us to on the the un-
to we K a list of ed m
are TK- a If are re-
the of the 4, the to
the as evolu- he "Life can be complexity of each the in a
tionary but it be Al- the glossary. The are in the in
in the Use
the though we do not or to of the
behavior, in the we do views of the
of science.63 5, In your own. words, describe four "main char-
vidual environment alone— the province of
of complexity
In the
Use
For- be
ogy to illustrate each characteristic. What are
tunately, may be circumvented. are As in historical
of a of complexity?
our in the the are in
' of legacy of an- the and the for
the has of in
in capacity to dissipate in the we
us to the be of the of 6, on. the Al-
the of of we though of be
our hominid by the lively our if the by others, e.g., the
environment, to are to for the to, about such it to be
the tions. ,
neurotransmitter
tations of our us to become The to learned behavior 1, the Following Inferred-
to our but blindsight in part,
As
the we — the to be conse- counterselection is of validity.
aid of of the quences of the way in which. complex behavior is the reliability and validity?)
shadows cast bv the of the moon! We —from a complex history of selection. To us, behavioral
8, What, are some implications of a selectionist,
sJiuuln trrooiJZr however ifiai in ihos^ fyiiiid I H I orhei anpioach oriers for the
«V «^T 'loin*, c f <_*gaiii/eci behavior?
l ini^roenvironrnfni <U)r>ijC3Tiiii? the IK-OUSJV avoiding an appeal, to order-im-
a1 lh« ftawn o^ 0111 Np^cie^ Something nf p o c J f i a p r i n c i p l e ' , t h a t postulate very 1. the of the
has to the we to ap- ENDNOTES
are to how we proaches to complex behavior,, What are 1, For a historical review of this period, see Boring,
which is ap- 1950, (Most of the end notes—such as this one—contain
the of an of in us of our and of our proaches, to the of the of to
the be to a we in a sci- in the text.. The full citation in the bibli-
to the of ence of behavior? Use the term functional relation ography at the of the book. Occasionally, the
in the topic.
of the the of so we in
This is not to the text,
the by our 2. What the of but, it with or ac~
and our of the We the of our our OD. the of that, approaches
in our of the our briefly letters? how in the text.)
28 The Origins of
- "' ' ','•' »'• • !' ' ' 5 can be by > < ; ap- to be the of "associations"
fiCdf uj( so <a ticJj »-.M A \ We tf
"K, be
< - n > : ; « " » ' it.i.-^h^^r'.' 1 -/*'«• )n:en'* »- or the in 7= ^ '--'itsch, as in
.UK. k> cîffipk, UK aoand oi 18. cf. & pp. 63-64. îif, t ° / ' > •M-.^MJ rK^ or as
1
ss in)' fucnJ it* mmc each rime »r :>cr urs. If, every 19. The which is the Kolers ^ Smyths 1984 SÎ , 1976; in 1983). If
:IMI NOUIIU ot. v m *, I K poj i iu an ^Dê r ver that my of in is an in i N ( » \ * c l i J^7°»;t N ( f t > j » « u i )9Sh Poe<iiL< ) l^'?o- Hubin, are only
fnciiJ IMS come to Trnd. Theis mv rep-cm *«• :* reliable of what the fundamental ]98K Undnwooi 1 , IQ' 70 . Wading « r >90. FUJ iurmal from of observed
valid measure oi ilic iinohsuved a c t i v i t y . attribution error (Jones & Nisbett, 1971), in reservations see Aiideison, J. R.. 1^78. Townsend, behavioral events, "associations" are
3 I reud, 19 ;0. psychology when an observer is 1971d. 1972, 1974 shorthand for a between observable events (i.e.,
4. Darwin, 1859, j 872. For a discussion of the delay, ignorant of the of behavior, 2X I In fortunately while loliabibty is neee^^ry for they have only a meaning). However, if asso-
even within science, ot the general acceptance of Dar- the behavior is to internal factors. How- /ilid'tv i! ^s n oi sufiicieni. are to "existence"
win*^ ideas, *:ee Bowler, Iv65 ever, the are 29 Foi example. UK distinction betweui shoit
from the to "cause"
5. 1974, pp. 242, known, very is attributed to the longer-tern1 memory ha,» deeply questioned
environment-behavior relations, they are
274; see also & environment. For example, that, you see a boy (Crowder, 1982) replaced successively by distinc-
of prey to the
6. 1.913. Ms a on his If tions on levels and depths of processing (Craik
7. 1871, 1872 In the covered by this book, the
you a on the boy's face, you would & Lockhart 1972; Craik & Tulvmg, 1975),
8. see 1908 for an the to a bee —an inferred-process of to the
by for different types oi
to events—the of event. By contrast, If you had not the bee, you would learning-performance distinction. to
(e.g., Sherry & Schactei, ^87) —perhaps as many as
consciousness-—from nonverbal behavior. the behavior is to a hypo-
be inclined to attribute the behavior to some ti-itrt\ (Roediger, i Q 90a^ —and bv infeTed-pôc^ss mod-
9. Pavlov, 1927 lamented what he called "the prac- such as a toothache—an subbehav- thetical .entity is of-'which
els of quitt a drfferentfcon (e.g., Anderson, 1983, 1985;
tical beet of the mind," but if science event. Very scientists are in the is to be a performance be
Raaijmakor.s & Snilfrin. 1980). Suiveymg Jic vdried
have to society it is variable learning is held to be an orderly prore^s that i f -
of are of the environ- .vctr^f «'f n ft",^J pro*^ iheo T itib ofme w oiy, oreiiem- I
society should the enterprise. Although of behavior and, in their Ignorance, orv researcher concloded, "Memory theonzing is going iijipej fecdy reflected by performance (cf. Skinner,
P
is driven by the to (science a to • ai >G) From our perstxvDvt ihe leampifj-oerformaiv «•
20. 1960. »ii^1)Fi«îo"' K rr i rr-i'" ! srf-Hi r«f . I J c t f - j p r t - i r M ^ heiw-pn « - i
— are the is it
^ »Ci jHûrs to il d'*& iiinca.-/ii^,l / frequent in fre ^nn p«- °t DorA/n-ian conceptioi.r 01 ?pcc,.CF, :,f
not to be a -O'-n^ o1 i1*? wo»k cat'ied oui r.jdo the* heading of ihe joDcwialiFin^riipincism debate mor^ general'^' <ci.
10. The level to 21. in the cognitive neuroscience where an explicit effort ^ 1984; 1993; Mayr, ^82),
aie not observed normal observational condi- retention intervals are longer, but still only a matter of to coordinate inferences with srrurtures of the nervous In their favor, since associations are intended io express
rions—i.e., without che aid of devices that, extend the seconds, are known as short-term memory procedures. system. relations between specific events, association!sfic theo-
%e n•><-;, bat tli-Jt t -ri-_ ob>er vdblc w iih special procedures. 22, i2. Tochi)icail> , ihe cnuues ]>iuposeu j t i mfei red- ries are readily\ with observations ai
For example, we can sec the effects of the contraction, of 23. Atkinson & Waugh & Norman, pi ocess theories make no existential claims. Thnl is they subbehavioral levels. Indeed, several examples exist in
nr« entire group ot rnusc1^ *ibeis—the movement of a. 1965, Those who initially inferred entitles, e.g., are explanatory fictions iSuppes, 19o9) whose ut'iiry is which association!stic \theories physiological ac-
limb. However, the contraction of only a few such fibers the distinction between short-term long-term mem- detennined solelv bv their abilirv rr> inteornip fnn< ti»>f»nl counts have into correspondence- e o
( C.L"-C:- a * ligi1! ]5!U>ek ' »vch. -v h $ch we may be ory, are in e:at'*o**o observed ai the nelia* iu*al )rvt I <mci KU* i M v . o Wagner, 1976; Wagner & 19S9 I>«>JU:^H" ^
f o d? ter r wirn me uraiaed s«n^ £ distinctions. See Pe- ju.cs.est fruirfui Jne^ t»/r f P l i ) i e rr '^VK ]• Wagner, 1987, For the reason, rmK.i» oxjjct urs'.uîl
i w-!ii TPC «t.Qn ^r terson & (1959) on "short-term" -> T! 2 dbc^c t*C - O U i U i, 1* , |!j i i i v a j'- af CîiaL'fttive out the associationisut nadiuon ami
I ^. 5ee hkinnei ivii 19oS 101 discussions of similar memory, and Watkins's (1990) discussion of interpreiation ot die pffp«_tx of riifiei' ntpiesentafjon as the demand*, oi L>T2ri
rr^p f )tt ôn< en i" [_ th t torf>t ^1t determine the iC'Cm'uii i itÂdl'j t / t s w ^ i U i l h i v . ^ g)v.ai ikal We .draw., heavil}' upon some 01
pnate levels oi analysis toi phenomena. In brief, 24. For a review, see Crowder, 1976; see Bad- experimental work ân be. and has been dnecied toward this work in subsequent chapters,
l« v ^l f»f i^'ahî^ i-» p p f i o p ' i ' M ' t h ^ t yields orderly func- njiv -»tst; 4 rdir.fc* t i n , n n, t i f sn^K r u ^ u * Badti^ley, 35. 1974, p. 251.
25. Note that in this account there is no reference to ivr-o anu reviews in i r^waer. ! v / c > and Uonnhoe & 36. e.g., S tetter, Lauerer, Thomm, & Neuner, 1987;
I1 See -spccidll./ Skmnci 1M45, 1957, 1963. the locations within the nervous system where the see Poole, 1990 for a review.
14 Skmn^r, 1^3C of sensory- 3*1. Not all infeneQ-proc'esK approaches are equall\ 37. The principle of selection was in.de-
n SKjnner 1 ^ / 4 pp short-term memory may be found. For this reason, prone f(j thvFc ilifnculii, s A ..oiusiioit 0»i.i. of ihc ii»- described by Darwin Alfred. Wal-
I <S \(v T Iji,/ 1 tfk ' said-—tongue-in-cheek—- >"*j, :-n lace in ie 1859.
i 7 srnoie«-»«K> i^*S VSi^sky ^ Papert, 1969. The to the "conceptual" crsin^, is ai^v>c idiiu/h^m, In associaiionisn»--which lias 38. cf. Li & Graur, 1991; Wachtershauser, 1990.
i ? , r S f-if *- »,f oonliseHf ^ i ^ - f $ » e i t i i i i the the (CNS); 1938, tr 'Ov v f, Hi L*'v pijiiOS Jpiilv-a b ttdiuOH US 1)1 iliSil Llilpli i- 39. 1978; Wachtershauser, see Le-
las otner important consequences. p. 421; cf. cism e g., Lo^kc M-ll, Berkeley and. 10 ? lesrcr exrent win, and 1992 for to this
i clarions between rhe environment aod behavior 26= cf. & literature.
3(1
40. Strictly it is not the are 57. 1991.

but the In with the 58. &
f HAIM
the cf. 1976. 1974.
a of the of 59. 1975.
&
see Nur, 60.
61.
OF
41. For a similar conclusion about behavioral science 62. For a particularly forceful, expression of view,
in the of the see Thorndike's on the
see J. R., 1978. of Darwin's in Joncich, 1968.
63. Not are the INTRODUCTION it to
1974. ties a to
44. 1978. a, perspective, ior. we be in a
of initial This is the of
45. Mayr, 1982, are the cumulative of ing to the that intervened Darwin's
chaos theory, cf. Gleick, 1987,
46. Skinner, 1966b, 1981. 64. As we have noted earlier, there is no of the of variation, selection. proposal of the principle of selection.
47. 1974; 1973. the In we identify the the discovery of the of he-
48. to behavior, the redity, 1 It
49. cf. in A
behavior. we shall Darwin's of evolution
50. As was selection, behavioral selec-
adhere to a consistent selectionist approach in. which us to the possibility generally accepted. Arid, it is only now we are
tion does not occur in order to produce complex behav-
complex is as the cum.ula.tlve product of the most complex — to the
ior. Retained selections necessary to produce
complexity, but they are sufficient. If subsequent the repetitive of relatively processes. We memory and The like -is Ihe of
do not complex behavior (or, "pro- rej>n s t oi relaP v c'y Fnnpê hôêhaîorp' p""iceL-s^^
upon, the products of selections, complexity gress") be a acl'ilg u \ t i l i i n t . ll -l^K' II s - tr 1 e l i c ^ C .ibou! , o'i«
not arise. set of Select! onism, therefore, to piex behavior what Darwin his contempora-
to a
51. Donahoe, & Palmer, 1.993. theoretical. empirical work out from all con- » l t ^ lO bdltA L, a I > O U L L.i
52. in our to
53. A related complication selec- work, we employ a thoroughgoing Hofh rHy^reilv ^rirl r-omplp-yit^' us we
tion. A may be similar in two species are so
A tO US tO lively in
it was in a species or to
the possibility the of laboratory we be
because of common selections by the environment consider in detail, would confuse than en-
the two species had diverged. the individual environment produce the diver- to understand complex behavior. This sugges-
lighten the cf. Baars, 1986; McDowell, 1991;
^4. At the biobeha\ ioial level of analysis, we take the sity of behavior, tion is to follow, for Not the
Moms, Higons & Bickei, 1982; Skinnei 1977. Ernst
view thai learning ma} he described by a restricted set be by a selection princi- of is our\ impatience to
Mayi the trvolulioiidjy biologist, said of efforts to
oi toe s;3ane basic piocosco acioss a wide range of thr achieve a dialogue between seleclionism and creation ple. The the compelling irsues, srch as "Why do ao «urh
animal kingdom Howevi r the particular oatcome of ^ f f f r i of ihp inrHvifhh'il environment is dpî°nfitpd { ra7v fbino-s 9 '' "What i« consciousness, and what
these urivic proi es-iCh m^v v n r y f really uepcfKiiiit? on the the o^' r>i havioral selecfion f n , IP t ) f r % rn|f' jc)t\* i ' p M > I I I N u n i , t | | I f C l i J v J C i ! '""" "Hi»W f J O Wr
ivipntoc h t i i » f « i i \\MS nossilup b e t iii%c i i w c > ways ol
,'valiitio.i «\ and IcaiiiiJU'-ritrton 01 * h * subject Man v » s ry (jn-nn / * v
f t i ' nr j > f 3(_fc i d l O t l p /, ve^l i » i « H hi ! \'<iCf '
KX'KuiL, ai Hit iacis coiuii ni »nore ui t i t - n i 'viay
I'tJ J , lUi cJ A C i l i l Is i * l i » . 1} id S.K J i , C t , H / ^» * * L l v . . ! x i / e r
1'),°: /Mtlu,u|Ji wt ho^ctl.ait'M^ ' t > - o t t » r I lip rh,infp fjes^rih^^ ^xn in ^ crowd' 01 How can v»e uttdeivSictiio d sen
is evidence thai fundamentally diffeienf learnmi? prof - r
i i '«• it • »{"ci't;J i^jcj^^^s 'Ju Oi v, t > «j1 ^t (Tt « arrives i^rj iCeL <e i4or!:fy i h e hcsic
^ ,v •> «^v . equi.e.l to ^, ?i/aii> l-cKiviuirl char.u . . . cLt
ferent species. See thr volumes edited hy I ,/ehrman tiicie i., iiitie 10 encourage u ( , 10 b e ^ k v h a v i o i d 1 p i o c ^ s s e ^ tr»a' d e f i n e ^ p i « i i ^ ; J / adchess
Hn.Ie & S!,;INV ! Q / ' and b-. S-!if-!Ar, £ f F.iî. ,o-, ; observoiM)") oo-»s nor ilso appb' neft* wirh i t i i J i u U ' L ' J H if ; n I' ht M f yb i l i ^ * s.jM'ii jf-f u t »i l i » i t ^ l } « n M p C w j t l i J C j n wt"V.
i ( i i LiiiJi|urS Ot me v i r v \ ilicii wu num. <\ v i e w Inî JS

sometimes called gi fier,i/-n> ot CAA ieumiti^ ihein \ W - ] 95 ^ uj' i .of eloquent statements of tiif view that conversed on the foiinukwion oi such «ucii)loru*- i SSCN - oiten in Pimple laboratory ûuatiftn^ with
leiuiil It, this HidllLi blit f l y in die, AjliOwit £ L J l a p u ; . pc.rn.do\'colix/» '™JT ^^c^s"1! ^prtr^^jq^'^p o^ ""fr^p u'tll* iiiciii i ihicipic tuid ph,'',iolu^val rc?caich IL ui« n ^nhainr.r bubjcctr In nhcrt, relectionVm urge? M?
3X Skmner, 1953. romp^ jToin !inder<3raiK'nn? now our b(-*iiavi()ri^ aTtrn iru coverns i^ urde r lvi«a b^c'ccica 1 nêchaîsmc. to turn ava^ +ewporJnrj from the ^'prv uues-
36. e.g., Mconoii el ul, 1990. b) the tn vi roan.ic lit, t " .-!. ' ' " n [ ' ! " • ' I^h 'i .f " " "f"'"' ^«"J' 'f u
-' * * p > % ' f . f
Fise i e«u*. i ttv e *] t >s i V J M • « on^ iii|i if ?ii -«. ^ ,
accept trie account oi evolution offered by natural We all tmd ilie mnntdiatc goal of u r u U r -
êlection IF quite understandable given ihc gaps in ^lonrlmcr roinplex nurnan behavior more compel-
knowledge Him existed at the dine boi ron«pcu' < ab I e linp than the subgoajs of understanding simplei
31
32 : Selection of Behavior 33
as we of the of ••„«'< ' i ( *f he

the be the of .tUM u/inf î?-.'n^n«vit-^Jal are to
as it the of ' / Sv ^ £ « 1 - J - i - O £
-' v . fc
lO so
In as the
However, Is no to is it is selected—i.e., is the to the on by
not the of As for we in the
by the of the of its full we a The of in the
of the effects of of complex be it
A It In the are the by
to the of by As a working we the view ^f what is is reinforcement successively
is an te the
the of as a pie in itself. is the
not ot we tivity novelty.3
so the is a
the of
be for occur.4
are by the
we by the
of evolutionary biology—natural selection. That Variation in the can be
animals?
the for a ultimately, to variation in the environ-
A to complex.
principle of behavioral is not surprising, stimuli have two fane-
the of homo as a the produce
of as an individual, but in the behavior As the environ-
behavior be the products vary in significance the ment-behavior newborn
the in all of hunp front the woinh 10 f tie world are tbosf thM
species iindividuals aic. uiiicjue. To the eocene
can be '-•A»i* ' fhiitp-rj -M^V i M» tfiF- ^ M ' - v i v f l ~»f fb^fr vnF-ri^*~
uniqucjic^ :t, ^ ,'O. : AJ ^l^/i .?: Mir.iJMs. .1 i- «-;.
VallH Hajm for all QfipriP'C: Wh??t c^l^rtmn
by the of the the Thc. e 'clrtt : oa3 i r flec- the aîcestn^ en^'toniriunt",-
r
of is in F'ost stahl/* ?*vl equire r np ri t^. trl t K e ni--
is the "specialness"
can has ways to stimuli to man infant, which is dependent for survival on its
,of all the (i.e., the behavioral phenotype)^ but the surviving As a result, se- for the young of any
of a set of proc- microbehavioral, lection favors in which species, to are the
esses, by a set of (i.e., the biological genotype) ;of reliably activate the neural, systems most potent elicitors of behavioi Touching the
Whether behavior can be which overt behavior is a only be reliably evoke behav- cheek elicits head-turning: touching the lips elicits
in. of to all selected indirectly. Unexpressed "capabilities" ior as the of selection are to rucking. Thepe environmcnt-behaviorielatkvis are
organisms is no yet 4
' • n iilcr".& 1! t,-t] \\ it N ( ^ t s ^ s j * I ?f T^t-i !*-*«! .11 M J I V V V~*l f - T as or As
•> <"ompieie account Analysis* A n organise a stmeture tf*a the of is (by mean* ot sonc/grams. i vteia vJ-'.uJ
irm simp1}7 asks tbfc. we to the inig^t survival ane reprocUu. tier-- -such as his and—-
bility tbM the of a i'io»fc cîcici'i diê^ti* e ^y^tciii—call leanzt if his lips a while stiii m tne ulerub 1 A
biobebavoral be to hcnef^ only ny hehy /jn« to attain if —in ifn*, r^p- to In to rclatrr bUwreî ihc envirorjivMi and hchavic*
foraging feu lood. Function, not struct uie, drives a function of that is I arselv the result of natural selection is called
The to i-elevuor anc1. i^ ihiJ serf/* :°* \\\^ rnru fund an if n to is a re^le\. A l e r i / ;*• loiifpoy.d ol ,11? chLiiiu::
our "specialness" in. any the If, for example, a stimulus arid an excited response. Torching the
fill of our In i l ' j b chaptei, we df<r iliieify wilii has of his an check e.uciis head-iurninji and loêiliei ihcy coir
for themselves, flip CifQl IU/^T, Qtf^nc in tfi~» nrpr*^c his to a of c1it]-|,< il-i,^ ; - , i ! / / , / - > rj-np*' f o p - K i i i o ijhf lipc , I L ' :t
origins. are widely Is if an ,,uckli)£ Jo 1 t o ^ ^ J b e ' ^«» j constitute l - > c :,^« /,// *•
the and our far Wl= u a.ie li-e 'or«g^».s s-i VK • i-natioa rpori wi-i:*^ fed for a on the "Lf ilei'-e^vC eiiC'ti-ii; x'at'oiiL* t v ,piv.c«ijy m-
of any of how s^lecliop operates'7 IP the eyperie^ce^ oôariisrn the 15
' s i r n ' f stimuli
in no the selection of eiivironmeni-bfhavtor relaiions In the to chains c>l teiated leficxes — such as rooting
On the a clearlv increases but behav- will be A suckine-— "Jie not uncommon ^
, l
2 Selection of Beh.avi.or
are the ,,, r f . ; , (a)
are to lor to , i r • »j i p >v M i , are

are the in If a f»-«f\ijdiKj by S" r Eat
for as is Ms Is rHali^K eye for
of in the air to the his to on iv a few It for
(b) Motivating function Food Deprivation
of in the an in a walking. The A I though
in
to but this
leg yet
the
his weight, to i lie tic y clopment of complex
respondents do, we
vide the
see
for behavioral At the
' Novei " Explore t
of leg later—in
a be to the he and In of the " Startle
the 2.1.) the has in are the for Noise
'In. as the by a by As a
of the of has put It, "Self-regula-
the to to the of Its v
tory are the of Watei Drink
as the
is made."8 FIGURE 2.2 77? e motivating .function of a stimulus
are the environment-behav- its relation to the eliciting function
(a) For an eliciting function to be demonstrated, the
ior relations in young they are not the
presentation of a stimulus must evoke a response, (b) For
by the be- a motivating function to he demonstrated, the presenta-
of a - \
tion c/ a stimulus musi change ihe to a
of of other stimuli evoke oihei responses.. The
As the of a
a of As an ex- function of a stimulus may be
its on the of a
of a but by prc senting a stimulus socli as a Joud or a
the to shock, or by presenting a ^timiOns of which the
a an Its on a. '"uJ'gL nr . cspcv«;-;r-A, ,y.^c Sr ^..^.,
In *bp> rr^twii-Tnp- fiiffftiATi may b^ rtpmon-
not occur—as in re- by ^f two procedures—deprivation
to a of air to the eye—nor will they be of a or of a i; i
as as they will with further experi-
ence. Nevertheless, stimulus-evoked reaching is an
environment-behavior contributes Itn- the of
Changes in the
to the first are
to the
stimulus, hut of other
the by
as well. By
stimuli,
the pool of environment-behavior reia-
1
to the variation for selection. In the of for by the
the of are reliably
by a as Technically acpnv/ntori occurs T*?rst jit<r*rioi) c * of ^ i i n i a l i oihc--"
are as nfTf'r sftJ 1" v tlepr! v«M« ni rafi als« » lictvr .'-
are a of wfO"* \ t'liiTnih!*? hplnw fh" 3 !P^/P{ th^t w01 sin have* f o n c no1!, i /i»t*n f h ^ pjeseriictLiuji uf cuiy
are by as occurred ;1 ihe organism hud beer ^F-et- un»e stinu'ln,^ — puiticifl.'irly an iri(ens<" s t i m u l u s - - alton-
reaching—or for the dtucted access R liit- î^muJus By tins rk»fininon rrspondirig to othe1 stimuli Foi rx^mple. an infant
Is not well are as WQ s«3V tii«il utf Jiiiiinr W)H> has )iui 'cdtrsi in >«-vt i f i j w l t o i i H " ! )usi btaji. 1 « Jûd "fOi.A piay r*top spckii^c;
are two hou [ i, d,"f:'\vJ c r fcc-1, jr ihcl a cf^ 1 : 1 *"b > •" en H j o u o b ônJ il.-i-trnTff Thpn f t the noire »T
of relations, but two interacts fiequentiy with hi? paienL> i* dcpiivcd ol curs, the infant n->ay begin m rry or. if some visual
2.1 T/2P strength of the grasp reflex in the a of stimulus suddenly appear^ lit mny orient tow^r/-*
his paituts if ihcy me abêiil fui a l&iig time. Not
human infant may support its full weighs for a few
as to the can be onl^ dcp r ivatior re c ult in a more vigorour Uiat stimulus more vigorously than ne oin^Twisr
nivinenl?>
In other primates, thi^ reflex allows liie infant to mainutin and the the »k *^n ; ' M » T h . ucpi^vr? T : ;T»ri,j, v/bi'i. ^ j - -ji^ll , ,fvt.|fJ Tlj^ pTC^^:1!*1!^ 'K ^^^ i i r ^ ] ? ^ ^ Q r s.'î!}{| f » - -
contact with the by grasping the parents' body For are it affects responding 10 the piescji- t auhc 01 us tffeci on je spending lo a r angc of other
1i n t
hair. to be elicited, are to be emitted. lation OT otht*i sumuii 'inai is, depuvauon aiitxis (•LLliluii. iitlS d tiiOLIVatJojidl idliOllOIi. oLil'ÛH
Source: Petit Format/J. DaCunha/Photo Researchers. On the level, are the ol noi only the deprived presentations that responding to a of
36 CHAi' of 37
aie to and the in. 2,3, The in the In

the is as of a of the a
An X.Sr-*1"!1^ -"li.'!'- • ' » : » r"L,' U=
U j ^ » < l* > t !"îOHS IS
is as the 1
the
piofpjrec b-. i h ^ e i i r n t T i g anr» nvmv;.«nrt£ to the
the is to
of environn -filial s f i i i n i l i a.nd bv iht
of A rat the of in that ,/dlillbJr eilutL Of tliOJit: SliiflUL Oil till
a (LOGO Hz at an. experience a previously the Thus,
wtioê in'emol Fiat~s *"'* i hanging «s ibe of to to the light were "prepared" to
slty of 110 the of a to that stimulus.12) 14 presenta- vdiious <ubbeha"ioral pAvesfcO. Fri-m thus vari- fight—and, off rivals
band).1! As In 2.3, the tions, a was the ifioi svcle«.iion b}< iti-iloicenitiil begin.*- so territory.l5 In
the rat to a that was The light struct a repertoire of ever more complex enviro- of the necessary for
by the the the to the as by the in- iiincnt-behavjor relations —TO construct if you ing to
of the it The to the The is so
of the the to entation. As the ways in the to of the instinct
i.e., the to behavior, to learn,16
by the In are Finally, we our for the
with of has of on
for learning, we
the loud sound, the of the re- Thus, like the act.
ourselves the ancestral
as by the falling of function, the is viewed as The to survive in environments that are the for the
a a a of over, evolutionary a of
However, to learn.,14 for learning
200 favors relations. Just, as a feather, initially se-
are apt to be with
to lected for for
As an conceptual
the and of so1 a
for its can, be
not be of as to for the only
t 100 The can as an ing of ' selection,1'•- an be ill
for one and as a motivating for young, the to'.•survive; in a environment.
for another. For a of life its threats. Instead, natural
may elicit a (evidence of the compelling cies-— all as well—with of
CL
sound's eliciting function) may also a tions of learning to all the to
<
10
a later to be are two examples using fish— the environment to sdect environment-behavior
I rials
of the in the the are to
of all A to a
bc,^;, '-»,„„;.<.„<! !,,.!,unu,it>
startle reflex in rats is not the to
The by the of a but not a of his for by
a (1,000 Hz at 110 dB) the later presented the fish
on or se-
was presented. with the pî'Yiitted J^rees -o *iie êirale, he v*?° nr»crc jnc
lection by can as
(sensitization), How 'ihol! vê go fibo-tit i dent living tbr 1 prore^r^
progressively (habituation), until a light was For a to a "Please v
nor tiairuM with the ligfii Thus c ourtinp--an(l whereby (he conleiTip^ra1!7 environment guides be-
before the of the tone for up your toys" in to
reprodncf ivc hf havior and 11 pop vi/hi c ij » prjncipV of beraîora 1
animals. After the flash, the jumping Similarly, a tells j itnL«. wuii dii dibiii M j i i j u l i i s I lilt* l i y i u i sfifrnoo nifty be ti^sefi"' 1 i w o i y n e s 01 proêai'rec
('sensitization), a a so the Ln T rip^n ^ t i j n l f i \ od ,1} (|-r ^"'iu^h ^tid ho^h I .»'^
of the on the to will be (or so the
Source: Groves, P. M., & Thompson, R. F. (1970). Habituation: iêpond to tê Iig h l * prepared" fne tc the reflex as their point. In tee
A dual-process Psychological Review, 77, 419-450. functions of *timn1» pnra1>1 propagate i*"c geiiCL, jii. i a. Jâniln^ to iecGgiuê a pioccdurc, a 3inrjiild^ thai eliîU a j e l l c x i ^ ic
Copyright © 1970 by American Psychological Association. the functions, resper- fpjisal- woulc do HI the cnviiomnei'i. spori^ e is introduceda/^'/-^// envii onmental r\>cnt
Reprinted by permission. and are considered ?lêwheê ^r "h** boo1 ! ^ j^rf^nf 6 ~ph?'/ir,r oth*- thsn • ^f frt^"*^ }.- fa* rÔJirj pr^ceû*"c T a fiirrissi!;r that H" *i* a
2 Selection of Behavio
is a
If the a
in. it
is to as a or i espouse. Otliei miauls also leêive-U tones and •,,oiiitcrU'd to ) mobile posihowd in ihf J n t . j n i r
a but the (i.e., not field of / t e w i o c c 2-5}, and k i r k m p 'hailf-ii
in a • n«',r > t ) f i < u i f } . < 01 i ? i f
rocedure. The peeling jiiobilc elicned evt nj.^vrr.it.uLs unJ oliiui I s r k s i i o â^ nt»i i i ) r j c l N ' ^ usiiiyatjon oi llie
the the by the air-
dev ised by the P, Pavlov onentipG Tespu!'.ses frorn the1 iiifnni Kicking the jc-hpoithc Other mirii^.s wiio wei
to the the
m the earh/ 1 Q ^ X)s. The in mobile that jij^gled indt>f)tndenH\ of
The other leg. to which the second nhhon was ri^d had
is investigated by an showed no iiici fjase i r t kicking. 18
the no effect on the mobile. Within 15 oi
stimulus followed by an is The preyed[ne two experiments dei
the not by fr. thesf v*onditionr». 'I»e*^' was a sasiained Increase
thai tiic classical and opcrant p r n o d i u e ^ a*e l>^tr
or This pro- a to the (See 2.4.) in the lale of kicking the leg tbai jiggled 1 he mobiie
effective in chungmg euvironmenl-beijavioi icla-
is by the well-known in By this as as 10 of a
nous, and eên infants are fully competent if
a to a is by age a ior in which the of the
acquire the pew relations. Moreover these cojiiio)
food-in-the-mouth, which The and blink.17 i e r j laboratorx' observations showed thnt th^
is "classical" in the of the
changed relations were aependeitl on the puiriry o!
well-studied procedure. The "respon-
i he tiiviioriineaial sdmuiuN with the elicuor in the
the of
classical prorecji're -iPd the pairing of the response
the is the
wiih the ehciioi m the op^r-int pnx erinr^ In oih<*i
response to an stimulus.
^vi«db, iUe elkui 1 " 1 ^ .n"aiilus fti'ictioncd r i ^ ,-s r ji.
forcer in both procedures Merely presenting I!)'1
At the eliciting Mbnuliih Wiit» not sulluiuiiL to ^[infiî il •
P-^/lov his the
L, a lion4' îtb^1^ painnf* h^ri hlfV rfter1! KPSCJI< I-
the the elic- wnh northu?nan animals, in \vhich physiolcv^n. i
iting is on the of a processes "»re m.ore readily studied, has sliawi* J^*.
2 3 4 5
response, the known newborn organifris ot many species can acqni -r
Blocks of 10 Trials
the laboratory of B. F. In a test environment brh^v>ioi illations with thtsc pi\>< '
the of a rat followed by FIGURE 2.4 Conditioned eye blink responses in
duier 1 9 and that the neural mechanisms crucial 1->
human infants
food, which evot ed approach to the food, inges- Icarnng aie pres^ni i?t birth ' ;f) Sucb findingvN 3r»,'i^.'
The change in the percentage of .conditioned eye blink
f ion, — — salivation. Note in this of CS-US is it clear vouno organisms face the world armr' *
rase '-i is y he«W'«ojrJ for 30-day-old infants. Infants in the experimental ?H-J a n l y with i\ i fic'îv« l icl,'itjv>ns ^HcctcJ I v {]
precedes the eliciting stimulus. Thorndike's proce- condition were presented with a (conditioned stimu- ^ H t f r ^ n j i i f i v i u s i H h t l l t 1/tl! ^(so >vjlh 1 bf i np.^t
u u i t L âik J or lus) followed by a puff of air to the eye (unconditioned I O ' S C C l U l i t - i !CV\ /^LJV H O i l i r i C i l l - D t - f l u V tU1! I t J s u M * )) » > ,
The "instrumental" the stimulus). For some experimental subjects, puff fol- f p r f f - d by di" M i ^ ' v i d u j i l t u v h u m n c n t l l ^ f p I '
as an to the lowed the by 0,5 s for by 1,5 s, with f IfrwcaJ :nn) (•peuiii1 in^thods xv*. i » ' » ^ s . f l *
acquisition occurring only for the longer
The v-'ncc vi i ^viitii v Oiivliiâ'h' Lfi^^l Sc2'p;"; -?ii! 4 .^/ ' !
interval in this situation.. In addition, the of
the on the to fKMi h-. she I'ld^'fiit'i! ^ n " i ! < » n n > ^ n t ^ /w-n;
two different backward-conditioning control groups are
the the in the air before by
Ins the be either 0.5 or 1.5 s. Acquisition did not occur for the FIGURE 2.5 Procedure for studying opcrain
subjects in either control group. cundiiioning iti o. human infant
Ley kicking (rbe opeia/i! response) polled a ribbon for by
the and Source: Little, 1970, in Rovee-Collier,
vv-hich was loosely tied to one of the infant's ankles m-A Rînforcemeat
are effective in C. K., & Gekoski, M. I (1979). The economics of infancy: A
review of reinforcement. In H. W. & L. P, the movement of the ribbon then caused a mobiie above
in the of behav- the to jiggle (the reinforcing stimulus). Movement of on the pro-
Lipsitt (Eds.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior
ior, in As an (Vol 13, pp. 195-225), New York: Academic of the other les had no effect on the mobile. cedures be used
: > F f .Mi". •»»«• r ; < , < i v » » - i v < , ) <* an
sr «u h<M» h:u jHted ht.vvny on the as the a as the
of all to a of by an or
the to the eye—as the
of for the and his To Recorder
all the a of the
a of be is in to of
the of Pavlov.22 be in
it a in \ /
science—the use
are in the of
(a) the
NMR
occur the behavior it is to be involves the of Measurement
(b) the highly As
the in the previous situ™
is to be (c) the ations—or — the Air Jet
For US
would not the
in When COE- In the in,. a
are in the or is in a a
the as a for the of a
to environment-behavior re- nearby. A brief or is the
In the sections that follow, we will eye to evoke the elicited response. The elicited
• - . > , { ,;« ' A ! i " , r . . » . t < ,j.T . ,f {I,, .. l
t . .Yi ViNC if. IDvJU'C liiClil US LUC •iiu'itiMil.lînCtl'bicuie:,
\ tone (rondiLi^nfd r j i r n u ! i i ' ) i \ j r e , r n i - f l <o "» »v *tan»« ^ i r l bit followed ^\ d | i ! »i r ,jf air (un.conditi.oned stimulus),
filial! v , we will destine a pnncmiV of of "third ^vpliff "' tTsp,f?f?j)rpr( hv ^ r-f^vi^p1 f»tt^rhf*^ f o
w h i c n eiKi 1 *- 'nov^mrni o, ine nuinahn^ î^mhiane I'ê n-ovemcp' of thf "ictiûi^ng membrane is monitored by a
thai the the membrane. The nictitating is not device permits pi ease measurement of flic extent (amplitude) of movement.
with is known the in as only a vestigial Source. Based on piocedim ,> fiotn iionncza.no, I960, fiom winch additional pioceduial jii/omiation may be obtained.
in the of the eye. How-
in
t%^ and fish— it is a
The is can be to of in which a was fol- The with nictitating-membrane condi-
best suited to study the temporal relation between lowed by a the tioning qualitatively with un-
oijmenT *tn'« In-hi'ivû 'I hi 1 * is beC'Mis^ »r response. The interval der less well controlled conditions with
ibe crua adânuge c>^ usin:: the nictitatin^-mcm-
the for differ- is
!-are i Tr»3^'c^ of the ir.bhii .^ il,oi .inlitr L l,«-
ent The of the occurs a very fre-
me fUTie heiwe? n rhp piesenmhon «>i th^ PP*" iHi.nnr ^'eh^. the rpenibiarc ra r tl) moves uulc'»r>
the at the of are fore the that -elicits the The
ni^n(af 4i np«uJn< (c £ o tonrj and the îiciliOL! * hciicd t'y f p c c i f ' C stimuli. Tlnib. \v}h*ii a in«rin-
in 2.7. As can the learning-occurred only a
uii']r> 'c o an airpi'tT to the e y e } - nod thv bidiic response o *cujs, we may be quito confident
the the
i l j J i ^ M M r t i i t L ' N » « ) C J i 'Icij'fnliFtt^ \ViK\ r > LflC fllT mat The mov( most w i ^ dor in «iimuJ« <Ua« ^.MV be as follows:
the of the re-
iiitiliipu-icnOu i;> iut tA^CI UlieiliCJ dllil I l l l l HI CA -
sponse by an of a of a or the is
ant pjocediuv tJu; ex v uirenee of the msfjumentjil ligneous unconii jiied slimub. To turt h er ^nsure 250 (1 = 1,000 milliseconds). When for relations,24
jLC-bpunse- (v,.g., luvuipiixbsiiigj ia iiiiiiaily guided by well controlled observations, the subjects are tho iiilciviti v\as tJCiCi shorter or the The behavioral events
the in the for a of s i i r i i o j i iji use iclcttiun at chned. 2 -^ In eon- in classical are
the the so mnons in \\lurSi oi»»er rabbits received by the Pavlov
behavior be may be cytÎior} h ' 0 » n ihr jc>o'j ?r were given unpaired in Ms original experiments. The environ-
The To the presentations of the tune no (e.g., the tone)
effectively to the be- with given a in the str^nrrth rvf responding to the ' is as the
42 2 Selection of Behavior 43
are of the (e.g., the the

is to
in the of the KKjuii itK in Oifi '!K fiuth ,; itu,t< cu P J > the to the
the the *? «^1 '.i^'iicnme,')* brlsax 101 >fiiiHoit tun 0 ! the
not an en- lit p^^mf f(M K ' W m D g To « K t Uf l,S J'Ol rt ing the has a
In all ^c veic c «ujs!f fiitif on wti^l i j j t f v I K ieaniuci AS an is to
behavior be by illustration WL can easily uspond to «ny ol JK- the that is by the
be follo\A7ins direcii^ns' '"Turn if ft after you sec a is nor to is
is, the the 9/kite hoL's^.*' "'fur*1 Icfi a f ter v n u Hiea^" ôgf haH" by an
to be Or, ing," "Turn left aftei ihe load gets bumpy, * 01 all not.
at the the very "Tern, left you lilacs." to selection, to be for
of of the by not all be but do by in
the already to activ- the response of tinning left can be controlled, to use as the
200 400 600 800 1000
by types of stimuli—visual, not obliged to find a
CSÛS (ms)
ity to the
for the In or With a of 1.00 one be
the ol' which are to the
FIGURE 2.7 Effect of the interval between a tone occurred—for whatever reasons—and
and a mild shock in the vicinity of the eye on the be at of oihei neuions. one neuron is
if by is to be ef- a ^connections," or the
acquisition of a conditioned nictitating-membrane
(NM) response in fective. In all of in evi- any ant tl1"
received dence of a 1or sHprrion by reinforcement includes the full
28
lus intervals throughout training. The it found. For lite elk- behavioral capabilities of the With Ihe
of to of the are for Tilt classical piix^diiic ib vvcll Jascjcaf rocedure the '-/ oilable ^nnatio!« v f /
Two
the and in the tO SI'JGy * " f f{ !.i,',i>ii UCJvt'Ct» 4 »iri^ IsMxUi,
of (C) or
^P b°r» 01|7110f
Avol^rf hv 1|ip eliîtipo i\' i^noivvii 10 ihe
in 50 rns before the of the by
tones. in the However, it not us to this discussion focuses on the study
Source: From Smith, Coleman, S, P., & Gorm.ezan.o, I. (1969). brane26 and, at the level, lower thresholds ate the on of the of in the it
Classical conditioning of the rabbit's nicitating membrane behavior the eliciting stimulus. This be the events define ihe
response at backward, simultaneous, forward CS-US for activating the motor neurons responsible for
intervals. Journal of Comparative and Physiological movement.27 is in the procedure —bel).av|or followed by an eliciting
Psychology, 69, 226-231. Copyright © by the The that—at the the is the very - stimulus— are the of everyday life. The
Psychological Association. Reprinted by 'permission.
level— effect of behavioral selection is ior by the stimulus. Therefore, the brings a toy to iis mouih, which stimulus evokes .t
to are the aod the he* "p.'V :TV r v > itri v > i >,!* Trit? olds,' °hi^ r<=lt^1i'iiv- I 1 '*- n r ^y c
in the is be b} iK » « > Ihf toy Uit-îf doci is i>i/eii 44 cookie and f ~ar.r
*""" r*r, iiip^p^ri^H?e/1 learner fn~< «i° v^ ''holi Q?c i 1 * "* rxnf.nnipnf-er In order to varv tne leiiiooni} t. c -IaTir»i;
since its ability to evoke the response is later chapter through prior behavioral selection in between hehavioi and tlit elicuhig suinujus, wt i we call ' rteliitg plwrû willi v U K ^ l f . ^ T l K i o'kpv
its the must observe behavior other than ttiai e^''»>^^ 4;fijr|r]-{t rn^f'^< n^rP^ >it?flF rf^ffifip y iexiboo'k ?iliii
the case ol an experienced learner. There
The (e.g., eyeshock) is as for be by the The the notes, leans to with a 'sense 01
the its to pre-existing the un- us to do this. ,tci'îiip E F-tinr^t " !f"» ^,en« i *' ^ \\\**-* rre rnr f fie
elicit the is not derlying rela- In the procedure, the up of iecponL.es tollovved hy snmuli tnat evoKe
the For the tion, of this view is critical (e.g., Jeg-Kickip^: Hinorieb.1 hcience encouiagcs. a^ 10
evoked by the conditional stimulus is by the of the ill dii j D i a i M l aJid iht.1' piecscllirt u. ^ i l l i i u l u i (C.£., a belijvc that, if -,ê J^ it- princT^^ 1|^t ^ f c ^» ; ^
as the and the re- ii^piiiip inobilc ^ thai ehc 11^ a n'STK*^^ U .vj , t VL in *vul * oiiuolkcJ l'4ln^raU>jv pT<»uoJbu-r>
by the is are «of If of the As a resuH of this o*" \viij alii>vi us 10
as the In the by the not "connected" events, trc enviruiiJiiont (pCiiiapL, tiic oiîit of iîe
the and to of the for the behav- unmoving mohilet comix'< 10 guide the tritual bets f t u d i e d v'th the laboratory piocedures.
iii the is ex-
ucvi^cd 10 the of the be- tremely of to a
3 r
the of a the the -«l If
of an to
as the as the C tut, f i in » t . i » KH | | f > v / ,,-, ,!U^ |}«iN',!h!t f t t!)i .'.)KM'
QJ
leg the of be the of 1/5
CD c,f he'niK/icua. i~c!r, Tior ^v ocrfir-^f: s.r slcoi.-lîVs,
OJ
for and the CL relafion,\ ; We slia^ address this c|uesuoii in saint
The of are the an S 2 dci.iil HI laict chfiite ^> However thiee televHji*
CO
is to be if the an is factors in«\ lie meutioned here. First, rcspondni^
food is immediately the to not only nuclei Ihr guidinci of iiioiuenfary I'onditions is
ing.29 When the the the by the qyju gt ne; ally adfipiivr iiitlie sense of bentliluip
val are to the of the the stimu- SctiiVrition Darwinian fitness. Usually, a bird in the is
variables, an in the of re- lus. Thus, for a rat worth two in the bush. Second, the en \4roninent of
with of as the of the not only the moment is often a reliable guide to the environ-
a few seconds.30 2.8,) as well are '"appropriate" in
Thus, as in the the the environments.. A child who to
the the tlie of a stove well to
the is 60 \ 70 80 90 the of objects-— Irons,
by in Seconds the litce.' To the
1.0 measured.-^1 As an as are similar to environments,
the as the FIGTIRF 2 9 CnncuTtni conditioning (>fjperant the a'
by if at least 90 linsirumental) and t hciled h t><spondprit) hehtivioi in to the
o sec the i i ft L_ p u ' i \ U j M i t - a »«N j u t >:cu d.jfr\ ei L'Ldi pioui'Ce^ "X-CK*
In the is
a lion. ^2 the if 90 S h'dfi f IPPS^H sinrp the rirrrp-rjin^ to^rf nr^^pnfi^^^
the by
.8 h I'lechmcally, uu& piocedurc ir known a5 a 90-s fixcd-in»
the to food-elic- Is not as as it
ttr/al schedule, and is described n»orc folly in Chapttj
ited and by stim- 4
.) The ^gjê ehows the number of levcrpie^sir'x ir- at Indeed, it is the relative consistency
uli. The this are spouses (operants) ind salivary responses fresDonde nts) of environmental over
shown Jn 2 9. lever- m 5-s intervals during the final 40 s of tlie 90-s penod foi of thatfyaspermitted selection
.6 increased as the ap- a single dog. By the of training, lever pressing rarely to favor fneoiianisrns at all.
proached at the when occuired during the fiist 50 s portion oJ the 90-s period. A factor that It as if human
o
a, Source Adapted from 1Ciatsc h N & Wiii^ T? *% no^ 0 *
ip'Vp-TiHir^ccion "reduced food
( oucip'cvf coi'dst'OijiiiH "f bd* pies;, anc1 ,ialivanui> pi«)oi-sse-'. hehrn ior 5uinehnH' (fj-capf 1 !. Hit scitipouJ L ^ E I
Tlii laci thai stiYinn c i»f hHnjvion»j sei^t'ii^n ^ the mri-en^n 0
I;11 ccuc ihe c 11'.iiuig us a-1- potentially
guided by the eb\ irunnjcnt present^ pjol>leni& for prior seiection by iiTiracdiat^ êinlorre^. S u c h
Delay of (sec) the Foi eAdinple, were ,4iii!ii't uci as ' ai."i|um*u t iiciiiiis/ 01 incii^ tent-
• at a in a one nir'illy — fn,i.-(-:ot» q<- (-»T °ec«>Ffd"H )
2M of of reinforcement led to an but of lit iiHvi', in n s i H H l a ^ n i ' i f i n ^ ~" 1 A nrf j r ib? i r n t ' i h,* M^Piiiii^'tî s Vv'e hnv" ^ <ai eii û^ when an p > r * f f ] p « f
between the operant and the reinforcer and a led to a but athnitu-^d, we â» all iecnli rirruinsIaTices IP vhich iH'h as ioDfi >s piesr is ren the fnviron-
The proportioo of reinforced ie*stx>n,ses relative \n sligi1!!}' of the we have sucrnnibed 1«> t he i en ini«tii .n of inmieî«! e
total of af vdiiuus tit lay iiuei was ihe one that was selected.^3 o p f r j j n i s f o « r t?ier;efipn
jiCiiiiOiCcJo diid lOSi Siîil ui iiiuie H U M ' > r iyni-—i^HI
between the and the food reiritorc£ Surrt ;.P <-mf e'M>y* i "unwise" in the disian*. - yiMlK Have you c-vri t'-iloi ,-1 f ; $ i i r M!i\« s ' hns
proportion, of 1.0 indicates tb« f --^ t'>e tevp^n-.^ «
if ft icing ma. "-oa be by dcsv»t ^^ e" though yoi* ni'ght not look as good ^n "ccond environmental stimulus - e.g. tlu, sight oi
occurred were reinforced responses A pôpo^tion of 0.5 4
the afic1 HMH tiiH?n-«^« t i * * j K t 'di0o«]pg" the This is your Iwihing MP( PL j ru:nnu'? Have }-â c\ci [lie IcVwf hdc» acquijc -it] ic a b i l i t y lu u\ okc Ixhav
were equally likely. not confined to as is gone to a paity finishing an assignment that ior The sight of the je\vr oyokcs hoth sa-ivalioii
Source: on Grice, J 948. experimental was Û" rf x*~ v^^k" 0 •iijj k1 V«PITN *JP^, M: shint. i.v, >*n\ v v,- tLiNi^lstJ du
2 47
|0, » - j ' \ -:t » p r -i ^ tpf I "' i r UP m / t > f " ' . t 1

dlij' 2
that U'MlpC'idJ ,4H*'f' ',M'iii fU^lK U V K l • IjurUM"- >ibje l) 8 sl "( f i how lu ',H'! »])f i i, lit iya f n i l f i ^ ' j
th' x cT'îionpfcii!?! L-iHCl'tn."'* -* 1 ftcha*/sor v. x i;r> .1 * ~ , Hr^, i i c - c f i c c • j f^t'ti1 vi /e id^co r* r f i i
iejj.itu;c&f& to deieet sun. oihei eii\ii\,itiiient bthav viaed b_y Skifinei. lA When pigconis wcic/ given fiii-' c \ t - v f'O ofc 'itut j i r i i - J t ttll / u, heli^v-(.j
ior a 15 sec CFJC- vjibjer^ | slt *= y.pcruju"Mt Y epoile-d iUc
for That is, ôm^ the ,MMy '\houl ") » ) ) i f { i r n v •!?' < r k s c m n i - v t i n r
could reflexive as the behavior— which to oocufiuu di'it-i u.he laid slopped pulhriL' tht p(f\A/ jjnire^f w i i h s|-](.M'
for The ef- — in the pyT-a"1}/ and had put h»- " \ 'lghi âod o" the a/ '/«- .\c/'//f /"./?/c t|> f/
fect of a be an its rr* This Ker»avir»t -vac f olJo«v^d by a p'>m* liglil si"*' 11 u 1 iA l t - -v. c, pdiird w u t ' i . f f r • w i v v i i u ? i i g j > i M i i C o
one to which she on the ard K^ inûie thai — if ( ojittguit)' \A/erc nlj Iliyi vvci^- ie-
as for in C|UI!«:d lui st'l^rt \()Tl |() O t f i s f S"Ili*i\ \v<fh dfllplt
were transitory. These pre- another point was delivered ' I l i e n a f t e i , she ixgan oj;j>i)jlLifiil y fin a j c l a t t o i i to be s« lecttd Ixtv^cpji
Superstitious conditioning. Before moving to to many in turn., .About 1C) mm later,
sumably of specific the shock-chcited behavior. (When an
the for selec- a >vas delivered just a^ she jumped to the
ior to a
tion, we a the fiooj. and touching was replaced b> jumping Affei as light tone, it is a
in five jumps, a point was dt 1i v« ed wh^n she jumped
the the the Finally, a test was out to
are likely to include the touched the ceiling with her slipper in her hand
were stren.gtheo.ed. Since the behavior was whether on environment-behavior rela-
"caused" the is not
it was likely to occur the Jo -ipi"g f o touch the ceiling co-iuûed repecifedls
tion the shock-elicited behavior
The all envi- . uniil she slopped about ?.i n u n into the session,
In the the
of jaiigue " "'
the re-
it not
On. any given, occurrence of an stimu-
likely in the (if any) were nie-asured.4^
T
lus, the environment-behavior relations t h a t the environment-behavior relation was changed he thinking the experiment was as
the stimulus '^«iv 'ueijdt- some /C US
are irrelevî.t tc prodrc'r^r the independent of Ihe i espouse, this was designated , c > le w vv Lai we so far the 1h;tf is reatiirftc) for i h ^ f h c m n i y stjoiuius K1- TUDCHOH
a rat the and in. as a reinloi cer, second SLiiTiuius —the
for The
as it is trying to of the test the and as proceduie has shown that a. short temporal interval lone— should 'icqtjife {ht* ybiiily to evok^ shock -
Beeauê both leverpressiug and climbing precede avoiding crossing the path o« a black eat, are super- between the environment and the eliciting sliniii eiicitcu bchavor brcaxjse the tone was paired w n h
OF I'tâpe'ict o* food, both jespu'^trs will bi stitio 1 ^ ip that they refer to ei»vironment-behavior tos -and. therefore, between the en\ uoiiiijeiit and sht eiiemnii stimulus., Howevci, ^f seltciKrn ah-î
selected, ll is important' to recognize that there ib relations have been selected when are no tht elicited response—brings about o change in the requues the eJ'ci^ng stimuli 1 ^ to produce a change
potlrng intrinsic to an enviroiment beha\ ior-e'ic*- genuine d^pendenHe?, between the guidance of behavioi. Environmental stimuli oihei in ongoing behavior then ihf lone ^houM nothi w c
lot ^prTnonrf1 tliii flis,tipcmi<.J-»Fs Ji îiivîl relation the elicitine stimuli fjyii-i ti^ t?!icil'r«rr "timu'ii , n^v ^'o!:r the t_ k lic:t > rl / j r n i r o d the n b i l i i v to evoke a conditioned if
t v Twe(n | ]hp ix-b-nuM' and rh<. : ^ » j » f ' ncr ' Horn ,\ "espouse 1 lit o|)ciant procedure ruis H .'calc c! tlidi
inborn Hr,i ,j (oin yenr-oki r h i k i apiece ul candy f

^c ' licit f n g rthiiulu., a\,ev products r cl'apge m tin
•// ) fc rt-speni'-i 5 i^tc. a CooH iray jfôut 60 sec "jêafic-s. ofbî'i'Moi. Ei vi^c-uf-eiitul > t f m u t t-<» T ^
moni-hcriiavioi-t-itL-iLOi sequencer pro\ ule i l i e o u J v ih'itpeudeptiy c f bir Id avu.i- "Early in the [ses- evoke the operain i«i audaion to the elicited -v-
i i i a t j ,n kp a/hirh « L k'-iion li\ ! t - i i ) i frrilK'Jc^b sion i. he u-ctivu »t*vû' uieês of candy. ..while ;". Is it crouor, mat ait en\
tfticjfiif- III tilt ye \i ilidjiiri, w v Niidsli Scr jiuw Sw..x.*i.j;i.4 . i ,L; f'coi 'L1 a dropped piece. Sub-
repeated exposures to such sequencer usually c f seauentlv. IK" sptn! tht time crawling the el'citing siimulus foi selection by leinforceineni f c i ci
the 01 to llooi, icaeiiiiig up to get eaeh piece of candy when |K>ra J rtiaiion vviih ilie t-liciteri response and Uic
reliable— and, causal— se- it the tray."37 are ! POTI Kim in fv-icP1'"^'^ P ,rnFs iV irnîie" tr t ît ÎfC'jf 5?)ir hHF'lMl'JS ^\''»kfJ - ^ « U t f M ' « H.«L.»al UU- • * > ! * . » • i l l c 'u nv \ u /ii! n * i ^ i-'liC u ' c « > * K t i t r , ' t b i i u
selection can occur with sequences are purely relations either. College students were seated in Using slandajd classical prf»redures with rats he lus was piescnted With K a m i n * ^ proetdure. these
do reflect a or of a on began b) Jetciniining a temporal internal that was !wc ccûditionr. - lrvnip t >ra) r o n i i g u i t \ and bchav
the levers a The effective in producing eyntTuonlng. Lssing this ioral change— could be separately e\aluaicd for
4S 2
is, out the in the of it to act in a.-

of the of a in it in
by the of an it in "The I'lJiisc f t ' H - .) ^ .mil V l M / hfts p-i 1." rii f t j j i , h r [ ' » i "
stimulus. to oi Ins behavioi, piaist may nut,

of the on.' do not to the
the a .' '47 has enviiomnental shiPuh the eliciting stimuHis
the to be to the as a ( b ) i he u.mporai rd^tioii between operands and (he
n0£ the to precise of the discrepancy is eliciting stimulus, and (c) the evocation by the
The of the the for to It the on, dif- ef iciiing stimulus of responses would noi have
to be however, the are ferent to the the in
be- to the of in situ- a view of the be-
contiguity was by the but not As an a who tween. the environu-fle'nt, behavior, and the eliciting
for selection to occur. Thus, although For using the . is "unexpected" for picking up toys stimulus allows factors to be
contiguity is for by if a is to the bed only the bed is may be An is immersed in a succes-
foreement, it is not Experimental one eye and a to put toys he
of (Sis) in
has is to the eye, the on the If, the are
(Rjs) are
on the and the floor, the for
the a a in eye occurring.50 of responses are clearly
in by the This is the now (we up, all of the'/ôys not be as
by from the and are
by the are for hope!) if the in the floor up. On the
the of the.
In the of the in is to the the the ap-
proval was given included toys only on the of environment-behavior re-
by the is it, the are not obviously any
Because toys are also on fjie hpd the
Ins is a and the a in the ticular environmental stimuli and are more toward
«ir-r-.vi,in « ^ r-rio-i o f rhn HP ftavlor UP
The phenomenon that ICarnin discovered—— newly eye are tr«c opcrant end oi trie coriur-uajri Whe,n «isi dicil-
toys the floui may be by the fact
the use of the iil^ ^ t J l i i u J u o IS iilM i#«Ut4JijuU i j i k j l l i t S bil C a l l i Oi L V t * ! ! > S
is "expected" for just picking up the on
the "blocked" with the sec- are in. the and ao response is evoked from
the
of the the re- other responses occurring at that moment. a
with both classical procedures43 pro- behavioral discrepancy is produced and selection
cedures.44 the by the light— of a
occurs. The proposed principle of selection by
theme: A given eliciting stimulus may not
alternative accounts of the results through the of the of eye—corre- reinforcement holds that whencve" a behavioral
as an equally effective reinforcer for all
of a of procedures.45 sponded to the by the If the aiscreiwncv ocruts, an cnvironment-hehavior rr-
in all environments. The person's
consistently suppor^d the conclusion th?t behav- a of litiHHi i^ \"it ' i f - / , ' / / , ' / . ' c t'-v/.v/ vv~-C'irc> I'll ?!<*:- / / r / ; ? f -
of the envi-
ioral selection fequues f\ dAot-panry beivveen in- the ifit-iiibraite of die >>thej eve—then syufjt - o/ /:// f / ? O A j Miiiiuli occHnui"
ronments will it will
going and c l u i c e d h e ' - a ^ ' u i ;!,"- wei» ?:> an îeitiun >iill uccu'fed^' hrim? ti,cr nisei s nCWi \ un<l /// / / ? / > s
as a of environment-behavior rela-
ioiiipcrdi luLuioii ul die eiiviiuiuiiîil The Mguiikdiicu ul Luc tions. Prior exposure to an elicitor in a given envi- <u c w; / ///
the m^m fm is Two
ronment-may the elicitor s to t ' -
of the of implications are be m f/iar ewvz- The principle r»t reiniorcemem mjkes no fun-
in. is of the poiiivr- iûr in. 49 •1.j'reri;al disii'-ûo^ i\Hv/ecTs ilie ^c^ctioi) pivi-x^r
to the ernes tint me in the classical and operaiit procedure;;. For thai
of to envii uutnei it-behavior for but reason, it has been a of
to are not for as rein- In the a spe-
A. of by
a of of for are not cific the
in a to ing as the As a on of therefore, is
discrepancy.46 an if a is "ueex- we to a part of the environ-
tor not the of for up toys a of behavioral .selection. As all ment-behavior relation. The will
the elicitor "surprises" the his room, it will likely the that he the tfie but,
S€* of
To see the Classical

Environment S S S,
the in
\ ( ior
the
by an
Procedure
Tone — Pricking up
is a 0n/}>
> !s i ood — Salivation
JF 0|xt«int f/" the a is
the a (e.g., salivation) by
R1 R2 R3-
not a
is an up (Orienting — OR)
Tone —
2.10 Diagram, depicting the introduction is are the !
of an eliciting, or unconditioned, (US), to be the Salivation (Conditioned Response — CR)
its elicited, or unconditioned, response (UR) into an discrepancy, to of the
ongoing stream, of environmental and behavioral relation? These be the
events Operant
of the and as the
The a of events, or
(Si, ..., Si, ..., Sm), in. a of of the oc- Procedure
behavioral events, or (Ri,..., Rj,.... R n ), occur. curred. What are the to occur Tone Pi irking up Ears
the eliciting is a in the of the discrep-
(a S-US contingency), a classical is ancy? In to would be Level Krvs r
the is a re- by the as ;
(a R-US an is ood — Salivation
up the the
Clearly, regardless of whether the reinforcer is by
itself (salivation). to the
on a or a
the rela-
and necessarily precede the reinfor-
tion all of and re-
r
I Pricking up Ears (Orienting Response — OR)
cer. However, a given or
the the the and
lone
the is a or an the it is to up its the j Salivation (Conditioned Response -— C R ) ,
respectively. lever, and not in
Lever Press (Operant Response -— R)
order).
are the only
for in the environ- FIGURE 2.11 Examples summai izing the responses tfiat are most hkd\ to
he guided ny we eimmnmem as a resuh of The classical (upper panel) and
are ment-behavior As the
operant (lowerpanel} procedures
evTv=»riinpT»t indicated, a
also prcrccfc :fic 4-I >ci tor—although re~ i !!'„ y. U Y J , Hiiv,;- ""V-.iii J i i t i f \ v ~ uiucâit. snt ','it'Tc,!', H' » «.; H U M
vvill viifj lio^fj moment to moment. In the produrv an diciloi in be it only 1
that defirc iht c lasrsical and optîaiit p n x x t j i n o - * r'Mv. »« » 1
prnceHiirp ;j specific precede the ^Mcito-. the

the behavioial discrepancy; i^di'de t espcp c ^ not
is ro a of the *p produce the but
environment-behavior relation. However, the e.g., the as
always tai^b place in an it the
the — the of the lever not be the to of environrtient-behavior relation.54 All pos-
the to of the of with the and of relations—facilitating,
the of a the any occur and
be Thus, the of selection. We will
are "kinds" of as as can The fi- to a
but to the components of the selected environment- nal of behavioral on outcomes.
behavioral are reli- relation,53 for a interactions, it any. among the stimuli re- The in a
ably occurs.52 of the are arc candidates for in the between the
52 2
by the the are

as a, the re- of the of an
the "Don't by the of the
a of air to the by the of a of
of to a When an is by an. be to include as
In a "neutral" as elicitor, by provides a as • Ecologically invalid situations. Although
a By the "causal" That is, ers for to be
"Blink" a for a an the Biological constraints on learning. T he most at the level, by
of the of to the of a not the occur-
ing hastened.55 In the the the is by on In. of but the of
the to the of a (or by a the it.
("Don't blink") and the the of a the the activity of
of be- the in the Even the was hours .motor systems inevitably to behav-
the two In the of the In way, by the or the ior-—otherwise the systems would never have
case, the the two a of environ- with that stimulus. Other naturally selected. In the laboratory, however, the
ment-behavior a valid theory with the poisonous elicitor—such as relation between motor-system activity behav-
visual or stimuli-—did not of ior be surgically or chemically
A in an of the the in the learner's
environment-behavior relation.60 without selection. For ex-
A was to a environment.
(a) why a be in which
and if the did «of As we in the
of the on environmi niaJ siiirujliia is pjiied with an clicn
the a of on the
of the (b) did ing stimulus, but tfie animal is paralyzed by a drug
delivery, the to of a
a ih*ir p i C v t i i i 3 iieui<t! aciiviiy fioiiicontracting mus-
50% of uie lone piebeuiauons. 56 we powerful for the of
the and the 'v ^'i/', ,^ ..^Sii; L t l i /t..JutJ«'*l^ "''i"^ Ki ' vc^l ieû-'MU-
have «ir r\«»«:p. t - o, ,,-•;,. .ir.TYiCf i>rtween. the oper- a for
m o ) TMevetllipfe^c \vh^n the opim'tl rp.^n>^^ f'-oiu
ant (hqvm<r 'i Hry mrqjtM or»H fho Îjcited
The to questions in the the drug, it can be sliown that this experience has
(salivating),57 In when a pre- less, an exclusive on at the
history of the relation. the environment-behavior relations.62
and water given if the did not behavioral level sufficiently constrain the
stimuli accompanying ingestion and the coo.se- ^s nofed above? although the neuiai mecha-
salivate, the acquired the capacity to the analysis to permit all environment-behavior rela-
of Unlike most j'lî".- of kariiing were iititially naturally seiecieti
dry.58 not to be interpreted.59 This is as men-
between stimuli and. elicited re- fur their effecis on behavjor, once selectee! rhe.se
salivation, so the and elicited did biological initially
the the n'e^lidmsmj. may .serve additional functions. An
not for on overt behavior are
relatively con- ^ f l l T i i i l \^/f>r>cr' 'T'U^C^'.^ lire rLT";1V7*"J if. C^, til's-, t i s ,o
for
The- v r> ry diife r *eijt rulUfitiOi) troiti tin ojir M ^/iijcl i f « -
<?/ fl c?f We of the is the L'CT 'JUS . , > S l / - r v C ! r ^ in 'I iv. |M-t : » . ' / v i ' V r l , 3
i» v,e«.c ti «V iOijiificerti.tr of expose liiiniidiions of a principle of of olfactory
the LOiifCfTipGiîy aî/jiii.iCiiU <JK bd.scu exclusively on the experimental analysis of This has the Nothing in the history of the sj
iiniijicj' >efes t i f i i i ,ui'i ^rkc u,i|, nehnvmr Hr«t c'^1 action by to the nervous system, w-h. h i s wiicic Jeairi-
by ftioduce uiviioument-behdvioi occur in situations where selection has bi- sensory systems the ing tak.es place, from distinguish i^ h<>i\vec^ HCU
relations are "jpni^pui'f " MI *Vtu,v ur ; r x ased the of motor involved in ingestion. Presumably, ral motor activity actual mo U K IF MIJH ( t nt-
rnents. As with n?ruiai s( jccuon, behavioral seiec - expose are avoided, novel-tasting sub- two always occurred it 1,^ anct^tiai en
the deference bet wee r the bcha r ioi on if after'
the to an. and the in so in. ing a of surviving,
is for of Failures of an orderly relation between e lienation
in At the of are are for the . and selection. More fundamental questions
"unexpected" ecologically invalid, of in the of a
not by to a of by only on the of behavior are
the environment, comes to in. are by the as by in. which
2 Selection of Behavior
as or are not of a
oli. of analysis. ' t j .ti * t l i , tc'itk S *i M "^, Hit k
, PH ' V I <* < » « J « M !^ ; ci (rt k^"-" j t j u t i t M * |)itj|tA ! (
u U i r i i u I f j ^ M V s /licipiSCh I ' C ' i w C i M ilic u / X * » » r >
If the in a is Anatomical research uidicaies tlieic aic ol (ultimately) ironi hensoiy and
the of A of in the VTA and the
or yet, a this by to the of the to the
will not a tal lobes,66 2.12.) of the of the VTA
in the of a by of are
is to by the a for at the level.
be by to the of
tone with shock: will a conditioned Thai is, at the the
a cell body, axons, which sensory areasto activate
dilation,63 are the physi-
the to Is the
we to ological If all of the
as eliciting stimuli, but only one functions as a and in the vicinity of the behav- In the VTA are of VTA has effect?
to ae environment-behavior ioral discrepancy are for membership in by.ne.uiotransmitters released by neurons The VTA neurons aie known to the
lion..64 To is the are by biologically iinpoitanl stnri- ot M) the question be
ing the is the of
How do we know which ever they may be-—must be comprehensive enough
do not, the very to At the the
we to the of
of to are Frontai (_ortex~ —
Although of this with the reinforcing stimulus. To contribute to
the of ~ V
the of
be at the the "right"
level the ways—i.e., the are by environ-
mental events, Corpus .Ca I losu r *-
for the to the
level everyday of the is Ganeita"
As the an ever known of the of reinforce-
more extensive history of behavioral selection, ment? Can they the by
stimuli thai elicit few il any overt in- at the level?
<;icasing!) function as reinforcers. a of the has to N. Accumbens
child might receive a piece of candy for its behav- answei this question is the elecliical stimulation of
M i i - NiiiTsisiiiN sn.Ti elicit salivation as surely for t H uun[.*. !M this p~^ccdur~, r.H electrode a pair of
,he cl^'d as %; Pavlov f, dog—most fiiii w'nes insulated fium out anothei except at idin HuiiJlc-
^ i i f n * h tor K f f i S f iiHviviOj nic aot. of this character. me'r lips- is mseiie'i '"!TU n orun. i f ^ - i i i A SMI«!I VTA
/\ ppi on Ine bacK, a kmu word, or merely a smile cuiruit is then pt^c-d tlnaiigh the neural f if cue at
' ,'it he i r >'" tt f emroi 'Tr and yet do f t i r up of ihe wiir-s Th<- sininiJatiOii pioduccd bv
Hippocampal Region
no* elicit overt re spoil dine to an de- this cunent approximates that which occurs naiu
,M',r ! r M ! » f " • oipdiu^not r: Acquired,reinforcers i ally when one neuion activates it is 2,12 Schematic representation of the relation of axons from, the. ventral tegmentat area
piovidc the most FC nous challenge to of to observe the effects of electrical stimu- (VTA) diffusely project to various brain areas, notably the motor association cortex, of the
j«-ijifor< cii«t-ni only un the lation on on the of frontal lobes and subcortical motor nuclei (e.g., nucleus accumbens)
of behavior. It is reinforce- the In the to VTA project, the
sensory of the synapseûpon the of neurons ultimately
ment, which is the of
to behavior. Also shown is a projection the VTA to the that plays an
for the as as this and
in is in
the to the of Source: Creese, 1, (1981). receptors. In H, I. Yamamura & S, J. (Eds.), Nemo-
variables, drives us to supplement a behavioral as a transmitter receptors: Part 2, Biogenic amines (pp. 129-183), London: Chapman & Ltd. [Fig. 4-1, p. 132],
also Hoebel, 1988.
56 2 Selection of Behavior 57
as Is
the of to Can the an. is to: the
the of a the
an To by the lions,72 Let. us see
the of a are too of the of
of the in of to to toe
in of the activity of all findings.
an The activity of this the To answer Two
by of an of are shown in The are
As one (or of
the of one of we in the network; the solid are be-
a A a the
the ' are by the of the A
in of be- an not a con-
of the OE it and Through its the units. (Any of
the within 200

•o/ter the
the in the
ability of the to the _LL_
neuron.** (The
of Ceil B to Activity in Cell A
ait picse.vioii .n 2,13.)
^f o f ?ÎItating of
on the- of to UR/CR V UR/CR
is a finding. It
the activity by
glutamate, which is the excitatory
ter at synapses in the cerebral cortex,
those in the to which VTA
project.69 The of on After Several Applications of Dopamine
a for Response of Cell B to Activity in Cell A
M/.m^îM/T," .i • " . . • . , • _ . • , . • ,„*.,..'„,,„- ,
the or (right pane n /jf <;<. eum c.\
another.70 Unite within the nctworks ai^ ii»dic-iled b> t i f f its the , o.n^ rk j . < i,eiwee|1 ,, P ,rc orc mju.aL-d ^y col id Lrc,. TLv
on. we the 2.13 In the upper panel, an axonfrom b'uk.ii lines demote die envircmn'cntaliy mediatfcl ônnngen, j t s thai define rhe I w o DI ocedm cr Fnc input units t i e
neuron .A makes synaptic contact with a dendrite of to the left, the interini OiidH^n^ i«nit<: arr «rt *he ^rdd 1 ^ "ip)c- -;nH the outf u: ui'iis xx to rh^ nuhi. Th,^ i »j ^ J Iihc
for at the If p»ojc'Mr*'g f i O i i i 'be T IK/« R u t i " ,o iht nitcnoi aiiu i>uipm anils inukie ihe < i i f t u s ^ Iv proiectin? r^nnot cement ;vricn*
neuron B
a a arising rroip me ventral teginenia! area ( VTA) Wlu n Ike US u.ni aciivalcs Ihe UR/CR unit, the di f tuse ic-mJorccmeni
A micropipette can inject the neuromodulator, dopamine,
is the into the synaptic space A and B. With- sysiem iv acti\ atcd. ''"he h ),ts n dicMin- the patbv*co^ her wi rn die US and UR/CR units are heavier to indicate thai
immediately the synaptic efficacy out the application of doDamine. activity in neuron A die 4 ojiiitclions nelwecn t h e s e nulls me strong bom the outset of tnnn n^ I n ! h p r l j i « : d r a i proredi"^ tltff ih'î-vnl M I v
the pre- a small mnoiun OT arrwiiv 'fimpi m f H j B, proeranact^xatt slh F i anil tin. T I° •«,,;. , s •« m/iiVd n\ »NP nroo-jai-n fn rhr me' on* nn^ ^Jn,^ ^ th, F - n - T : -M J.^ 1
4 t
i<- i»iff it* i uii'» I'.<L oVi-ap' •-' it j f hti'iie- ~ a " L '' f>
' fl~ J""'^ T 'IIT :U"l" » " . , » / • hf I Hilt, ^j*-u • > , ( II | j l t t £ {', n . T ' U I C ' T * if,( }/"( ^Frilf, MlC r'. l i l i l . « JL'i.JKt!
increase.71
diateiy o/fer neuron B has been activated by neuron A, t+ acfxation of the Si unit jeads, at fusi b> chance, to the propagation of activity to interior units and ultimately to the
the will i rH.tpjit or» f f. ^.iij Tiitial uc.t} /ation of die- R unn iMiicêiiis > i i e babeiine level <oroperant level) of tiie k im^t Note
the of cell B is increased.
the or not Source: & that the netvo^k ard rcinfoiremrnt systems drc rhe ,c?me fcp~ botn procedure s. on'y tlie t onimjiLnc\es by which the
is in the US unit is activated diffe1" h^tw^^f t(i° f\\'^ ro^^^nrf
58 2 of
in ? K ' h- -' ' ?

« iH'iii » 4 * i » ' |
the of in f lilt i « >i I 1 ! f t b > k K '
simulations.) tJu«Ti f")«Mi 1

In the a is f f i t MJTUu<ifU>Jl ill ilif jfjcursi OlrC hfihlSnis Of ~t if!
the the K > F < A v { i ' t * 131 I t r M l l f r t I ill IHC t i t l | U J b f t i l H ! ' I j l">Ll: t\ r O H l j i l l J I J ] ^ rtit C ^ i i l X I U p C l t l l J I
-.ponscs Thai is, the pathway- ael'vufed b v tlie A^ a resuN i > ' i Htuial se i
is an the environmental stimulus slimiili can function as reinforcers. Iliac is,

is the as the but the mediaieii an environment -behavioi illation an eiicitmp stimulus occius evokes a
of the is a the the re- would otherwise at
U
as in an In sponse Note the conditioned response was whdtev< t siimuli ate present immediateK before
the of the not be/ ore the operant response. This is a the elicitor come to whatever
produces an response but also activates a in our simulations of by occurring inim.ediate!y before or at the
to of the occurs the re- as the An "unexpected"
50 100
the This is is to a In the
the sys- by the the
projects from the VTA to the many is by whatever astimulus (the conditioned
ie the its at the of is the
of the in are the re-
The are
by the
efficacies, or the
the elicited response,
pathways
in the In the the are reliably present in. the vicinity of the.
the environment-conditioned response relation
the In the the
the environment-oper-
the
ant
in the the the will in the vicinity of the
in the of a of
the the discrepancy. Thus., whatever stimuli
in (See
instrumental was activated. The connec- the operant will come to not only the
for an illustration of the changes in connection
tions the acquisi- elicited response but the as well. The con-
if the active tion of in an oper- of the environment-behavior se-
the the ant not lected ie the procedure OP
200
this of connec- desrribed here has demonstrated that these same interactions, if an}', between the re-
in the of biobehavionil principles yieM blocking as well as .poir,._v" t h a i aic LiiiiciidtJLrJ few nit «nbrf :J~iH/ d UK"
in cubir condnioiiing phenomena. ^'
cal 2.15 The of simulating the
of acquisition of environment-behavior with a AJthousb rpost exp
are in 2.15. The classical procedure (upper panel) and an operant atjous cati br jn*cii)!Cleri D\
the for a the procedure (lower panel) :J1 Lc'bcJ ^roJc cf "ci'
in of the For the in the activation us review the major
to the The level of the UR/CR (conditioned response) tion os rcsntcircer?: not all reinforcing nimuii r l i r i i
of The the Journey to-
by of the Si are shown. For the
of be as the ward the in beravior Because o^der!}7 fw^'wrf rplîio 1 *^ ô
in the of
of in the the UR/CR R by by not emerge ID aU situation 0 n
the As the tion of the Si un.it are shown. The activation level, of an ral arid by the of a
ral the ability to the output unit, indicates the strength of the simulated re- ronment on the organism. For of these early uti<ici lying iciuioTL-t'inCfit v, cic ex
the con- sponse, varies from 0.0 to a maximum of 1.0. environment-behavior, relations, an, eliciting ploieci As y Jesuit cii L^puiiueiiidJ analysih at iiie
Source: & Palmer, 1993. can he a pliysi jlogical leve 1 , il was pioposed that K-i-ifoit-
60 2 of 61
m l'/i£? <?/
in £2«
ing a,
f/ie an to of
the as a
The the two the to the be-
tween are The
(1) The of the with lighter lines of is
(low connection strengths) all except the is to
connection between the US UR/CR units. This are active when synapse
is to the elicitation of the
are Computer in-
UR by the US, which of training,
by (or
When the S i unit is activated by the program.,
is a to
the any of the by the and
units, . a of
(2) on of by of are
the R was, by in the of of
the the the the 1
UR/CR has become Such connections on.
are as'.in the or
quickly (a) they to the •
as in
strongly activated UR/CR (b) they are active electrode
the UR/CR
It is
up the for ventral (VTA)
has not to
(3) After additional training, the connection from the and cumulatively to
S i to the has behavior.
It the Si is
the UR/CR be i.e., a
occur.
the the R unit has
:
it likely Si will activate

the R unit. input and. output
Review the the if
(4) With the Si.
are not Terms are listed in the in
to the central unit has grown stronger as well as connec-
tions along pathways leading from the Si unit to the R
which in the text.
unit. At this stage of training, Si strongly activates the of behavioral selection (or
UR/CR unit weakly the R unit. Thus the of n ,1 . -i i u_u rt »„ ~ i f s , j ,», -
i JR/CR response is (or lain effet is on '/aiiijIiiM. » t]i( i t y j s ind MS mor,

r
operant. The connections to R vai"ji>. ol which t5,îisiii i is one exaiîpk. Be
Si not vtolc ô sJ^liiic tiitij îvt, «it t\dtij> i t>1*- o yOtJi ov\ u
the R US strongly i « » f j S ' r i j ' hor» for f-Hi f i i v t j ' fion
the UR/CR the very of training, (or
2. What iv- the f i j s n p c t i < » i i hptwên respoDdnU^
(5) At the of the reflex
to the Si
inui opeianu; i t.. !iovv aic ihe-j alike and IICAV <u,
respondent
strongly activates both the UR/CR (the conditioned they different? Cr/c a n example that illustrates
the R (the operant). each enviionrnem-bena v ior reiaiion.
i Oisuuss frit* leM'iofi bpT\ver*ii n#nn»} sei^cuo'i
nnd ^pl^rl f<"?n b<,» r^ ?iiff^.'*î! t c > r t I p . f l f a f r hoo n' i .*n
ral selection to selection by reinforce.
(or tilwUt. IfiJlCait ho^v :>O E ectlOji by iCii)ioi^Ci)i^m
(or coritiibuirs lo naiijfdi seVcrion; suppotr your an-
(or -w-/ with c -xpcjiriientj 1 : /i^-rr, fndi:aiii^ >; cî
Selection of Behavior
2
the to to by
fitness. cal be by the
4. the and of Mt fv ',i » < * n 4P«!lP t «; ,i;«HJ{. r
£ JJif'*fif\' Miff', '''
between the ment? p-ii«Jiii2 01* tut- pioi r,«1iue,' ui' r* u'- itf M the- 1'»ac ! . < » / .
tal ex- and on fhe iheorencal prt dilet turn1* of the rescue hci creased 1 he rletei t ( on D| the exoyenous opiate s b\ the
i K i v o u : f >'Mtiu is ijit Hiji LOU v>jjdjfioi!cd stimulus an.i
Be to Hn Ihe r^dnf ed proîiriû'r^foncloponousonjates ic ineirue
daily life 10. The principle of is to ilv
15 Holbs NS'l. unconditioned response Tlics* 1 are Ihe event:, medial eJ
I f * iioiilri & ( foci*! 1^81- Moipan 18^4 W i l l i a m s by Ihe nerve/us 'y^.irfii. m^ th^ neivou*- system i^ t^F1
5. Three are for e v o l u t i o n of species as the p r i n c i p l e of i960 IOCLIS of learning eifwi inusl pameipiitr when leammg
by (a) b_________s_______, 01 r _ ._________. . , 1 7 Lmk 197(1, desiT'beH IP Kovee-Colhet & I ipMtt OLC ins When Ihe moprn k is given without the exo?e
the the to be is to the of behavioL Com- 19P3 K>« a summary of example? of leaimng ni rh e ieni« uousopidie. the ptchductiou ofuidogcnoiioupjatesby the
(b) the ment on the and of in the uterus, Kolata, 1 984. nervous system is ciet leased causing pain sensitivity to
ior and the and (c) the this 18. Rov'ee & Rovee, 1 %9. Rovct-CoII-ei, Mot- increase Thus wh^n the uncondiiioucd response 10 an
by the of a 1 1. it to say is for jongiello. Aion. & Kupe T M;h«itdl, 1^78 inciease in circulating opiates is correctly identified, the
of 19. e.g. Johanson & Hall 1979
the and not the unconditioned and conditioned responses are once
20. Lew, & Blass, 1981.
tions, citing evidence to its phenotype? highly similar as in the rabbit nictitating-membraee
21. Jon.es, '. . -.
importance. preparation; EickeLboom & Stewart,/ 1982; cf., Siegel,
22. & 1983.
1977, 1983; Solomon & Corbitt, 1974. In general, when
• 6. Changes in. environment-behavior in 23. '\
24. Put atiiticdJ review ul Ihr ioh ol temporal coiiu care is in identifying the stimuli actually
not to be de- the responses actually mediated by the nervous
pendent on close relations with reinfor- 1. Bowler, 1983. guity in ihe classical pnvedu't*, bee Cuwnie âi'O & Ke
hoe 1 98 1 . Another temporal variable affecting selection system, the1 differences between the condi-
cers. Also, an 2, Bowler. 1983, p 46: 1 1970.
.1 f-w a discussion of the of variation, in 15 iliL. ilJtelVal Uu illt, IX I Hi I
tioned unconditioned responses
as a in 26. Strictly the of theVi.ictitati.rig
•jk w,i r ^ a--,,ii>^K nt ncr.avuv, see
the the is the indirect of contract-
4 Smith |97K uidjs, the i as LCI* seitxtiou piocccdo pei T-J.CU. c.£;., Lcvii -
of and 5. Clifton, <k Lipsirt, 1972. thai TiiitriL Ma/golm. & Fishinan. 1985 ing the in the muscle,
discrepancy. Cite of 6. In complex environment-be- 25 IP well controlled Hassica) procedures for smdy- draws the eyeball farther into its socket; Gormezano,
tioned? (acquired) blocking to havior relations that are the result of natural selection ing the selection, of eovironment-behavior relations, the Schneiderrnan, Deatax,;& Fuentes, 1962.
support your answer. have been, identified, and they are known a.s fixed-action conditioned and unconditioned responses are highly 27 Cegarvskc, Thompson. Patterson, & Gorme/ano,
patterns. The best known of these is imprinting, whereby similar, in preparations whcre oilier processes iniiucie, l^7o; HisiLihoit. Qi'«ni^ Wet<:'. /t Slupicv. l l )« c ..
7« State the principle of reinforcement described 28, AHhou^h thet^ auc differences among learning
an attachment develops between parent and offspring. these two responses may appear to he dilfcrent JMo^t
in the text, its application to Whether fixed-action occur in humans Is a theories regarding th^ fncci Uv~s o1 an acconni of learning
differences arise fioni incomplete identification of the
classical conditioning procedures. In- of dispute, but some have suggested similarities 1-nt imr>on'1ili'"W'?H v.1tmnlioc 'tpd r^c-nonê A <>» W* r \ - i t n ni operant procedures- Ihei^ is 110 disagieuTicnt c oncern-
dicate re- of "bonding" child !• ^ <!H iiiipi'jtaoce (»^ '-urh K wim^. -»n p ( nLiaiing CIM»;
sponses the in (Bowlby, 1969), pK y hehfivioi ^"{^îdet tn^ 'oliowin*' * o i m i u ij 1 ** D>
net of the 7.
8. 1987. cJitkmed ^tinuiu^ of the introduction of \\\ opiate into the vided some of the nio r v.ircnchant cnlic isms of ^K'nnci s
8. the
9. & pp. 222 ff. hlOOrlrtTCnn 1 he -ipiatC hd . tPc f ' f C C l 0 s
J T l d k i l i O the .\, n] /•>; ,>ropc!art i>ehc;. rl or " the L f »»\ rf I *\r~>
cellular to the 10. Miller, 1959; see & Wessells, 1980 for njui^^l lesv. tf>nmiivp. in pr-nnnil stinu«l« p'Jvehcôc" (l!
-'
Ins uii 'iiialc^.>jt off^ci) however aitei ibe aîii.i*.! ha:
the level. how, of stimuli. Doiind ultnnaieiv >o versions ot UK i aw t>i K i f c u i
been given a iiuirbft- nf pmpiick-opiate poir»n^,s. vhrr-
connections "appropriate" environ- 11. Groves & Thompson, 1970. (p. S(>). Deriiclt, iDS'x (A*- ahcudy nr>n d the clel"<nhi : '
il is tlicu given d piiipiiik iliat Is jiot followed by flit.
ment-behavior are by 1 2. See Davis, 1970 for of the
opint' the aninnl is row not, sensitive lo pain, not less k a t u u oi an opuuni proceciuK is that some tcsponsi ; s
forcers. variables the of a habituated re- 1 r
l i\ {ji( n p;v. r > n T E nr'ipr'Tf*on p ^ iôp^P 0 ^ 1° c df-cTf ° ;^ l u ^ l ' t H ' M I'v - i f l»;is i! u t /fa n{ f »CKlll( in:j— I!K u il
sponse,
9. the or of n. i)^»n îii > H « ' i ' Y v v i i ' k clr LonGitiO'««•'•; "e]|iONsc r "u. ,.»!•.«." - M M I i t * , T f c / r i,,, '} , . n p h . , ^ * , .), ;l,r t / ^ , \ '
13. When stimuli evoke specific responses as the re-
be to increase in sensitivity-—seemingly opposite responses. oi the response, the -piinciple describing how such Vaiii-
of are
interpret the However the experimenter has mistakeniv identtiiect the KIU takes place inns oiien i>ten leiened iu as ili^Lîi <^/
as conditioned or discriminative stimuli, depending on
unc(»ndkioncd effect ol the op'ate When a^ op'dfe is b/fptl, Tjiorndile l^C 1 , ^cc Col^ninn «^: Gorwe/ai'o.
e.g., the whether classical or procedures were used to
64 2
1 979 for a of the of in 43. e.g., & 1972, 52. of

to the is a the be-
29, For a see of the the outcomes, the pre- '" d i p r I ^ f } f- , i!i., ai/ !tlli- < > i -Jic u f u . iji« ' "U .-* ,--.'
pp. in e.g., & sent is his on the ifraie of fasfc- a\/eisio»i.s «efc Asiie '1 Nrt^hmar. iW)
30. of he the &
31. e.g., 44. e.g., Saal & 1953, 1981). That is, the reinforcement 62. e.g., ^ 1962.
& 45. For to the elements—a a 63. e.g., &
32~ & the capacity to and a There'is nothing in a 64. See Donahoe <& Wessells, 1980, p. 144 for
33. Logan, the response, in a control group findings.
treatment of classical operant conditioning
34. cf . & 1 981. a. compound with the eliciting 65. Olds & Milnet, 1954. It is of some interest to the
minimizes the crucially important differences between.
35. Tliis view will be as equivalent to the from the of When history of this discovery—as is
the outcomes of the two procedures for the
analysis of by Locke in his Essays con- to evoke conditioned of complex. However, the riot uncommon——was tnade while the investigators
cerning understanding, (e.g., Kamio, 1969), As to deeply question the view that classical looking for See Glickman &
36. for the two "kinds" of or 1967; Trowill,
37. 1972. in the are con- theoretical Cox, & 1969; Wise, and
33. 1987. of the with a select environment-behavior Wise & 1987 for reviews of on
of response-independent of an to the of the of the in the are particularly to
of processes in These to occur in the vicinity of'the behavioral, discrepancy, the behavioral treatments of reinforcement.
to the selection of environment-behavior relations on the of the compound when the coinpo- of the relations are See 66= Fallon & Laughlin, 1987; Swaiison, 1982, See
basis of contiguity with an eliciting were presented separately (e.g., Leyland & Mack- Palmer & (1993.) for a discussion of the philo- also Parnavelas & Papadopoulos, 1989,,
e.g., Staddon & 1971; Staddon & 1978). Other additional sophical of lie 67. e.g., & 1990. See
1993; & Lucas, 1985, 1989, It is in the occurrence of blocking (e.g., Mackin-
the version of the 1988 for a review relevant literature. There are
however, contiguity is one of the primary tosh, 1975; & Hall, 1980), but do
dent distinction, as well as a number of other conceptions other inputs to VTA- ncurofls from brain, areas related to
factors producing behavior; e.g., Pear, not the of as
in (1981, to
1 985, where it has studied in be af-
for a of the of the cf. &
the cf. by the con-
in 0f
39. as as by the
53. & 1957. See to it! re-
40. In shock-elicited re- (e.g., Gutsin, Cachelro, & ' ;
not directly. a on plasticity; e.g., Kandel, 1976.

see also & & 68. Stem &BeUu£zi,,l988, 1989.
was used in which a different response was directly 54. cf, 1983, p. 264; & Juer-
c.f. 1984). findings gensee, 1980. 69. The discussion of'the neural mechanisms of rein-
measured— leverpressing for food— and conditioning are necessarily with the interpretation of 55. 1972. forcement presented liere\ focuses on the modification of
was indexed by the extent to which conditioned shock- blocking given later in this chapter in which selection by 56. 1965. synaptic efficacies in. the 'piotor association areas of the
elicited responses with leverpressing. This reinforcement is simulated with adaptive neural net- 57 R>r a sioiilar example of interference -cc Wil frontal lobes These sane 1opafnin^rgic neuromodula
technique was devised by Fstes & Skinner ( 1 941 ) and is works. Mams & Williams, 1°69. toi v mechanism? operate in other "motor" areas notably
46. e.g., & 1975; 1.975; 58. V ;il e? & Cain'-ci-n, 'Mf. sul>co« ival "ucî wit 1 ! tl-e .'iu' Jcu,s .'.cûii'beMS be"u; ih^
the competing re%ponsc^» are called oiuhiiuiieJ enin 1974; & see also s
°. See Sr^rrv, I U 3^, ISHfc' for err cuss 10*- , r, the moi't tiiOioughK °.turj{C*d, , ^ H>?bel •98<S t Iinrcrate
>:^,-'al ;,^57/ ."/,,\?i i. Akhojgh du 'iidêv measure */ con Wagner, Mazur, & Pfautz, 1980.
Jiflf tmnp- is siibjert 10 methodolof i<" a] rom !Iouo>u & Jc.i^ . T^C. T i c îlu'o, .11 JîLiH, ,:
omphâtions Of 47. 1970, p. 70. P) orolerlv relations* rf Palnv^- <$/ Doiiahoe. plastir«t} hrive been inorp extennv^l^ mvestigareci «r»
r*olepiap /% fTornvzano I^Q* Oonahoe Wesse'Jb 48. Stickney & Donahoe, 1983; cf. Pearce,
l a V J i l c t ; aCCS. S t K o .4» /J/;/\,./u ^ t, Ca'^V Ablalil.*
1980), it has to be an & 1982,
Garcia. 1^70: & Kalat. 1971 Hawkin, & KandeL 1^H4; Kandel. 1976; Ginench ^
for the 49. For of
6L Fo-rcvjewr, see Barker HCN! & ôrija't I*-'?"' r.yipc ]«)87 Ha-vU,is r-jrvv A K.indcl I 0 ?/* ^l>
(cf. & 1967), Later work the ability of an stimulus
L>uijijcuj. i vbU fnc i lyrniH. trial i lose temporal c îingu hiinnssiJiaa, AJKO'J l^«u. JvM i^<^. In mammajs
direct of such as the nictitating- to function, as a reinforcer on the history of the
ity wa* not neies^my fni jrquiriug taste aversion^ ^'i i ! 11 {
r h e specific neural c / ' c u t ? * h<- '-^r "lorlifjed by ^m-
membrane procedure (Marchant & Moore, 1973), see Colwi.il & Rescorla, Rescorla, 1991,
imuailv iukui by some as evidence thai tlieie aie uo loiccirient nave Decn most exieusivciy invcshgaied 111
confirmed the of the by of are in
poê *al 'e.'uTinj7 pro~csses vorimoi- K> itaiy 'eain'ii^ !!ie }i«iJbn»iu'j\I t :eA-]'C]ly f " s , r, ]t
Kamin. 4.
41. for a of 50. The of an in a "be-
this type of experiment. 1983), Tlic view now more often held—and endoiscd The j eleciiou oft nvironuic?nT-beljdVJoi icltuioiis in ihest
havioral stream" is William Schoenfeld's; e.g., Schoen-
42. e.g., €row!ey? Millard, & t-crc ,s ^,^ tii^rc aic vuitiiPoii iccti'iing pioc^sôb, bdt cvoluiiojiaiily i«Jdci u gciii"i>iii3 aijJ .tiiiciuics aloe u*
1970.
51. Crowley, & 1982. the of procc sses depends partiv on volves neuromodulai oi"}'mechanisms; e.g.. Bill v & Wai
^h? <i.p'>r4f«r <w|TOP*"iepf2l ?r«d he^3"'7i^rn! ^'7er»t? in the
2 Selection of Behavior
& 1 99 1 . We (Frey, & 1993; & to the Mg2+ of to inter-

to circuits in. the 1988,1989), In the motor "block" the NMD A & of see & 1981;
of the of the of are the 1987. in ex- Gluck, in 1982: &
to In the VTA tensively the hart,
of in the mil to be tiation & 1973; & Levy, 73, -& 1993. The
be to the the & 1989; & to the of
ger, 1983; & 1993; 1986; Levy, 1 Levy & 1979, is an of what is called supervised
70. A of the 1988), of one & Nicoll, 1991).. The of in the is "super-
in is (Dl to a of to in vised" in toe in
the of book. a the explicitly the is in
overview is in to provide a of is the NMDA struc- aid to unsupervised in which in
in this extremely of re- tural changes in non-NMDA receptors. (In activa- 71. 1983; & 1989; only upon within the
search, tion of Dl. stimulates adenylyl cyclase which hoe, Burgos, & Palmer, 1993: Kety, 1970. network. The present method also exemplifies a particu-
The amino-acid glutamate is the primary excitatory catalyzes the production of cyclic adenosine-monophos- On the level, implementation of a discrepancy lar subtype of supervised learning known as reinforce-
in the —-cAMP—which, in a da-depend- over in the of In reinforcement
is by ent the to be the of a quantity—the —
of receptors located in the mem- to in non-NMDA receptors. in the efficacy, of- the The upon the overall of the
of postsynaptic neurons. For purposes, it These structural changes enable a given of glu- cific that, .produce forms of negative network (e.g., & 1981;' Widrow & Hoff,
is to between two of tamate to activate non-NMDA receptors more' fre- have not. been, identified,'although a number of 1960). Reinforcement differs other forms
receptors. The first, subclass gluta- quently for longer (Wang, Salter, & possibilities eîst.'As are lim- of that use multiple sig-
mate to the This 1991), In as a of the con- its on the of: biosynthesis and of e.g., a for of the
the cell, are & Wer-
of NMDA by
(cf. bos 1974} ^liesc separate feedback signals may be
within the cortex, is known as the non-NMDA Dl receptors by dopamine, lasting occur
Kaba, & Keverne, 1990), and are recurrent likx nt d to a ' teacher" who provide,? detailed infounation
The is for non-NMDA receptors on. the postsynaptic
from the prefrontal. cortex to VTA about every aspect of ibe learner" 0 nerforrnance. IP
in the efficacy of by neuron to be sensitive to
the of VTA in
non-NMDA receptors. The subclass, the NMD A the neuron. In our view, this of r t H H i H s i . if oil uic-cf it^l'i iC<3Ini.iiL r iTV.y be llkCnCv- tO 3
the of the
its the
of VTA. by
of the postsynaptic of the of learning. sent of reinforcement learning also diffeis from
(cf. Shizgal,- Bielajew, & 1988; cf.
(NMDA is the for N-methyl-D-aspartate, a to be done, of course (cf. Bading & Greenberg, other oaclies m that it is cousuained by what if
Deadwyler, West, & Robinson.., 1981). On the behavioral
compound that selectively activates the NMDA as op- 1991; Constantine-Paton, Cline, & Debski, Cot- known about the biological systems implementing lem-
level, evidence also exists for a diminution in the elicit-
posed to the non-NMDA receptor.) When man. & Monaghan, 1988; Novak, Bregestovski, Ascher, f 01 cement in living pr«a»n<irn'- The simulation o1 a dif
ing of the following the acquisition of
from a presynaptic neuron, activates non-NMDA recep- & Prochiantz, 1984; Salamone, 1991: Wang, f u ^ e l v p r o j e c t i n g system lor i m p l e m e n t i n g
As the of
tors sufficiently to the postsynaptic neuron, & 1991; cf. 1991; reinlbi cement simultaneously thioughout the network
the in the
magnesium ions (Mg-+) migiate out of the NMDA ioii Myers, & Julius, 1991; & as the eyelid response is acquired (Donegan addresses what ha^ been called the binding problem, i.e..
tllC i f " ' d TO rr»OITh:F','lK rliairJ" '. t i t \v;, .;;*;: .> f h. rfJic'S
& Wagner, 1983), the by
opening ^:< channel — i n the ' ciJ i p c m b i a n c The cumulative effect of these changes in synaptic stimulation in the rat declines as con- (itfot'L^kHi! the c e-xU'aUortPx (SetnowsJri l'>8o) Oihe?
Ibiotipfj v\ nicn id's may iri^riMe. ) Wnen u«e NMDA ion efficacy is presynaptic with. ditioned Is & Trowill, 1971). ,Mpro*«'hes in" nio^r <Mt-n guided h/mdt'itni.Mici)' con
chaihic! i. "i nl/IorLc. 1 , * c ^ k r i i ' i . Ions ( C « ? 1 ) iii|_jdiA, for over the of neu- Thus the discrepancy by the uncon- ! "deidUuiih, oi L»\ analogic,'* u» |jj»yStcal iySlCi.i ,„ F l i C v.
fr.u- ttx posfsvndptn 1'itujon and initiate u v,o.?»cdJ«- ol rons; cf. & 1984; ditioned as ris^ 4 - ( J r ^ r , v if-r about iiR ncet* A/ ^-uulai/oh e\-e?jC 5 » l'>
>eaffior»<- thai ai^ nccessa,*}' io pioducc long lasting 1988. It is of no the NMDA 72. & Palmer, 1989. For of simu- be ûiaed b> iufoiiPiition at the iicur«il level it £,.
i i a i c ' d ^ C ^ m p>r ? > f t i v i i ! V I L > Oi l I C i i J - l ^ M i ^ A ^lUldTsuir is also involved in synaptic that occur during lating the of by in.
i\ c, ,YOIS ,'Thc I'br'Kn î i n f t ' H v v | l < j K r f H%'C <"»^n<^ ôn^f-t' neural e.g., Rabacchi, Bailly, Delhaye- circuits, see Gluck & Thompson, 1987; Klopf,
of what air known as second messengers to disiinpiush Bouchaud, & Mariani, 1992. The cellular 1982; & 1981 others. For discus- mation is essential.
them front first messenger*. — »nt*nri>trHnsrnitiprt — »hf»t of learning to have mecha-
aci aitCiôlUail) .} nisms involved in In. a
'-Jrljou<ii diiiv.ui ui ' »t i f ^ I>I'vir»A icu plot -n J;ioit»- by is the of
UKile ic i CccN&aiV to Mioduvtr loii^ iciMilk cl a'jjieb if the
synaptic efficacies, it is not sufficient. Long Experimentally, high-frequency electrical stimulation
changes require, in to glutamate, the concurrent of the has to
of on the the NMDA the
Guidance of
let us are at as "intel-

*•. n in ligence" or "purpose"—if they are at all—ap-
ply as to the as to the
To the the is to
RN VIRONMFNTAJ - HI I I D A N C E is as
we act as
-as the
OF BEHAVIOR Frwironjneni-behavior leiiiisons provide a in he lives.
science based account of
otherwise he as evidence of the or
of behaviorP the
INTRODUCTION f
eod-deprit?ea a or the of
the at, the or
ber the •
at the ceiling;
The of by reinforcement is a of this environment-behavior
food in case. Similarly, a child the The of
in the guidance of behavior. to the "purposes," "beliefs," "in-
word "ball" be to the of the are infallible, of course. Species ex-
That is, what is is always an tentions," "goals," or "intelligence," a
or to as tinct, by
a As to the
the the the of — to
ied the the the
are If we are to the full of en or.
by reinforcement, we in Disk-di-
since—by definition—a As the Campbell
can the rected Because,
the as a has put it, "Cousins we how
of the By the of
the the can we for certain?"5
to the of the food in the was to come
to the eye of the the of the' of the The In <7j?v of the stimuli occurring before
to the
the is is the of the that are toJ lowed by a reinior-
the cer to guiofc [rose * eepuuses. i 1 1 n smîe
clearly of the relation. However, the CM if he "purpose," "iotelligen.ee," and the
is to the
is by the as the but are of a rcirfetcc*", there ic :,~ '!ihcrcnt
ior To
of a is to re- as the of the of difference between a stiniulus in whose presence a
we use a was b\ chance followed by a icioiorcei
are by The. the
in the a stimulus in piesence a response
uli, i.e., reflexive in the within' the' learner-—"rationality,"
the proce- cautcil 3 ie.nioicr-i 6 T0 illustrate suppose that r»
Clearly, be the "purposes," "beliefs," and so on—to the
is only when a specified is" pigeon need not peck a* disk, but merely look at it,
stuff of which behavior is the The of behavior
present.2 procedures an to receive food. E\ ef< though pecking is not rêcei -
The in which the eliciting are not the in a
the of the ^PFV if pprkino ncromnanioH lookir.c" then necking
.-!ji'iu:J.-> 5,-, . v:;tJ!:;'t >,i t s t i . . . • » ,-11! sil^l?/ IfSpOllSC, is the
and is, a con- wouM a^so b^ *Hf*rre-r* I ijirlei M*U< CIH u i P M d i n f '
does have the potential to select complex it is the
the to >he i r M U t , . n ' _ r f»f ^P^t- « r « o ^' I 1 "!? ' • > ^ » ( °f 1
ê > i * ' k
Because the response is arbitrary, any ic*sponse or of the on the
stimulus w mi Iff hf -Hijpersiii ion<- '
combination of i espouses is a candidate ior Iiiclu- of behav-
the elicitor, the response producing the
-lor m the sel^ren envipxqnien! hehcvior ior.4 ' . IN i ) n > i fWpief vVr \ J u i l i S' c i i . i v x I he K s ^ i i l C i t
and the (reinforcer) the
tion.1 a rat for relation is the On view, as cK tioi' of selection by reuifoicen)e»il prunes a was .
a its left or the do—not of c3r "purpose"—
for a for a or for any the but of to by
its capabilities. ThuS'Oper- we see that corre- wherphv ijnjeliaîe enviroiirnei)!^! HTKJ h f h ' i v i ' B a f
ant the to incorporate sponds to the of the environment* the events die eliminated from inc stJc^cicd enviioji
the full be- is the of be- I I i r i M •»«-! -3 vim "=•]:. l i u r l S «T^ ""idi'-u i J l i ' i ^ * ihf
OF havioral by the Mt .: i " i L ^ ' t-t :llUlk'^ i ' B f l f « t . H(t: T'*£ /"-f ,' Jj_-»f
of the in the
"Intelligence" or "purpose" oetcome ot selection by reinforcement roost
we so
the The is crucially an cause-effect of envi-
far, the in which the oc-
as the iii' ronment-behavior but behavioral selec-
curred has not The rat
70 3 of Behavior 71
can the of To the

of the of by we
in can
suiuiJluiieouslv see both a iiieml s face cloth we the
of ing, edict say "hello >' and re* mm) he* i tht last tJDir rnen's ÛMJPAJ by &ULHUJ' >u^ h ,1^. yn lus on,
we ! IlfS 1 !! Ol H ik p u l t l i l ^ ' ' It t i l l S * > i J K Oi MI, of any
Occasionally, we a of rMv!ia\ :\>i leloi'ons °A*icnc'tl hy pric^ for —is not to
The the iF were by brain damage, while the of It is ap-
general the up the of the others inlacf These examples illustrate parent to observation the effects
— so As an the is is- always a re I ait on of the of the
are by as "idea" the and behavior, and not a A has
a I a
or "concept." we we an "Idea" i espouse alone. Responses are not selected or to a red a
of a is or a "concept" of a is is the of roughly Moreover, the
ing my I him as as I
is. For you a in environments to guide to the of is not
I didn't have the who
ways—by her the of her eyes, For the subjects, the to op- to for the ball-catching behavior
he It was only I my away
her or her of walking—and pose the forefinger to the of a shows generality.
(no to my
occur when you at the wrist were present in some environments bet. In the following discussion, we first focus on
his voice without seeing I recog-
— speaking her what she did on no! in others The verbal environment lost its in. its form—the
nized the "stranger." He a
weekend, covert as ability to responses, but of the of a. single
who the to
the You of the environment were still effective. by a of the Next, we
"know" "know" re- I not the 1960's,
specifying the environment in the con-
are you see yet, he a "Marx-
lakes place, such concepts as of re- to in situ-
you may nevei her eyes, and meaning. ations. Once we identified the basic
or gaii uiiuci precisely circumstances in which a of his
Brain damy^t* iH ^ n s c> 1 1 n $ pse the separate prod- biobehavioral processes, we proceed to
to my his but his
yO" rtov ^^ th^m tO In tO
ucts Of selection f > v u - J n f o u v u u i i L , that of
apparently of selection, are partially
cers always environment-behavior with
undoes the effect of selec-
relations consisting of particular stimuli (those The most striking of the
tions, which is undoubtedly the primary contribu of
the in environment-behavior
toi to die generally and unity of adult human
tion) and particular responses (those occurring is the and of everyday behavor, There is, however, a second important Stimulus generalization is readily demonstrate'1 b1-
before the roinfoicer) How do the envi- who coatributoi that is a major locus of this chaptei. remfr»rcing a response in the pi esersce of oi-e sliirtu
ronmental and behavioral events that maVp up e\ from an or A i/I „,, |_ , 1,- -,^,,,»-, J-» > T />-r i-> -|V>r -»c »rv» '•UTIT ol \> r o > / i 1 iri l u v r»nrl then measurinff the strength of that re
pi i it-lice lv— id to the apparent gentTaHy f l the A voices Dauioijfdi sibiiiilt /ind je^ponro. the eitects spons^ in IN pirsînr oi <»thc» s - S j i u u i j thru dibV
to the •'TY.JY-, H,.«v fir'M ' ' ItT-l! "• ^- ilnitL' sOm<- ' (iiri t M if 'dl -I
êlecênrî provide.. . tveâ' d*f c/eni rypci,f ger of He do so. However, rjnn^ri^jon A ' ?»r» exampi^ pt c K i n d " > v a |)!L'e«Hi «
",f~ nisv.f.s f c tlrs uu^Mioii sojut of w'lj'h cue he his re- '• i "»e i '», ie ^-. -( h-.njbc, Vv'^11 wy- fir
dcscubcd Jo llrs chaptei. The key insight is that « quired that he Similarly, a f^ of the ongitui selecting cnvio'imeiu
complex set of environment b< rmvior illations to his at ji^ sfiiiJitil s i f i d r i f h o lu ulinc: o!
il*Jl «*,•» tJlctl JC'n/t^J i v L ! C l^ypîSU i r» 'iliili ovui- the wrist. He. was to comply the re-
ctpt * is the end-proauct of an extensive history o^ quest. Yet, he readily good-bye as he de- training, a te,°t wa' conductcci in which the coloi
Nclu lion by leinfoi cement. Ii is aiarcenv'iionineni parted, which he the i.c . the wavelength oi The &tf" v r as change^ i <
indeed thai doc> not lomajij iiia^y ^ f i ' i m i i f ( r » y ? every tew veronci^ 1'he ninnDei
m i - ' ) ' j < ' V Uii 0^!*:," « j - v"h'( 1) ji^'i^ it ,4,'ir i \c' in by
were selected. The individual are are To the involved in by « test wavUength provided a racar>ujc e
of are not The as in "voluntary" mover it is to out suinuius gfjifiifihâtioii, L ooJ Wciau</« tiive'iu-uiiii
in meet.8) with the test. Ilie ten periods, bui the training prorodmr l
72 3
Environmental Guidance of Behavior 73
in
As in the the di-
not in but in mension, the the re-
test ing in. as by the
in environment-behavior is the ing the to the
rtrocf mriv the on the of the visual receptors—leading
uiviioiimrnt In to the of of the of
rrvms that. in neurons—responses of the topography
ponenis. What occur in an evoked.
by in is but not to the With it is
and is in to the
is the very rein the by
The in 3.2, by in the In
the of as a of environment, but with reduced strength, to to an auditory of 250
Grain Feeder the of the (here, wave- That is, the frequency or responding declines, Hz (one Hz, is a of cycle per
length), is a rhe occurs has the same form, or of pressure). After'training, the
Such provide a of as the selected i espouse. In the pi- were given generalization tests with auditory stim-
of the geon example, if The selected responses included a uli of frequencies. From physiological re-
behavior. The the gen- brief glance the t eiling followed by a search, it is known that neurons in the
its the at tie color, the very to
is the iespoijre would occui - bui noi as often — of a
FIGURE 3.1 Test chambers used for operant the color was to yellow -green Thii^ en- to a of frequencies, it re-
conditio procedures vironment-behavior iclaiioiis selecied, in one envi- most strong! v to frequency toward the
The in the is as niicdie oi iriai iuug". ./vivo, neurons mat lesportd 10
subjects. When the rat the lever, a food pellet
be in the tray. The chamber in the
panel is used with pigeons as subjects. When a
the environments, responding of the auditory cortex*. .The the
pecks, one of the disks located on the wall, grain may be from natural selection by the an- of two neurons to an auditory stimulus, the shorter
presented in the food tray. The test chambers are located cestral environment.- Whether through se- the distance between on the surface of the
inside sound and light attenuating enclosures to control lection or by reinforcement, only cortex. With this information, the of the
unwanted stimulus variation. previously responses are found. Genu- auditory stimulus generalization gradient be
Source: Adapted from Donahoe & Wessells, 1980. inely do occur. The if the on the in
-are a the activity of auditory cortical neurons.12 The
relations.11 of the be flat
r i -\
"» TO
r o ~*
JOU O/-L a of the the is
permit testing/ 1 Wavelength (nm) in is
3,2 shows the frequency of the 3.3 shows the of behavioral test-
3,2 Stimulus generalization after
during the test wavelengths. Pecking had nondifferential training
are of previously ing the frequency dimension,
reinforced in the of a disk transillumi- A stimulus-generalization showing the effect of will occur. The to the of overlap in the
by a of 550 nm, or the wavelength of light transilluminating the disk on the of is an ever- by the tones. The of
(where one nm a millionth of a A of disk-pecking responses. Prior to the generals- on. which selection,may act, closely to the
wavelength of 550 nm to a test, pecking SI (a 550 nm disk) was of in by the
observer. As in the figure, the of reinforced with food. During the generalization test, vari- i« of 250 Hz and the of 500,
the the ous of in
an unsystematic order responding did not
1 and Hz, the be-
in training, us to the con-- the by the and test
food.
sively as the wavelengths Source: on findings from Guttman & Kalish, 1956. Used to of the the the re-
the This with permission. processes. In the of to the test
Environmental Guidance of Behavior 75
"farm," performance. By meas- to our to in

such as "barnyard" or the difference between the amount of radio- of the of are
"cow" will also evoke the learned response, al- activity on the side of the brain engaged in the common to future environments, since the
to a lesser degree.13 The similarities be- learned environment-behavior relation and the responses that produce reinforcers are often the
tween the verbal stimuli "farm" and "cow" result amount on the control side, it was possible to same the are similar,
from the learner's experience, and are not based on estimate the additional number of cells mediating selection often "prepares" us for the future. How-
physical similarities between the stimuli. No cur- the learned relation. It was found that the number ever, not all similar environments implement simi-
rently available physiological methods permit us of additional neurons exceeded five million, and lar three-term contingencies. Sometimes very
0 .1 may have been as. high as 100 million! This exam-
to measure precisely the neural processes activated different responses are reinforced in very similar
f t f
by these stimuli and, even if the technology did ple and others16 make it clear that the number of environments. Thus, a teddy bear seen in your back
250 500 1000 neurons participating in environment-behavior re-
exist, its application to humans would probably be yard and a bear cub seen in an upland meadow have •
Distance Along Primary Auditory Cortex (mm) lations—and in the stimulus generalization of
unethical.14 many features in common, but the appropriate
from 250 Hz Best-Frequency Point those relations—exceeds our ability to measure
A further difficulty is that even tasks using responses are very different. In fact, the similarity
relatively simple stimuli and responses actually them. However, there is no reason to believe that, between these two environments leads to a number
FIGURE 3.3 Neural processes and stimulus if such measurements were possible, they would
involve a great many neurons—too many to moni- of maulings by female bears each year in our
generalization lead to conclusions appreciably different from
One-sided stimulus generalization gradient relating be- tor simultaneously with present methods. Consider western National Parks. (See Figure 3.4.)
those based on the experimental analysis of simpler The processes whereby different environ-
havioral generalization with auditory stimuli to the dis~ the following study, which used sophisticated
relations. _> ments, even those containing many common fea-
tance along the surface of the auditory cortex between neuroanatomical techniques to determine how
the place on the cortex activated by a 250-Hz training many neurons were involved when a learned re- The fact that -selection by reinforcement rou- tures, come to guide different responses are studied
tone and the places most strongly activated by auditory sponse was performed. In the learning task, cats tinely alters the activity of a large number of neu- under the heading of stimulus discrimination. In
test stimuli of other frequencies. The arrows below the rons is just what would be expected if reinforcers this section, we examine how selection by rein-
received food for approaching one visual stimulus
horizontal axis show the distances between points on the function by activating diffusely projecting neuro- forcement. produces differential responding. As
surface of the cortex at which maximal neural responses no when they approached a second visual
modulatory systems. In addition, since so many generalization, we the
were obtained. neurons participate in any given environment-be-
Source: Adapted from Thompson, R. F. (1965). The neural basis metric patterns, such as triangles and circles. Fol- behavioral processes and the accompanying neural
of stimulus generalization. In D. I. Mastofsky (Ed.), Stimulus
havior relation, there must be considerable overlap processes.
lowing training, the cats were -tested with special in the neurons mediating different relations. Con-
generalization (pp. 154-178). Stanford, CA: Stanford procedures that confined the neural activity initi- Knowing how and when to respond is so com-
University Press. sider the following: If a single environment-behav-
ated by a stimulus to neurons on one side of the monplace that it scarcely seems to require expla-
ior relation may involve 100 million neurons, then
brain. The other side of the brain served as a control nation. However, when we examine even
the 100 billion neurons in the human brain would
that received equally complex stimulation, but relatively simple discriminations, such as correctly
be capable of mediating only 1,000 different tasks
from not part of the environment- naming an object, the complexity of the process
Difficulties presented by complex selection histo- without overlap among the neurons activated by
behavior relation selected by the food reinforcer. becomes apparent almost immediately. Consider
ries. The between the different tasks. And yet, of us can learn
responding and overlap iixneural activity be The level of neural activity on the of the many hundreds of thousands of environment-be- again a child learning to name a ball; i.e., to
receiving the to havior relations—most of which are much more the verbal "ball" when viewing a
with complex environ-
ment-behavior relations. There are a of the level on the control, side. The control complex than those involved in -a cat approaching that would be called a ball by an adult. Suppose
for this. First, in a comparison for a variety of a We are driven to conclude, then, that a that a father rolls a red ball toward his child and
whose guidance of behavior is the result of a com- to halves of the but neuron participate in the mediation of says "ball." From the child's perspective, even this
pi ex selection history, the underlying neural activ- to the task—such as movements of the different environment-behavior relations. apparently simple is fraught with ambiguity.
ity is complex. Its the the The effects of learning are distributed widely The problem for the child is this: Which of the
eludes the grasp of present technology, and it will vatiooal effects of food deprivation.15 the brain. many stimuli in the environment should guide the
defy exhaustive measurement for some time to To measure neural activity, both sides of the response "ball"? Do these stimuli include the shape
come. Consider the following of brain were injected with a form of glucose—the of the object (round), its color (red), its manner of
with humans undoubtedly in- source of energy for neurons—that had been made movement (rolling)? For that matter, there is no
volves complex interrelations among networks of mildly radioactive. Neurons that were active dur- way for the child to know that stimuli provided by
many neurons, but is a commonplace ing performance would take up more of the The generalization of learned environ- the ball have any special relevance at all. If the ball
occurrence. When a response is conditioned to a radioactive glucose, thereby labeling the brain ment-behavior relations makes a vital contribution were rolling across a rug, perhaps characteristics
76 Environmental Guidance of Behavior 77
(Lest this be However, the of the occasionally to the

f ME By purely conjectural, research indicates the nam- to a yellow-green of 555 nm and to 550 nm are not
ing responses of young children are, indeed, often the new color did not produce food. Thus, The of under the guid-
guided by inappropriate features of the environ- some in the environment (those charac- of are not specific to 550 nm
ment.17) teristic of 550 nm) reliably preceded reinforced comes as follows. The generalized respond-
The key to understanding the origin of stimulus responses, while other stimuli (those characteristic ing that initially occurs during the 555-nm and
discrimination is the realization that final perform- of 555 nm and those provided by the test chamber contextual stimuli is not followed by food. When
ance is the cumulative effect of selection by rein- generally) were not reliably present when reinfor- a previously reinforced response occurs in the pres-
forcement over many occasions. While on any one cers occurred. A training procedure in which the ence of a stimulus and is no longer reinforced, the
occasion a large variety of stimuli may precede the learner is exposed to different environments in guidance of that response by the stimulus is weak-
reinforced response, over many occasions only which responses 'have different consequences is ened. This process is called extinction and the
responses in the presence of the critical environ- called a differential training procedure. A pro- weakened response is \said to be extinguished in the
mental features are consistently followed by the cedure in which only a single environment is pre- presence of those stimuli.19 Thus—for both peck-
reinforcer. Thus, the child who says "ball" while sented is called a nondifferential training ing with the pigeon and naming with the N child—
looking at the rag when the ball is absent is not procedure. According to our understanding of the responding in the presence of stimuli weakens
likely to receive parental approval. Similarly, the selection of environment-behavior relations, what when it is not followed by reinforcers.
child who says "ball" while seeing a red fire engine should happen when, the learner is exposed to For the pigeons what are the stimuli that lose
rolling across the rug is also unlikely to receive differential rather than nondifferential training? their ability to guide pecking? First', there are those
approval. Receiving reinforcers for the response When a disk-pecking response occurs during stimuli that the green and yellow-green disks share
And no one ever heard from the Anderson "ball" on some occasions, but not others, causes the the 550-nm stimulus and is followed by food, the in common. The two colors stimulate a partially
brothers again. child's response to be guided by only a subset of color of the disk should begin to guide the emission overlapping set of visual-receptors, but only those
the available stimuli—those that were most often of pecking. This happens because food elicits re- pathways that are uniquely activated by the green
FIGURE 3.4 When generalization goes awry
when the was In this would not occur, which color are consistently followed by the reinforcer.
Stimulus generalization usually benefits the learner be-
behavior often has similar consequences in way, the child's behavior gradually comes to be a behavioral discrepancy. As a result, Pathways that are activated by common receptors
environments. However, this is not always the case, as guided by the stimuli that guide the parent's whatever stimuli are present should acquire control (those sensitive to wavelengths toward the yellow
the Anderson brothers—who love to play with teddy behavior. over whatever responses are occurring in proxim- end of the spectrum) lose their ability to guide the
bears—are about to discover. ity to the discrepancy. Thus the 550-nm stimulus, response. Second, the stimuli from the test cham-
Source: The Far Side cartoon by Gary Larson is reprinted by as well as any other stimuli from the test ber also lose their ability to guide the response as
permission of Chronicle Features, San Francisco, CA. All rights
reserved. Stimulus Generalization after were sensed before the discrepancy, they are also not consistently followed by the rein-
Discrimination Training to guide disk-directed pecking. forcer. The cumulative\effect of alternating selec-
Now consider what happens when the yellow- tion by the reinforcer arid extinction is to confine
To see how the cumulative of selection by the controlling stimuli to those that are unique to
(555-nm) stimulus is presented. Because the
reinforcement brings stimulus discrimina- the color. This process may be traced, in
yellow-green is to the (550-
of the rug should the response "ball." If the tion, we return to research with nonhuman animals,
nm) stimulus, occurs— 3.5, which, separately shows the of
child were looking at his parent instead of the in which prior experience and experimental condi-
i.e., the pigeon pecks the yellow-green stimulus. when the and when it
moving ball, of the parent's be all
The stimuli to the two environments in- was yellow-green. Note that the strength of re-
are relevant. In short, even if the child says must to respond differently to different envi-
clude both those stimuli that 555 nm-shares with sponding the stimulus grows steadily
"ball" and the father immediately reinforces ronments, we may anticipate of the
550 nm and the stimuli are.common to while the of responding the yellow-
response with his approval, it is not clear which of behavioral processes that result in dis-
training environments, such as the sights and green stimulus increases at first (generalization
the many stimuli that preceded the response should crimination are widely the
sounds of the test chamber. The stimuli that accom- from the green color) then slowly declines
future occurrences of the response. A great kingdom.
pany the training stimuli (here, the two colors-of (extinction).
stimuli stand in a favorable temporal relation
the disk), but that are not manipulated by the ex--.
to the reinforcer and the verbal response "ball." Differential training procedure. As in the pre-
perimenter, are called contextual stimuli or sim- Generalization testing. The stimulus generali-
How can such ambiguous circumstances provide viously described studies of stimulus generaliza-
ply the context. Just as the child must learn to sa.y zation gradient obtained following differential
the for the final performance—the guidance tion, a pigeon received food for pecking a disk
"ball" only when are; present, so the pigeon is shown in 3.6. The fol-
of "ball" by the same stimuli that guide the parent's transilluminated by a green light of 550 ran.18
CiKAPTKR Environmental Guidance of Behavior
training is repeated for havior in en- such as around in the cham-

comparison. Note three differences between the vironments. ber. Behavioral was also
gradients: (a) the gradient following differential Behavioral is found differen- with closer to 554 nm evoking
training declines more steeply from the peak, partial training. To study behavioral mixing, differen- relatively more short-duration responses and those
ticularly on the side nearest the yellow-green (555- tial procedures are used that select responses of closer to 569 nm evoking relatively more long-du- i
nm) stimulus, (b) the peak of the gradient different topographies in the two training environ- ration responses. (See 3.7.) In summary,
following differential training is shifted away from ments. Since the topographies are different, mixing after differential training similar environments
the 555-nm stimulus, and (c) the height of the can be directly observed -when a generalization evoked a mixture of the responses that had been
gradient after differential training is greater than stimulus is presented. For example, suppose that a conditioned to the training stimuli. Although new
the height of the gradient after nondifferential brief-duration response, such as glancing toward responses did not emerge, the new environment did
training. the ceiling between pecks, is reinforced during a evoke a new mixture of previously selected re-
15 We describe here only the origin of the first 554-nra stimulus. Suppose further that a longer-du- sponses.22
difference—steepening. The origins of the other ration response, such as turning around before The finding that similar environments evoke
two differences are briefly considered later. The pecking, is reinforced during a 569-nm stimulus. new mixtures of old responses is very important for
FIGURE 3.5 Formation of a discrimination postdiscrimination gradient is steeper because the Responses of different durations can be selected by our understanding of complex behavior. This find-
The course of responding to Si—green, 550-nm disk— stimuli that are not unique to the discriminative presenting food during the 554-nm stimulus only ing suggests that all instances of apparently crea-
and 82—yellow-green, 555-nm disk—during discrimi- when a peck occurs within 1 sec of the previous tive responding are traceable to a history of
stimulus (550 nm) have lost their ability to guide
nation training. During S \, pecking was reinforced with
responding. Through extinction, stimuli shared peck, and presenting food during the 569-nm selection in earlier environments that contained
food; during 82, pecking had no effect, i.e., extinction
was scheduled. with the yellow-green stimulus and stimuli from stimulus only when a peck occurs more than 3 sec some stimuli in common with the new environ-
Source: Based on findings from Hanson, 1959. the context lose their control of responding. This after the previous peck. Procedures of this sort ment. These common stimuli cause a new mixture
causes the gradient to steepen between 550 and 555 involve the reinforcement'., of different inter re- of previously reinforced environment-behavior re-
nm, since colors in this region are most apt to have sponse or IRTs. In the study reported here, lations to occur in the new environment. Strictly
elements in common with the discriminative the different IRTs were 1 sec and 3 sec, which speaking, then, it is not the learner who is creative,
stimulus. The loss of control by contextual stimuli produced a higher average of responding dur- Instead, creativity is result of a new environ-
causes the gradient to steepen throughout its range ing the 554-nm stimulus and a lower average rate ment acting on an experienced organism to pro-
Differentia! during the 569-nrn stimulus.^1 duce a new mixture of old environment-behavior
since, by definition, contextual stimuli are present
equally no matter which wavelengths are on the The behavioral processes occurring during relations.23 Furthermore^ other research has dem-
disk. stimulus generalization after differential training onstrated that mixing of previously learned re-
Non Differential are revealed by the types of responses that occurred sponses occurs .with more? "natural" stimuli, such
In summary, differential training restricts the
during an intermediate test stimulus of 561 nm. If as the shapes of leaves.24 Behavioral mixing is not
guidance of behavior to those stimuli that reliably
behavioral mixing occurred, then the average rate restricted to laboratory investigations; it appears to
precede the reinforced response. Other stimuli that
i i i i T**--'*,^*^^ of responding during the intermediate 561-nm be an ecologically valid and robust outcome of
less reliably precede the reinforced response lose
480 500 520 54$J 1(560
x 580 600 620 stimulus would be the result of a mixture of IRTs behavioral selection.
s1- -s52
5 of the response. This outcome is the
of 1 3 sec. If genuinely In later chapters, we shall see how prior selec-
Wavelength (nm) cumulative effect of the strengthening of some
occurred, then the average would tion may lead an organism'to act as if it were
environment-behavior relations by reinforcement
be produced by previously nonreinforced IRTs, inherently creative and capable of true novelty.
the weakening of by extinction.20
FIGURE Stimulus generalization after e.g., IRTs of 2 sec. Nothing that has been found about behavioral mix-
differentia! (i.e., discrimination) and nondifferentml The finding in this the ing undermines the extraordinarily complex and
training for different groups of subjects Behavioral processes in stimulus discrimination. 561-nm test stimulus guided the emission of a apparently creative behavior of which experienced
During the training that preceded the generalization test, When examining the behavioral processes respon-
pecking Si (a green, 550-nm disk) was reinforced for
mixture of 1- and 3-sec IRTs—the IRTs that had humans are capable. The issue is not whether the
sible for stimulus generalization after nondifferen- been separately reinforced during the 554- and behavior that we call creative occurs—it does—
groups. For the differential training group only,
tial training, we found that similar environments 569-nm training stimuli. That is, during the test -but how it comes about. For now, we note that the
also included the presentation of 82 (a yellow-
green, 555-nm disk) in whose presence pecking was not guided the same responses that had been selected stimulus, the behavior unsystematically alternated limitations on novelty imposed by behavioral mix-
reinforced. in the training environment. Generalized respond- between responses of brief duration, such as glancing" are more apparent than real. First, since most
Source: Based on findings from Hanson. 1959. ing consisted of a mixture of the environment-being toward the ceiling, and responses of longer environments have many features in common with
811 3 Guidance of 81
observations that shed light .-on proc- stimuli, not the activity by the
200 When a neuron is active, the movement of test
ions across the cell membrane produces small elec- Although the precise relation between
trical changes. These changes may be measured by- responses from hundreds of neurons and the proc-
recording electrodes. When electrical changes oc- occurring in single neurons is complex, the
cur in the vicinity of the several hundred neurons findings do point toward two important conclu-
at the tip of the electrode, the combined effect of sions. First, since the evoked responses were ob-
o 100 all of these changes can be detected. served by electrodes in many brain areas, the neural
In the following experiment, cats were given changes accompanying stimulus discrimination
differential training in which pressing one lever and generalization were widely distributed in the
was followed by food when a visual stimulus brain. Second, since the neural responses during
JD
E flashed at a rate of 10 per sec, and pressing a second the generalization test stimulus included evoked
lever was followed by food when the stimulus responses observed during training, new environ-
flashed at a rate of 5 per sec.25 By the end of ments produce mixtures of previously ^ selected
neural responses as well as behavioral responses.
549 554 561 580
training, the two behavioral responses were reli-
532 540 569 Since all behavior is mediated by physiological
ably guided by their respective stimuli. In addition processes, how could it be otherwise?
Wavelength (NM) to the leverpressing.'-responses,' the light flashes
evoked distinctive bursts of activity in the neurons
monitored by the electrodes. This activity occurred
at a rate of either 10 or 5 per sec depending on
540 569
which visual stimulus was presented, and was de- Selectionism, in distinction to essentialism, holds
532 nm 549 554 561 580
at many brain sites. that all behavior—even the most com-
Following training, a generalization test was plex.—is ultimately traceable to.selection by the
given in which the light flashed at an intermediate ancestral and individual environments. As such,
rate of 7.5 per sec-—i.e., there were about 14 ms the phenomena thaf': compose the bulk of this
IRT Classes (sec) between flashes. Behaviorally, when the test book-—attending, perceiving, remembering,
stimulus was presented, sometimes one lever was speaking, and the liMe—are, at heart, special in-
FIGURE 3.7 Behavioral processes underlying stimulus generalization pressed and sometimes the other. This variation in stances of the environmental guidance of behavior.
Stimulus-generalization gradient (upper panel) and the corresponding distributions of pecking responses that termi- leverpressing is consistent with the phenomenon of Although the understanding of each phenomenon
nated interresponse times (IRTs) of various durations during the generalization test (lower panel). During prior behavioral mixing reported earlier. What is impor- involves different implications of biobehavioral
differential training, when S i (a 554-nm disk) was pecked within less than 1 sec of a preceding peck (IRT < 1), pecking
tant are the neural responses evoked by the test principles, the principles,remain the same from one
responses were occasionally reinforced with food and, when 82 (a 569-nm disk) was pecked more than 3 sec after a phenomenon to the next, tfhe relevant implications
preceding peck (IRT > 3j, pecking responses were also occasionally reinforced. Note how the IRTs generally fell into Before a behavioral response occurred,
are we set of phenom-
the two reinforced categories for all wavelengths, with little evidence of intermediate, i.e., "new," IRTs. brain areas showed an evoked electrical re- ena in turn. However, are two implications of
Source: Based on from Collins, 1974. of either 10 per sec or 5 per sec—the by are so frequently
neural responses that were observed during train- they here. These
ing. Moreover, the evoked response corresponded are: (a) the guidance of behavior by multiple dis-
to the behavioral response that was about to occur, criminative stimuli and (b) the interactions among
earlier environments in which selection has taken The action of new contingencies on the mixture of
An evoked response of 7.5 per sec—the frequency multiple discriminative stimuli,
place, the responses that contribute to behavioral earlier behavioral selections can build behavioral
of the test stimulus—was seen only in the primary
mixing are increasingly rich and varied. The more repertoires of increasing diversity and complexity.
visual areas of the brain that were the first to be Multiple behavior. The experi-
the selection history, the richer the mixture.
Second, because similar environments often con- Neural processes in stimulus discrimination. activated by the test stimulus. By >the time neural- mental studies of stimulus generalization and dis-
tain only partially similar contingencies, the be- A complete analysis of the neural processes ac- activity had propagated to other brain areas, the crimination that we have so far considered varied
mixture provides the raw material—the companying stimulus discrimination is beyond our evoked response often corresponded to one of the only of the environment, e.g., the wave-
—upon which future selection may act. technical competence. However, there are two types of neural activity characteristic of the of or the of sound. Such
82 3 Environmental of
were chosen because the test stimuli the training stimulus. round shape when hit with a bat, but it is still called
100
they clearly reveal the behavioral and neural Thus, reinforcing'the-response when the stimulus a ball. Footballs are round when seen from the end,
processes involved in generalization and discrimi- consisted of blue, vertical lines brought behavior but elliptical when seen from the side. In short,
nation. However, the typical environment in which 80 under the control of stimuli on both the wavelength there is often a range of stimulation that guides a
selection takes place is much more complex. Natu- and line-orientation dimensions. This study dem- response, not just one particular value of the stimu-
ral environments consist of many stimuli, a few of 60 onstrates that multiple characteristics of the train- lus.
which are reliably present when the reinforcer oc~ ing stimulus may acquire the 'ability to guide The effects of using a range of stimuli in differ-
curs but many of which are not. Returning to the 40
behavior if they are reliably present when respond- ential training are illustrated by the following study
child learning to name a ball, a round shape is one ing is reinforced.28 using pigeons as subjects.29 The stimuli consisted
of several reliable characteristics of balls, but its The finding that behavioral selection can of a number of different wavelengths transillumi-
20 change the guidance of behavior along multiple nating a disk, presented in unsystematic order.
color is not a good guide for the verbal response
"ball." The types of motion—rolling and bounc- stimulus dimensions extends the already far-reach- Pecking the disk during one of 12 wavelengths in
ing—-are also reliable, though not infallible, char- l _L ing effects of selection by reinforcement. Any the range of 570 to 597 nm produced food on 8%
497 510 543 570 598 634 given training environment contains stimuli with of the presentations. Pecking the disk during one
acteristics of balls. These characteristics may come
to guide the verbal response. In fact, young chil- Wavelength (mjj) many characteristics. For example, a single visual of 12 other wavelengths in the range of 600 to 617
dren have been observed to call other rolling ob- stimulus may vary in many respects—its wave- nm produced food on 33% of the presentations.
jects, such as candles, "ball,"26 and adults react to length, its intensity, its shape, its orientation, its Thus, there were 12 stimuli in which responses
rolling and bouncing images in video games as if 100 - location, its texture, e,tc., Stimulus generalization were less likely to produce food and 12 other
they were balls. may occur along any of these dimensions. To give stimuli in which they were more likely. Returning
An experiment with monkeys demonstrates the 80 - a more concrete sense of the potential effect of once more to the child learning to use the word
guidance of behavior by multiple stimuli.27 The selection along multiple dimensions, suppose an "ball" appropriately, these training conditions
discriminative stimulus in whose presence re- 60 ^ environment has six discriminable characteristics might correspond to a range of shapes would
sponding produced food was a disk transillumi- and each of these characteristics has six dis- rarely be correctly named "ball" and
nated with blue (497 nm), vertical (90°) lines on a 40
criminable values. Selection by reinforcement dur- in which "ball" would be 'the re-
black background. When a plain black disk was ing one combination of these values could alter sponse. .. • ,
present, responding was not followed by food. In responding in 66, or 46,656 different environ- Figure 3.9 shows the frequency of responding
this differential training procedure, both the wave- ments! Given even a modest history of selection, during the various wavelengths at the end of train-
length and the orientation of the line were in a the potential for new environments to generate ing. The stimuli have b.$en arranged in the order of
30 15 behavioral mixing is truly staggering. wavelength, although during training they were
favorable temporal relation to acquire control over
the operant of pressing the disk. After the monkeys presented unsystematically. Several aspects of
Angular Orientation (deg)
had learned differential responding to the training Categorical responding to multiple stimuli In these findings require comment. First, responding
stimuli, two generalization gradients were meas- FIGURE 3.8 Multidimensional stimulus
addition to restricting ourselves to experiments in was stronger during the range of stimuli in which
ured—one along the wavelength dimension and generalization which the generalization test stimuli varied along food was more likely than'it was during the range
the along the line-orientation dimension. To One-sided stimulus-generalization gradients indicating only dimension, we have limited the number in which food was unlikely. This demonstrates that
the wavelength gradient, the line orientation the effects of changes in the wavelength of a line proof different stimuli used in training. For example, selection may occur with multiple training stimuli
was constant at 90° while the wavelength was jected on the disk (upper panel) and in the orientation of only stimulus, such as 550 nm, was present and when reinforcers differ in frequency,. not
the line (lower panel) on the number of disk-pressing when responding was reinforced and only one merely in their presence or absence. Second, and
unsystematically varied from blue (497 nm) to™ responses by monkeys. During prior discrimination
yellow in five steps. To obtain the line-orien- stimulus, such as 555 nm, was present when re- most important, the change in the strength of. re-
training, disk-pressing responses were occasionally re-
tation gradient, the color was kept constant at blue inforced with food when the disk contained blue (497
sponding was extinguished. While this simplifica- sponding between the two ranges of stimuli was
while the line orientation was unsystematically nm) vertical (90°) lines, and responses were nonreinfor- tion helped uncover the processes responsible"" for very abrupt considering the very small change in
from vertical (90°) toward horizontal in five ced when the disk was black without lines. differential responding, it does not represent the wavelength. In fact, the greatest difference in re-
steps. Source: Adapted from Better, C. M., Mishkin, M., & Rosvold, circumstances that exist in many natural environ- sponse strength occurred between stimuli near the
H. E. (1965). Stimulus generalization in monkeys with ments. Consider again the child learning to name a boundary between the range of stimuli during
The wavelength and line-orientation gradients inferotemporal and lateral occipital lesions. In D. I. Mostofsky
are shown in Figure 3.8. For both gradients, the (Ed.), Stimulus generalization (pp. 119-133). Stanford, CA:
ball. Not all objects conventionally named "ball" which reinforcement was less likely and the range
of responses progressively decreased as Stanford University Press. -.are perfectly round. A its during -which reinforcement was more likely. In
84 3 Environmental Guidance of Behavior
the
3.9, the to the left and the to
of the dividing line indicate regions in
changing gradually produces re-
As a result of differential reinforcement responding on the
can be for the
of the boundary.
These led to an un-
i
derstanding of many phenomena associated
which the difference in responding was increased with a range of stimuli, organisms tend to respond Categorical responding, then, is an implication generalization and stimulus discrimina- tifli
between the two ranges. These enhanced differ- as if the environment were sharply divided into of selection by reinforcement. No'additional prin- tion,
near the boundaries between regions of dif- dissimilar categories that correspond to the dis- ciples are required. The effect of selection by rein- An assumption that lies behind the use of non-
ferential reinforcement are known as edge effects.' similar reinforcement conditions rather than to the forcement is to make responding change most humans here and elsewhere is that what a rat, a cat,
The functional significance of edge effects is highly similar stimulus conditions.30 abruptly at the boundary between environments a pigeon, or a monkey can do, a human can also do.
very great. When the boundary between two dif- How should categorical responding be under- signaling different reinforcement conditions, the This assumption—that people are as capable as
ferentially reinforced ranges of stimuli is crossed, stood? Consider a stimulus (e.g., 600 nm) in whose very region where—on the basis of generalization other animals—is obviously conservative. People
the change in response strength—instead of occur- presence reinforcers are likely, but which is close alone—behavior might be thought to change are generally more capable than other animals. The
ring gradually—is abrupt and exaggerated. Stimuli to the boundary and, consequently, similar to stim- gradually. The beneficial contribution of edge ef- point here is that, if these simple processes can help •
adjacent to the boundary in one range are re- uli during which reinforcers are unlikely. The gen- fects to efficient performance should be apparent. us understand discrimination and generalization in
sponded to least strongly; very similar stimuli— eralized tendency to respond arising from these An organism whose behavior sharply differenti- other animals, then they can probably help us un-
but just to the other side of the boundary—are latter stimuli (e.g., 597 nm) is relatively weak ates between similar stimuli, when those stimuli derstand these phenomena in humans as well. Hu-
responded to most strongly. This abrupt change in because reinforcers are unlikely. This might lead indicate a change in the conditions of reinforce- man capabilities are, of course, not identical to
response strength even though the stimuli are us to conclude that responding during the 600-nm ment, is sensitive to the demands of its environ- those of other species. Rats can hear high frequen-
stimulus would be weakened—the result of a mix- ment.
cies of sound to which humans are, deaf, and pi-
ture of strong responding (due to the effect of The behavioral processes producing edge ef- geons can see ultraviolet wavelengths of light to
frequent reinforcement during the 600-nm stimu- fects also contribute to several of the phenomena which humans are blind. Thus the behavior.of rats
lus) and weak responding (due to the generalized associated with differential training that were de- and pigeons can be guided by environmental
effect of infrequent reinforcement during the 597- scribed earlier. The increase in the height of the events to which human receptors are insensitive.
nm stimulus). However, such an analysis neglects postdiscrimination .gradient relative to the nondif- Similarly, pigeons can fly because of the .move-
the of the to and the in the of the ment of their feathered "forelimbs," and rnonkeys
the selection process. postdiscrimination gradient away from the stimu- can easily swing through trees because of the
Since generalized food-elicited responses from lus correlated with extinction are both enhanced by greater relative strength of their forelimbs. Thus
stimuli on the other side of the boundary are rela- the processes responsible for edge effects. If the
the environment can guide responses in birds and
tively weak, the elicitation of these responses by stimuli (including contextual stimuli) that are pre-
monkeys that cannot occur in humans because
the presentation of food during the 600-nm stimu- sent when responses are reinforced are similar to
human effectors cannot\support those responses.
lus creates a large discrepancy. This leads to strong those present when responding is extinguished,
While it is true that nonhurnans acquire envi-
570 587 597 606 617 selection of keypecking by food. For a stimulus then the effect of the reinforcer is enhanced be-
cause of the greater behavioral discrepancy. The ronment-behavior relations that humans cannot, it
Wavelength (mjj) well within the range of more frequent reinforcers is even more strikingly true that humans learn
(e.g., 610 nm), the situation is different. Because greater discrepancy increases the height of the
postdiscrimination gradient shifts its relations that nonhurnans do not. What factors are
3.9 Edge effect^ 610 nm is similar to many stimuli in whose pres- responsible for these differences? We shall con-
The percentage of total disk pecking responses as a ence reinforcers are frequent, generalized food- away the stimuli present during extinction.
(Other processes also contribute to the outcome of sider several candidates as the book proceeds. For
function of the wavelengths appearing on the disk. When elicited responses are relatively strong. Thus, the
the wavelengths were between 570 and 597 nm, pecking training, but they are outside the now, we three interrelated factors. First, the
discrepancy between food-elicited responses upright posture of our species, which is unique
responses were reinforced with a low probability of 0.08; generalized food-elicited responses is small during treatment.31)
when the wavelengths were between 600 and 617 nm, among the primates, freed, the forelimbs from se-
pecking was reinforced with a higher probability of 0.33 =
the 610=nm stimulus. The result is that the presen- lection for locomotion. This change allowed pre-
The trough to the left of the dividing line between the tation of food does not select keypecking as cise movements of the fingers to become the focus
strongly during the 610-nm stimulus as does the ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDANCE OF
different reinforcement probabilities and the peak to the of new selecting influences by the ancestral and
occurrence of that same food during the 600-nm HUMAN-BEHAVIOR -
right of the dividing line illustrate edge effects. individual environments. The result of these al-
Source: Adapted from Blough, D. S. (1975). Steady state data stimulus. As a result, keypecking during 610 nm
and a quantitative model of operant generalization and Experimental findings with nonhuman animals tered contingencies is manual dexterity exceeding
should be weaker than keypecking during 600 nm, have been used extensively in this chapter to reveal that of any other species. Second, the environment
discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal
Behavior Processes, 104, 3-21. Copyright © 1975 by the even though the latter is closer to stimuli during the basic processes responsible for the environ- became able to guide the effectors governing the
American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission. which keypecking is less frequently reinforced. A 'mental guidance of behavior produced by behav- tongue,' mouth, and throat movements necessary
86 3 Environmental Guidance of Behavior
a For example,:-an as a in the of a response. Do Is it the person's or

of of our spe- period during the development of the nervous sys- reinforcers select relations or responses?) to eat the meal?)
cies— far surpasses tem is extended for only a few days could reach 2. Describe the testing methods 10. The constituents of any environment-behav-
anything in species,^2 Third, selection sensory regions with which it would not otherwise used to demonstrate stimulus generalization after ior relation are the specific stimuli and responses
produced extensive neural inter- be in contact. This new contact could have substan- nondifferential training. that occurred in contiguity with the reinforcer. If
connections between diverse sensory and motor tial behavioral effects through permitting, say, the this is true, then how might you account for the
3. Describe the basic procedure, results, and ma-
areas of the brain, particularly among those areas sound and sight of an object to be integrated. Just general knowledge that seems to be implied by
jor conclusions from the study-which estimated the
necessary for the reception and production of as an avalanche begins with a single snowftake or such notions as concept or idea?
number of brain, cells involved in a simple dis-
speech.33 This change permitted especially com- a tidal wave with a single drop of water, so the
crimination in a cat.
plex combinations of environmental stimuli to complexity of human behavior will likely trace its
guide human behavior. origins to superficially humble beginnings. 4. Indicate the problems facing a child who is ENDNOTES
In later portions of the book, we explore the learning to name an object. What factors compli-
cate this apparently simple task? In general, how 1. Whether a given response will, in fact, become a
implications of these factors and ponder their evo- STUDY AIDS component of the selected environment-behavior rela-
does selection "solve" this problem?
lutionary origins. However, a note of caution tion depends, as we saw in the previous chapter, on
should be sounded even at this early stage. Histori- Technical Terms 5. Describe the training and testing methods interactions of the operant with other responses that are
cally, man has ever been eager to find some clear used to demonstrate stimulus generalization after candidates for selection—notably the elicited response
If the following terms are not familiar, reread the differential training. What are the differences be- itself.
means of distinguishing himself from the other ;
relevant portion of the text and consult the glos- tween the shapes of tê stimulus generalization 2. Skinner, 1938, 1953, 1981.
animals. In earlier mentalistic approaches, man
sary. 3. Tolman, 1932.
was said to possess qualities such as "reason" that gradients after differential and nondifferential Ji
were denied to the animals. The analysis of super-
three-term contingency training? How can these differences be accounted
4. See Skinner, 1953,1974,1981 for more complete fl
stimulus discrimination for?
discussions of this point. I'H
stitious behavior in an earlier chapter revealed 5. Campbell, 1974.
of the problems in maintaining this claim. apraxia 6. The realization that, on a single occasion, it is
6. Describe the methods, findings from ex-
workers to with the behavioral neu- impossible for the learner to distinguish coincidence
man was said to possess but that were thought stimulus generalization from causation logically undermines the view that basi-
ral processes occurring during stimulus
cally different learning processes underlie conditioning
to be absent in other animals.34 In Darwin's time, topography generalization. Use the IRT behavioral with the classical (respondent) and operant (instrumen-
a brain structure called the hippocampus held this behavioral mixture (or mixing) mixing in your answer. tal) procedures. The dog that pricks up its ears upon
distinction. The hippocampus is now known to be differential training procedure hearing a tone that precedes food in a classical procedure
7. Stimulus discriminations often involve expo-
generally present in mammals, and not peculiar to nondifferential training procedure has no way of "kno win g"\ that it was not the movement
sure to more than two selecting environments.
humans. The acknowledgement of our bias toward contextual stimuli (or context) of its ears that produced trê food. On a single trial of a
Describe the methods, findings and significance of classical procedure, the temporal relation between the
discovering some way—any way—of separating extinction the study of edge effects, which is concerned with response of pricking up the ears and the presentation of
ourselves from the other animals should make us
discriminative us such conditions. Give an account of the biobehav- food may be identical to that of an operant contingency
wary of all candidates for honor lest our vanity processes responsible for edge effects, refer-
(or IRT) between the same two events.'Similarly, the rat that hears
us to them Uncritically. ring to behavioral discrepancies in your answer. a tone and receives food for pressing a lever in an operant
effects
Whatever the to the of procedure has no way of "knowing" that it was not the
man categorical responding 8. some possible why tone that caused the food-to appear. If, on its first
animals, they are unlikely to be anything as behavior is guided by the exposure to a sequence of events, the organism has no
lively appealing as "reason" or as clear-cut as the of way of determining whether the sequence is the result of
distinctive neuroanatomical structure. Instead, as a classical or an operant contingency, then different
learning processes cannot be involved in the two proce-
with other evolutionary changes, the changes re- 1. What is a three-term contingency? Give both
dures; to "know" which processes were to be employed,
sponsible for "humanness" are apt to be subtle and an experimental and an everyday example, What the organism would have to know beforehand that which
even—at first glance—insignificant. It is not, struc- are the advantages of procedures that use three- it may only learn eventually.
alone, but its impact on behavioral selection contingencies relative to classical and two- 9. Suppose a hungry salivates 1. cf. Morse & Skinner, 1957.
has sweeping and far-reaching implications. term operant procedures? Referring to the looking through a restaurant window at someone 8. See Kolb & Whishaw, 1985.
The structural changes themselves, considered in three-term contingency, criticize the view that the eating a meal. Comment on this observation in 9. Guttman & Kalish, 1956. Identification of some
isolation from their effects on selection, may well outcome of selection may adequately be described of the of purpose in the of the factors display to
"'IP
change are in the cf. Nevin, 16. e.g., &

1988. 1983. CHAPTER 4.
10. Here, a visual stimulus—the wavelength (color) 17. Mervis, 1987.
transilluminating the disk—-was varied in the tests of 18. Hanson, 1959.
19. We shall consider some of the factors that affect
stimulus generalization. The steepness of the generali-
zation gradient depends, in part, on the stimulus dimen- the extinction of environment-behavior relations in the SELECTION IN THE
sion used in training and the species of the learner. For
example, if a tone is used in training with pigeons and
next chapter. Here, we simply use extinction as a proce-
dure that weakens the ability of an environment to evoke
EXPERIENCED LEARNER
its frequency is varied in testing, a much flatter stimulus a previously reinforced response.
generalization gradient is obtained than with wave- 20. These and other cumulative effects of differential
length; Jenkins & Harrison, 1960. This presumably re- training have been confirmed by computer simulations
flects the pigeon's history of natural selection with whose instructions implement the basic biobehavioral function as reinforcers for beginning learners, but
respect to the guidance of pecking by visual as opposed processes isolated through experimental analysis, e.g., how does selection occur in experienced learners?
In the preceding chapters, we identified the funda-
to auditory stimuli—the pigeon locates its food by sight, Rescorla & Wagner, 1972; Blough, 1975. Adults do not learn by being given bits of food
21. Collins, 1974; described in Donahoe and Wes- _ mental biobehavioral processes responsible for the
not by sound; e.g., LoLordo, 1979. Other details of the selection of environment-behavior relations by the when they "do the right thing." And yet, adults
training procedure also influence the steepness of the sells, 1980. learn—often with amazing speed and efficiency.
22. See Crowley, 1979 for especially clear-cut find- individual environment. These processes were
gradients obtained after training in only one environ- What is responsible for selection in experienced
ings of similar import. studied primarily through the use of nonhuman
ment, e.g., Rudolph & Van Houten, 1977'; Heinemann learners?
23. Compare this with the common view that human learners whose environmental histories could be
& Rudolph, 1963. Nevertheless, the basic point is valid Also, no two people seem to )be exactly alike
creativity is the result of some unanalyzable charac- tightly controlled. Controlled conditions enabled
that, other things being equal, stimulus generalization teristic, such as "genius," that resides within the person; with respect to the specific stimuli that foster ef-
gradients are relatively flat when training consists solely us to attribute changes in the environmental guid-
e.g., Aris, Davis, & Steuwer, 1983. ance of behavior to events that were directly ma- fective learning. A stimulus that functions as a
of reinforcing a response in a single environment. 24. Real, lannazzi, & Kamil, 1984. reinforcer for one person may not for another.
11. For an experimental example of behavioral mix- nipulated within the experiments.
25. John, Bartlett, Shimokochi, & 1973. Some persons learn effectively by reading a book,
ing training in one environment, see Sewall & 26. Mervis, 1980, 1987. a well-controlled pre-expeiiniental
1965, The while others seem to learn best through discussions
27. Butter, Mishkin, & Rosvold, 1965. is for the of basic selec-
mixing was carried out by Migler, 1964; cf. Migler & tion processes, we should not forget that environ- or demonstrations. What is responsible for this
28. See also, Butter, 1963, for a with
Millenson, 1969; cf. Sidman, 1969; Weiss, 1972. For ment-behavior relations are increasingly selected diversity, and can it be accommodated by a single
pigeons.
reviews, see Donahoe & Wessells, 1980, and Bickel & selection principle?
29. Blough, 1975. in learners with complex histories of earlier selec-
Etzelrl985. 30. cf. Wright & Gumming, 1971. tions. Indeed, complex behavior can arise only as Finally, we examine the effects on behavior of
12. Hind, Rose, Davies, Woolsey, Benjamin, Welker, 31. More complete treatments of these and other post- the result of such complex histories. In this chapter, more complex three-term contingencies than those
& Thompson, 1961; Thompson, 1965. discrimination phenomena are contained in Mackintosh, described in'the preceding chapter. For example,
we begin our consideration of phenomena that
13. e.g., Mandler, 1962. 1974; Terrace, 1966; Rilling, 1977. The increase in the rarely if ever does the natural environment include
14. What indirect evidence does exist in humans con- emerge as the cumulative effect of prior selection.
rate of responding during the discriminated stimulus, only a single three-term contingency. More com-
cerning the neural activity accompanying complex en- Insofar as possible, understanding these phenom-
which occurs even though the frequency of reinforce- monly, an environment consists of many three-
vironment-behavior relations is consistent with the ment is unchanged, is an instance of what is termed ena is on experimental analysis. However, as
term contingencies, some of which operate
direct observations possijble with other animals. As behavioral contrast and is probably by a the complexity of behavior increases,
analysis be by scientific simultaneously. In such cases, the learner
measured by noninvasive techniques, increased metabo- number of relatively independent factors; e.g.; Mar-
lic activity and blood flow occur in similar regions when pretation. make "decisions" regarding which behavior to
cucella & MacDonall, 1977; Williams, 1981, 1988,
the nervous system mediates similar environment-be- We the chapter with an examination of "choose," Do complex contingencies
1990b.
havior relations. The results of some of these types of 32. cf, Corballis, 1989. require new principles, or do they too fall within
what is as a result of selection by rein-
studies are presented later in the book. 33. Geschwind, 1965, 1972. the reach of a principle of behavioral selection?
forcement, (You will recall that retention is the
15. John, Tang, Brill, Young, & Ono, 1986. 34. See Donahoe, 1984. third step in the sequence of variation, selection,
retention that leads to complexity.) Without
knowing what is retained, we cannot hope to ..un- RETENTION
der stand the cumulative effect of selection. We
describe some of the complexities that arise In our treatment of discrimination, we found that a
when selection occurs in experienced learners. previously selectee! environment-behavior relation
Eliciting natural can be weakened if the behavior occurs but is
90 4 Selection in the Experienced 91
no followed by a relnforcer. This proce- Although the presenta- inforced trials, and to less 5%,after 300 unre-
dure—called extinction—may be af- tion of reinforcers substantially acquisi- ieforced tone presentations. The third finding of
ter selection with classical or operant tion, maintenance of responding is much less present concern was that intermittent reinforce-
procedures. 4.1 depicts the acquisition, affected.2 The maintenance of responding by in- ment retarded the weakening of the tone-NMR c
maintenance, and extinction of a nictitating mem™ termittent reinforcement (also called partial re- relation. Although responding declined during ex- O
Q_
response (NMR) in rabbits, using a classical is especially likely when the per- tinction after all training conditions, extinction oc-
procedure.1 Three findings from this study merit centage of reinforcers is reduced gradually, as it curred more slowly in animals that had been trained
comment here. was in this study. with smaller percentages of tone-shock pairings. CD
JD
First, after a tone-NMR relation was acquired A second finding was that the tone-NMR rela- The less frequently the tone was paired with the
200 -
by pairing each tone presentation with an eliciting tion was eventually eliminated after the reinforcer reinforcer during maintenance training, the more
stimulus of eyeshock, high levels of responding was omitted altogether; i.e, when an extinction resistant to extinction was the environment-behav-
were maintained when the percentage of tone- procedure was instituted. As shown in Figure 4.1, ior relation. 3 100 -
shock pairings fell to as little as 25%. The ability animals that had received tone-eyeshock pairings This effect of intermittent reinforcement on E
of infrequent reinforcers to maintain an already for as many as 900 previous trials responded to less resistance to extinction, or persistence, is also U
acquired environment-behavior relation is a gen- than 60% of the tone presentations after 100 unre- found with operant procedures. Figure 4.2 shows
responding during the extinction of leverpres sing
in a rat after continuous reinforcement (i.e., train-
Time (hr) /
Acquisition
ing in which every response is reinforced) and, at
Maintenance Extinction
100 r
a later time for the same rat, after intermittent FIGURE 4.2 Cumulative records of the extinction of
reinforcement. (During intermittent reinforce- lever pressing in a rat
ment, leverpressing was maintained by the presen- In a cumulative graph of responding, each response adds
80 tation of food only once every 12 min.)3 Unlike one count to the total; hence, the curve never declines.
previous graphic presentations of results, Figure The slope'of the curve is proportional to the rate of
4.2 is a cumulative record of responding. In a responding. 'The upper panel shows extinction after all
lever presses had previously been reinforced with food
every- response produces an
60 D 100% (i.e., after continuous reinforcement). The lower panel
increase in the curve with the passage of time. shows extinction in the same animal after intermittent
A 50% After continuous reinforcement for leverpressing, reinforcement of lever pressing. During intermittent re-
about 100 unreinforced responses occurred during inforcement, lever presses were followed by food only
40 - O 25% two hours of extinction, and responding had essen- once every 6 m. \
tially stopped by the end of testing. After training Source: Based.on findings ftom Skinner, 1938.
with intermittent reinforcement, the same animal
20 -
more than 200 responses during the two
hours and, moreover, responding continued large!}/
throughout the hours of ex- is paradoxical because the frequently rein-
testing. forced response appears to be stronger. However,
if we keep in mind that reinforcers strengthen
Trials (blocks of 100) relations between the environment and behavior,
Of Oil
then the paradox disappears. Responding occurs
4.1 Acquisition, maintenance, of a classically nictitating-membrane extinction—as it does during any condi-
response in the rabbit tion—-to the extent that the prevailing stimuli in-
During acquisition, all presentations of a tone (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) were followed by-a mild shock (the clude those that were present when selection
The increased resistance to extinction following
unconditioned stimulus, or US) delivered in the vicinity of the eye. During maintenance, one group continued to
intermittent reinforcement is puzzling if we forget, occurred. Training with intermittent reinforcement
100% CS-US pairings, and the other two groups were gradually shifted to intermittent reinforcement with
50% or 25% CS-US pairings. The remaining trials consisted of CS-alone presentations. During extinction, the what reinforcers strengthen: Reinforcers results in greater resistance to extinction
CS was presented alone to subjects in all groups, strengthen environment-behavior relations, not re- responding is guided by more of the stimuli that are
Source: Adapted from Gibbs, C. M., Latham, S. B., & Gormezano, I. (1978). Classical schedule and resistance to extinction. Animal sponses. If we see reinforcers as strengthening just present during extinction than it is after continuous
Learning and Behavior, 6, 209-215. Reprinted by permission of Psychonomic Society, Inc. then the greater resistance to extinction reinforcement. In short, resistance to extinction
4 the Experienced Learner 93
to the is by responses discriminative as the result of learning were are left intact. As a of this
the environ- guide subsequent operant responses.7 not present during extinction and are reintroduced process, the later synaptic efficacies in the network
ments. Regardless of the specific stimuli responsible with the onset of reacquisition. One such event is of pathways mediating the relation are relatively
Research the interpretation for the increased resistance to extinction after in- the reinforcing stimulus itself, since the stimulus- unaffected by extinction. (See Figure 43 for an
greater resistance to extinction after intermittent termittent reinforcement, it is clear that training reinforcer or response-reinforcer contingency is illustration of this process.) These relatively un-
reinforcement is an instance of stimulus generali- with intermittent reinforcement produces effects present during acquisition but not during extinc- changed synaptic efficacies are in the more motor
zation. During extinction, responding occurs fol- that would be called "motivational" in the nontech- tion. Consistent with this interpretation, a single portions of the network, while the weakened effi-
lowing periods in which responding produces no nical sense of the term.8 As an illustration, a history presentation of the eliciting stimulus will initiate a cacies are more toward the sensory portions.
reinforcer, and these are precisely the circum- of intermittent reinforcement causes the learner to recurrence of responding after an extinction proce- Experimental w-ofk is consistent with this inter-
stances under which the response is selected during behave during extinction in ways that would be dure. That the eliciting stimulus often functions as pretation. For example, acquisition of an NMR to
intermittent reinforcement. The more that training described as "enduring in the face of adversity," a discriminative as well as a reinforcing stimulus a new stimulus (e.g., a light) occurs more rapidly
includes periods of unreinforced responding fol- "persistent," "stubborn," and the like. Experimen- is shown by the increased resistance to extinction than earlier acquisition of the same response to
lowed by a reinforced response, and the longer the tal analysis indicates that persistence results, not that occurs when there are occasional response-in- another stimulus (e.g., a tone).14 Rapid acquisition
durations of such periods, the greater the resistance from a history of nonreinforcement alone, but from dependent presentations of the elicitor during ex- of the NMR to the new stimulus presumably occurs
to extinction.4 a history of nonreinforcement followed by rein- tinction.11 In summary, if the extinction procedure because the new stimulus activates the motor por-
Experimental analysis has identified a number forcement—not failure, but failure followed by does not include all of the stimuli that are part of tion ,of the neural network that was selected when
of stimuli that are present during both intermittent success. The "school of hard knocks" teaches the the selected environment-behavior relation, then the response to the earlier stimulus was acquired.
reinforcement and extinction. For example, if re- individual to persist only if failure has led eventu- the omitted stimulus components retain their abil- Further, as shown in Figure 4.4, coinputer simula-
sponses occur close together in time, then an elic- ally to success.^ ity to guide behavior and will do so when the}' tions using biobehavioral principles of selection
iting stimulus of food may acquire a discriminative reappear during reacquisition.12 and synaptic modification in an adaptive neural
function with respect to the following response, in On the physiological level, faster reacquisition network demonstrate the ability of this mechanism
Reacqulsitioe of Extinguished Relations is also anticipated from what is known about the to produce more rapid reacquisition of the extin-
addition to its reinforcing function with respect to
the the food. the After prolonged exposure to extinction, a pre- of reinforcement Recall guished response.-1^
stimulus is not present during extinction, respond- viously selected environment-behavior relation is synaptic efficacies can be modified only between
ing after continuous reinforcement is weakened no longer evident—even after training with inter- simultaneously active pre- and post-synaptic neu-
because one of the guiding stimuli—the eliciting rons (see Chapter 2). When coactivity of these Durability of
mittent reinforcement. When responding can no
stimulus—is no longer present. Indeed, research longer be observed, has extinction eliminated all of neurons is accompanied by activation of the dif- Since even extinction does not eliminate all traces
which varied the number of times a reinforcer the effects of prior selection, or has something of fusely projecting reinforcing system, the synaptic of a previously selected environment-behavior re-
preceded a response found that the fewer the rein- the selected environment-behavior relation been efficacy between them increases. This is thought to lation, the effects of prior selection should have
forcer-response sequences, the greater the resis- retained? be the cellular basis of reinforcement. However, if enduring effects on behavior. Experimental evi-
tance to extinction. Other things being equal, One method that may be used to determine coactivity is not followed by a reinforcing stimu- dence indicates that this'is the case. For example,
responding persists to the extent that, during train- whether there are lingering effects of the pre- lus—and the diffuse system is not activated—then sheep were put out to pasture after acquiring a
ing, reinforced responses^have preceded by viously selected relation is to reinstitute the condi- the synaptic efficacy between coactive neurons tone-leg flexed their legs
unreinforced responses.5 tions which it was originally acquired. If the decreases.13 When the they were with the years
Other experimental work has isolated addi- relation is reacquired rapidly it was pathways the environment-behavior re- later.16 a for pecking
stimuli that are common to both training originally, then the of earlier selection have to the or different colored disks with distinctive response
with intermittent reinforcement and extinction, not been completely undone by the extinction pro- "links" in the "chain" are patterns displayed those when pre-
therefore function as discriminative stim- cedure. Studies of reacquisition uniformly indicate extinction occurs on the behavioral level. the colored twelve years later.17
uli to enhance resistance to extinction.6 Some of that the environment-behavior relation is reacq- The mechanism whereby synaptic efficacies Even a single presentation of an elicitor after a
these common stimuli are found in the environ- uired more rapidly, even after extinction has re- are weakened contributes to the rapid reacquisition stimulus in a classical procedure18 or after a re-
ment, and others are produced by the learner's own duced responding to the point that it is no longer of the response: Once the synaptic efficacies be- sponse in an operaat procedure1^ can produce en-
responses to environmental stimuli. As an example measurable at the behavioral level.10 How can this tween neurons in the earlier portions of the network' during changes in the environmental guidance of
of the latter, if the environment comes to evoke finding be understood? have been weakened, neurons in later portions of behavior.,
conditioned (reinforcer-elicited) responses (e.g., On the behavioral level, faster reacquisition the network are no longer activated. Since inactive The ultimate fate of a selected environment-be-
salivation) the stimuli pro- when some of the stimuli controlled are by havior on the contingencies
94 4 Selection in tfte Experienced Learner 95
procedures. Can
eliciting stimuli function as reinforcers to select
43 Changes in the strength of 0.9 -
new environment-behavior relations, and—if so—
connections between units in an adaptive network
during extinction
can selection by these stimuli be understood by the
_ 0,7-^
The heavier the line connecting two units, the greater the same principles that describe naturally selected
strength of the connection between them. elicitors?22
0.5-
(1) The strength of connections at the beginning of The implications of the answers to these ques-
extinction. Note the strong connections between the S i tions are far-reaching, and were recognized by the
input unit (the discriminative stimulus) and both the R pioneers of the experimental analysis of behav-
(operant) and UR/CR (conditioned response) output ior—Ivan Pavlov and R. K Skinner. If both ques-
units. Thus, when Si is activated, both of these output tions could be answered in the affirmative, then the.
units are likely to be strongly activated.
100 200 300 400 500
experienced learner would live in an environment
(2) The strength of connections after an intermediate
number of extinction trials in which S i was activated on Trials where the number of potential reinforcing stimuli
every trial but the reinforcing stimulus—simulated by dramatically increased over time. Furthermore, the
FIGURE 4.4 Computer simulation of acquisition
the activation of the US unit—was not presented. The principles uncovered through the study of naturally
(leftpanel), extinction (center panel), and
;i
connections from S i to interior units weaken first be-
reacquisition (right panel) of responding in an operant
selected elicitors would apply with equal force to
cause Si is strongly and reliably activated on every trial,
procedure acquired elicitors—-and to the interpretation of
thereby often activating the interior units. The connec- Changes in the level of activation of the operant (R) unit complex behavior. '
tions from interior units to output units weaken less
rapidly because the interior and output units are less
are shown as a function of the number of trials with the
various conditions. Note that reacquisition of the operant
;!
strongly and less reliably activated than the Si input unit.
is more rapid than original acquisition. The strengths of Acquired Elicitors as Reinforcers
The more strongly and reliably a unit is activated, the
connections between units mediating the environment-
->us faster the loss of connection strength if the diffusely
behavior relation were modified by simulating the action
(2)
projecting reinforcement system is not also activated, To determine whether acquired elicitors function
of a diffusely projecting reinforcement system as de- as reinforcers, it is first necessary to establish a
(3) The strengths of connections toward the end of
scribed in Chapter 2. stimulus that evokes behavior. This is accom-
extinction. The connections from S i to the interior units Source: Based on findings from Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer,
have become very weak, thereby preventing Si from 1993. plished mostsimpty by; pairing the stimulus with a
reliably activating the interior units. Since the interior reflexive eliciting stiirtulus in a classical proce-
units are no longer activated, the remaining strengths of dure. After the stimuli^ has been established as an
the connections from interior to output units can no acquired elicitor, its ability to function as a reinfor-
UR/CR longer change since the output units are no longer acti- cer can be evaluated wifi the classical and operant
vated. And, since there is no "complete" pathway from
selections increasingly take place in the context of
previously selected environment-behavior rela- procedures.
Si to R, the environment-behavior relation has extin-
guished. However, the remaining connections in the tions.21 Using a classical procedure with a dog, Pavlov
"deeper" layers of the network permit the environment- demonstrated that when the ticking sound of a
~-f>US
O- behavior relation to be reacquired more rapidly.
Source: After Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer, 1993.
metronome was paired with food, and then a visual
stimulus was paired with the sound alone, the
In to the biobehavioral processes involved visual stimulus acquired- the ability -to evoke a
in retention, previously selected environment-be- salivary response. Note that the sound had selected
relations also determine the stimuli that can an environment-behavior relation between the vis-
function as reinforcers for later selection. For the ual stimulus and salivation, without the visual
of reinforcement to which the learner is exposed. still affect the acquisition of new environment-be- inexperienced learner, only eliciting stimuli arising stimulus ever having been paired with the reflexive
If the same or complementary contingencies occur havior relations, and is unlikely to be undone com- from natural selection can function as reinforcers. eliciting stimulus of food. That is, the sound—an
in later environments, then the relation may be pletely for the reasons described earlier. It is rare For the experienced learner, however, an increas'- acquired elicitor—-had functioned as a reinfor-
maintained. If different responses are later reinfor all of the original stimuli to lose their control of ingly large number of stimuli acquire the capacity cen23 When acquired elicitors are used as reinfor-
forced in the presence of the same stimuli, then the behavior and for all of the original synaptic effica- to evoke behavior. These stimuli are the condi- cers to select new relations in the classical
originally selected relation may be weakened and cies to be altered. The effects of prior selections are tioned and discriminative stimuli produced by the procedure, these new relations are said to demon-
obscured.20 However, the original relation may retained—at least in part—and, as a result, new differing contingencies of the classical and operant strate higher-order conditioning.
96 4 Selection in the Experienced 9*7
set out to an analogous cir- a a change in

phenomenon using an operant procedure with a rat. cumvents the extinction by interspersing ongoing behavior—i.e., a behavioral discrepancy.
First, a clicking sound was paired with food. Then, within the 82-81 testing procedure occasional pair- In a study with pigeons directed at the role of
the sound was made contingent upon pressing a ings of S i with the reflexive elicitor. In the classical discrepancy in acquired reinforcement, 82 (e.g., a
lever. Leverpressing was acquired when the re- procedure, testing typically consists of an unsys- tone) was paired with food; at the same time,
sponse was followed by the sound, even though tematic mixture of pairings of 82 with S i and of S i another stimulus, Si (e.g., a light) was presented
leverpressing was never followed by food.24 Thus, with the reflexive elicitor.25 Likewise, operant that already evoked food-related responses be-
acquired elicitors were shown to function as rein- testing typically combines instances of the operant cause of prior Si-food pairings. (You will recog-
forcers in the operant procedure as well. As noted procedure and pairings of Si with the reflexive nize this as a blocking design.) Then the pigeons
in an earlier chapter, when acquired elicitors serve elicitor. Thus both procedures attempt to maintain were presented with two white disks, to which
a reinforcing, function in an operant procedure, Si's control of behavior by interspersing occa- pecking responses had been extinguished earlier.
they are referred to as conditioned or secondary sional pairings of Si with a reflexive elicitor. This 15 ,30 45
(Procedures in which more than one response is
reinforcers. They are secondary only in the sense arrangement parallels the circumstances that pre- Tirne (min)
simultaneously scheduled for reinforcement are
that selection by such stimuli is dependent on their vail in the natural environment with acquired rein- known as concurrent schedules, indicating that
having been paired with reflexive eiicitors, or pri- forcers. For instance, if money were not the various responses are available to the learner at FIGURE 4.5 Blocking of the conditioned
mary reinforcers. Conditioned reinforcers are by
occasionally exchanged for other reinforcers, it the same time.29) Pecking one disk occasionally re in/ore ing function
no means secondary in their importance for the
would soon cease to function as an acquired rein- produced Si; pecking-the other disk occasionally Cumulative records of responding 911 a concurrent
selection of complex behavior, where they play a
forcer. We get some sense of how the reinforcing produced 82. Pecking never produced food during schedule in which pecking one disk occasionally pro-
central role with experienced learners. duced a brief presentation of a red overhead light (Si)
value of money depends on its specific history of this phase of the study. Consistent with the block-
pairing with other reinforcers when we travel— ing phenomenon, Si functioned as an effective that had previously been separately paired with food.
and spend the coin of another realm more care- Pecking the other disic occasionally produced a tone (82)
conditioned reinforcer to' increase pecking re- that had previously been a component of a compound
Acquired Reinforcers and the lessly than the currency with which we are familiar. sponses but 82 did not.30 (See Figure 4.5.) Thus, conditioned'stimulus with the red light when the'com-
Using the above technique, studies have been simply pairing a stimulus with an elicitor is not pound stimulus was paired, with food. For animals,
conducted to determine whether the two conditions enough to enable the stimulus to later function as the tone or light were counterbalanced as Si or 82 and
Experimental analysis indicates that stimuli may
required for behavioral selection by reflexive elici- an acquired reinforcer. The stimulus must have comparable results were obtained.
acquire the ability to function as reinforcers. But, Source: Based on findings frofn. Palmer, 1987.
can the reinforcing function of acquired elicitors tors also hold for acquired elicitors. These condi- control over responding if it is to select new envi-
be described by the same principles as reflexive tions, you will recall, are contiguity and ronment-behavior relations.
elicitors? Determining the answer to this question discrepancy. In the rabbit nictitating membrane Finally, as with reflexive elicitors, the effec-
is complicated by a methodological difficulty that preparation, the interval between 82 and Si was tiveness of an acquired elicitor as a conditioned
you may have anticipated: The repeated presenta- varied to assess the role of contiguity in higher-or- reinforcer depends on interactions between the re- tial to reinforcement with acquired reinforcers.
tion of an acquired elicitor to assess its reinforcing der conditioning. Selection occurred only when 82 sponses it evokes and the operant that produces it. However, just as with naturally selected reinfor-
function weakens its ability to evoke behavior— preceded Si by a short interval that closely If the responses evoked by the acquired elicitor cers, limitations to experimental analysis arise
the very ability on which"the reinforcing function paralleled the function obtained with reflexive interfere with the operant, then the effectiveness of when the analysis is restricted to the behavioral
depends. To illustrate, suppose that a stimulus, Si, elicitors.26 the acquired elicitor as a reinforcer for that operant level. reinforcers, often than natu-
is with a reflexive elicitor and 82 is When will be or An rally reinforcers,- do not evoke
paired with Si to determine if Si functions as an with the operant procedure, the acquired elicitor established by a three-term contingency (i.e., a that are readily measured on the behavioral level.
acquired reinforcer. When 82-81 pairings are selected an environment-behavior relation only discriminative stimulus) controls both an operant We rarely if ever salivate at the sight of money,
given, the procedure weakens the ability of Si to when it followed the response by similarly short and a conditioned (reinforcer-elicited) response. even though we may have frequently exchanged it
evoke behavior since the presentation of S i with- intervals.27 With respect to temporal contiguity, Thus, there are more possibilities for interaction for food, (We do sometimes speak metaphorically
out the reflexive elicitor constitutes an extinction the same variables that affect the ability of reflex- when the eliciting function was acquired through a of drooling at the prospect of large sums of money,
procedure. Thus, the more 82-81 pairings are given ive eiicitors to function as reinforcers similarly discriminated operant procedure than when it was however,)32 To understand the full range of biobe-
to test the reinforcing function of Si, the more the affect acquired elicitors.28 acquired through a classical procedure.31 havipral processes responsible for acquired rein-
ability of S i to evoke behavior is weakened. Para- For a stimulus to function as an acquired reinforcement, we must expand the experimental
doxically, the more we study acquired reinforcers forcer, it is not enough that it precede a reflexive Physiological analysis. Behavioral research in- analysis to include observations at the physiologi-
with these methods, the less there is to study. elicitor by a short interval. The reflexive elicitor 'dicates that contiguity and discrepancy are essen- cal level.
4 Selection, in the Experienced Learner
As we saw in Chapter 2, our by the Motor Association

of the biological mechanisms of reinforcement is activate other neurons whose axons project back to
that naturally selected reinforcers activate a the VTA neurons. (See 4.6 for a diagram-
dopaminergic neuromodulatory system that arises matic sketch of such a neural system.) The path-
from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Axons ways that feed back from the neurons in the motor
from the VTA neurons diffusely innervate the mo- association cortex and cause the VTA neurons to To Behavior
tor association cortex of the frontal lobes (among be activated are the pathways that mediate acquired
From Environment Via
other structures).33 This neuromodulatory system reinforcement. Sensory Cortices
provides a means for increasing synaptic efficacies In the foregoing treatment, stimuli that function
between all recently activated neurons. The synap- as acquired reinforcers ultimately exert their influ-
tic efficacies most reliably and, hence, most ence through the same biological mechanisms as
strongly affected are those along the pathways that naturally selected reinforcers. That is, as a result of
mediate the reinforced environment-behavior rela- selection by already effective reinforcing stimuli,
tion. acquired reinforcers come to activate the VTA-
The diffuse VTA-frontal lobe system cannot, frontal lobe neuromodulatory system. The prior
by itself, be the biological basis of acquired rein- selection history increases the synaptic efficacies From Naturally
forcement. This would require that natural selec- between neurons in the motor association cortex Selected Reinforcer
tion had "anticipated" all the stimuli that might and neurons that feed back to the VTA—the source
Medial
function as acquired reinforcers, and had selected of the diffuse dopaminergic system activated by all Forebrain
functional pathways allowing all those stimuli to reinforcers. Since acquired reinforcers exploit the Bundle VTA
activate the VTA neurons. We know, however, that same neural system that was naturally selected to
the stimuli that function as acquired reinforcers implement reinforcement with reflexive elicitors, FIGUEE 4.6 Neural .systems of innate (unconditioned) and acquired (conditioned) reinforcement.
Innate reinforcement is implemented by a dopaminergic system arising from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and
vary widely culture to the biobehavioral processes the principles used
projecting diffusely to synapses in the motor association cortex of the frontal lobes- When pre- and postsynaptic
one individual to the next. The environmental con- to summarize them are similar for all reinforcers— neurons are coactive, dopamiiie functions as a neuromodulator to produce long-lasting changes in synaptic
stancy required for natural selection is not present, whether naturally selected or acquired. efficacies, or connection strengths. Acquired reinforcement is implemented by pathways originating from neurons,
so natural selection must be supplemented with Although much neuroanatomical and neuro- in the frontal lobes and projecting to the VTA via the medial forebrain bundle. This feedback pathway then activates
selection by reinforcement. How might selection chemical work remains to be done, considerable VTA neurons, causing further changes in synaptic efficacies in motor association cortex.\The acquired reinforcement
by reflexive elicitors produce a neural system to evidence is consistent with this formulation of system is functional only after the innate system has selectively strengthened Synapses b motor association cortex,
implement selection by acquired reinforcers, and acquired reinforcement. Both electrical and chemi- i.e., only after the acquired reinforcing stimulus is a component of a previously reijiforêd environment-behavior
how might that system operate? relation.
cal stimulation that affect dopaminergic neurons in
Although the experimental analysis of the motor association cortex reinforce behavioral re-
physiological basis of acquired reinforcement is sponses that precede the stimulation. Therefore,
very a work-in-progrdfes, the basic outline of activation of some cells in motor association cortex
II
the is emerging. We have already seen is to function as a reinforcer.34 Further,
the cumulative effect of naturally selected reinfor- if the axons that communicate between the motor interrupted.35 Thus experimental analysis of on the of complex environment-behavior
cers is to strengthen connections along pathways association cortex and the VTA are cut, then the physiological processes supports the view that relations.
in motor association of the frontal lobes. reinforcing effect of stimulating the motor associa- feedback from the motor association cortex to the
For an environmental stimulus to evoke the behav- tion cortex is eliminated. Thus neural activity in the VTA is responsible for acquired reinforcement.
Effects of Acquired on
ior scheduled for reinforcement, connections in the motor association cortex functions as a reinforcer The behavioral and physiological evidence for
Temporal Contiguity
motor association cortex are strengthened along through pathways leading toward the VTA. Fi- acquired reinforcers has especially significant im-
pathways that activate the motor neurons contract- nally, physiological research with acquired elici- plications for the acquisition of complex behavior. ' Experimental analysis has shown that environ-
ing the muscle fibers responsible for behavior. For tors indicates that their ability to function as Two general effects of acquired reinforcers are ment-behavior relation scan be selected only when
the same stimulus to function as an acquired rein- reinforcers is lessened if neural activity in motor considered here: (a) their effects on the role of a very brief interval—-often a second or less—in-
forcer, some of the neurons in the motor associa- association cortex is impaired or if the pathways temporal contiguity between the response and tervenes between an environmental stimulus, an
tion cortex whose synaptic efficacies have been between the motor association cortex and VTA are naturally selected reinforcers and (b) their effects operant, and a reinforcer. This result was obtained
100 4 Selection in the Experienced Learner
with elicitors, to the NMR.38 The

1.0 ing arising from the feedback mecha-
both classical procedures. However,' I
the availability of reinforcers en- I nism exemplifies internal reinforcement; the
vironment-behavior relations to be selected with Ii g .«
0
acquired- reinforcement arising from the reinforc-
substantially longer intervals between the i ing effect of Si on the S2-NMRrelation exempli-
.6
fies environmental c h a i n i n g . Through
and a reflexive elicitor. On the behavioral level,
US FT
! environmental chaining by means of internal rein-
acquired reinforcers can exert their influence I i
through environmental chaining and, on the neu- i forcement, longer sequences of environment-be-
i u havior relations can be selected that do not depend
ral level, through feedback circuits implementing
internal reinforcement.
I i .2 -
on temporal contiguity with naturally selected
I xv^-4 elicitors. As a result, to an observer the experienced
40 80 120 160 200 learner may appear to learn without reinforce-
Serial compound conditioning. Internal rein-
forcement and environmental chaining may both Trials ment—or at least without immediate reinforce-
be illustrated by the procedure of serial compound ment. Acquired reinforcers are often less obvious
FIGURE 4.7 Occurrence of stimuli and responding than naturally selected reinforcers because they
conditioning. In serial compound conditioning, in a serial compound conditioning procedure FIGURE 4.8 Computer simulation of the effect of often do not elicit readily observed responses and
two or more stimuli are successively presented The components of the compound conditioned stimulus, internal reinforcement on the acquisition of a
the critical events may be observed at the neural
before a reflexive eliciting stimulus. For example, 82 and Si, were presented followed by the unconditioned conditioned response
In one neural network ,(f4i), the connection strengths but not the behavioral level of analysis.
in the sequence 82-81-elicitor, a tone and then a stimulus, US. A light and a tone served as the component
light might be presented before eyeshock in the stimuli and mild eyeshock served as the US. The lower (synaptic efficacies) within the network could be modi-
record represents the movement of the nictitating mem- fied by both the innate reinforcement system and the
rabbit nictitating membrane preparation. Note that
brane of the rabbit in response to 82, Si, and the US after acquired reinforcement system implementing internal Effects of Acquired Reinforcers on
this arrangement permits both Si and, eventually, reinforcement. In the other neural network (Ni), the
a number of compound conditioning trials. Selection of Complex Behavior
82 to become acquired elicitors, but without the Source: Procedure and hypothetical findings from Kehoe, 1989. innate reinforcement system was intact but the acquired
complication of extinction found in a higher-order reinforcement system was not similarly functional. In experienced learners—especially humans—ac-
conditioning procedure—the serial compound Source: Based on findings from Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer, quired reinforcers are crucial determinants of most
stimulus continues to be followed by the reflexive 1993. .
changes in the environmental guidance of behav-
elicitor. When Si acquires the ability to evoke an First, an Si-NMR relation develops through tem-
ior. The importance of acquired reinforcers has
NMR because of its close temporal proximity to poral contiguity between Si and eyeshock. On the
been amply demonstrated in the laboratory with
the reflexive elicitor, 82 should then also acquire neural level, the selection of this relation depends
tive network with and without the internal rein- both children and adults. For example, kindergar-
the ability to evoke an NMR because of its close on the direct activation of the VTA-reinforcement
forcement mechanism of acquired reinforcers.) ten-aged children were\given 15 pairings of a col-
proximity to the acquired elicitor Si. (See Figure system by the reflexive elicitor.37 Then, as Si ored light with candy. Then each child was allowed
The relative strengths of the Si-NMR and 82-
4.7 for a depiction of the arrangement of stimuli becomes an acquired elicitor, its close temporal to press either of two levers, one of which produced
NMR relations depend on the interplay among a
a record of the NMR in this procedure.) contiguity with 82 selects an S2-NMR relation the light that had been paired with candy and the
number of variables: the particular stimuli used, in
Using a serial compound conditioning proce- 82 is removed from the the serial compound procedure (and, therefore, the other a light of a different color. By the end of a
dure in a programmatic set of well controlled ex- of That is, S i richness of the neural pathways they activate), the 10-min test period, the lever producing the color
James Dore •as an acquired reinforcer for the S9-NMR relation. specific temporal relations among the various previously paired wth_candy was pressed
have shown an S2-NMR relation can be ac- Throughout this process, to the extent that Si and stimuli, and the discrepancies between the activa- than 110 times, while the second lever was pressed
quired a temporal interval between 82 later 82 engage feedback pathways that indirectly tion of the NMR by the various stimuli (and, there- fewer than 45 times.39
and eyeshock as long as 18 sec!36 This interval far activate the VTA-reinforcement system, immedi- fore, the strength of the neural feedback signal The ability of acquired reinforcers to assume
exceeds the optimal interval of 250 ms, and even ate internal reinforcement aids the selection of both mediating internal reinforcement). As an example increasing responsibility for behavioral selection
the few seconds over which selection is possible, the Si-NMR and S2-NMR relations. Immediate of the role of discrepancy, to the extent that 82 makes it appear that the selection of environment-
in a simple classical procedure with this prepara- reinforcement is required for selection of both re- acquires the ability to evoke the NMR, the discrep- behavior relations is no longer influenced by the
tion. lations, but the reinforcement system is activated ancy between the evocation of the NMR by Si and immediate consequences of responding. This mis-
As inteipreted through the biobehavioral proc- by the acquired reinforcers, Si and 82, as well as by eyeshock is reduced, since the NMR has just conception is fostered both because the observer is
esses involved in acquired reinforcement, the 82- by the reflexive elicitor. (See Figure 4.8 for com- been evoked by 82. A reduced discrepancy during often unaware of the person's history of behavioral
NMR relation is selected in the following way. puter simulations comparing learning in an adap- Si limits the possibility that Si will acquire the selection-—and, consequently, of the stimuli that
102 4 Selection in the Experienced Learner 103
function as acquired reinforcers—and because the of selection by reinforcement, then the change while the other disk was darkened. This arrange-
responses evoked by acquired reinforcers are often Large ment is called a
must have been produced by reinforcers that oc- Reinforcer
subtle or observable only at the neural level. How- immediately after the behavior, not by A because there are two simultaneously available
Small
ever, what we know of selection by reinforcement a temporally remote event such as a paycheck.40 Reinforcer response options each of which consists of succes-
cautions us that all learners remain forever crea- sive stimuli—white then red or white then green in
tures of the moment. Our species increasingly acts Self-control. Research on what is called "self- this case. At the end of the stimulus, a further
as if it were liberated from temporal constraints control illustrates one important role of acquired response produces a reflexive elicitor. (Note that a
because the contents of the moment become ever reinforcers in human behavior. In studies of self- concurrent schedule consists of two serial com-
more filled with acquired reinforcers—-a legacy of control, the learner is faced with two alternative pound stimuli, but with each component stimulus
Terminal Link
prior behavioral selection. dependent on a response rather than merely the
In nontechnical terms, our actions reflect long-
courses of action—one that leads to an immediate
but small reinforcer and the other that leads to a fl passage of time: A concurrent schedule exempli- .
term goals to the extent that experience has pro- larger but delayed reinforcer. For instance, a stu- fies an operant rather than a classical procedure.)
vided us with subgoals that occur immediately dent might be faced with a choice between going
initial Link In this concurrent-chain procedure, the red stimu-
after each response in the chain of environment-be- out for the evening or staying home to prepare for lus continued until immediately before a" small
havior relations that makes up much complex be- the next day's examination. When animals such as amount of food and the green stimulus continued
havior. Consider an office worker who receives a until immediately before a large amount of food.
rats and pigeons are confronted with comparable
paycheck each Friday. Can the paycheck—which Therefore, pecking the left white key was immedi-
situations, the response that leads to an immediate
is an acquired reinforcer by virtue of its pairing ately followed by an acquired reinforcer for a small
small reinforcer occurs more often.41 Moreover,
with many other reinforcers—be the stimulus that amount of food and pecking the right white key
young children behave similarly in such situ-
reinforces behavior occurring on Monday? From was immediately followed by an acquired reinfor-
ations.42 This outcome- is "unwise" in the sense FIGURE 4.9 Concurrent-chain procedure used in
what we know about selection by reinforcement, the study of self-control cer for a large amount of food. Under these circum-
an environment-behavior relation occurring on that, over the long run, more reinforcers would be
The initial link in theiprocedure begins with two white stances, pecking the white key that eventually led
Monday cannot be selected by a paycheck that received by responding to obtain the larger, more
disks concurrently illuminated'by white light. Pecking to the delayed large food reinforcer became- much
occurs on Friday; the time interval is much too delayed reinforcer. Although adults do not always the left white disk produces a terminal link in which more likely. In short, the availability of an imme-
long. To interpret Monday's behavior, we must show self-control—have you ever a fattening that disk becomes red and the other disk darkens, with diate acquired reinforcer selected behavior that,
examine the specific circumstances that existed on dessert even though it would make you look less a small amount of food occurring after a short delay. were it observed in humans, would be taken as
Monday when the new relation was selected, and attractive in a bathing suit next summer?—they Pecking the right white disk produces a terminal link in
evidence of self-control. These and other related
often do select the larger reinforcer even when it is which that disk becomes green and the other disk
identify the contemporaneous events that func- experiments have demonstrated that the same con-
delayed. How does this "wise" choice come about darkens, with a larger amount of food occurring after a
tioned as acquired reinforcers. Perhaps social stim- longer delay. Self-control is said to be demonstrated if ditions that foster self-control in animals also favor
uli from the environment—such as expressions of if environment-behavior relations are selected by the development of self-control in children.43
the right white disk is pecked in preference to the left.
approval by co-workers—served as the immediate their immediate consequences? Source: Based on findings from Rachlin & Green, 1972. As illustrated by their effects on self-control,
consequences that selected the environment-be- To identify the conditions under which self- acquired reinforcers make crucial contributions to
havior relation. Perhaps covert stimuli—such as control emerges, a procedure was devised to simu- complex behavior. They exert their effects by pro-
provided by responses indicat- late self-control using concurrent schedules. As viding immediate consequences for environment-
ing an effective response has been performed in 4*9, the procedure begins with A number of were to
the variables favor selection -of the response behavior relations on which reflexive elicitors are
we "knowledge of a job illuminated too temporally remote to have an effect,44 That is,
with white light. For the pigeon subjects, pecking producing the larger, delayed reinforcer. In the
done")—served as the immediate consequences acquired reinforcers bridge the temporal gap be-
the left produced a of food after study considered here, instead of both white
selected the through internal rein- tween the environment-behavior relation and the
being darkened after a pecking response, the color
forcement. In the environment, the uncir- a brief darkening of both disks. Pecking the right naturally selected reinforcer. Understanding the
of the pecked disk changed to one that differed for
cumventable limitations of historical science and disk produced a larger amount of food, but after a effects of acquired reinforcers does not require a
large and small reinforcers. For example, if the
inability to analyze experimentally all relevant delay of sorne seconds during which both disks new principle of reinforcement. If acquired rein-
pecked disk produced the small immediate reinfor-
usually make it. impossible to identify all of were darkened. Under these circumstances, peck- forcers work by activating the same neural media-
cer, the disk changed briefly to red and the
the critical contemporaneous events in a particular ing the disk that was followed by the shorter delay ' nisms as naturally selected reinforcers, then the
other disk was darkened. If the pecked disk pro-
case. Nevertheless, if the changed environment- in reinforcement occurred more frequently. In reinforcement principle appears adequate to ac-
duced the large delayed reinforcer, then—during
behavior relation is to be interpreted as the product short, the pigeons showed little self-control. commodate both of them.
the longer delay period—the disk changed to green
104 4
.Selection in the Experienced Learner
As always, the environment is the would have if, the vanity Very long of environment-behavior demonstrated In nonliunaans as well. As illustrated
origin of selection—whether through the feedback drawer (83), you had opened it to reveal the brush relations can be maintained by discriminative stim- in 4.11, a rat was taught to execute a 10-
mechanisms of internal reinforcement or the more (Rs), and so on. In this sequence of environment- uli serving as acquired reinforcers for the responses component chain in which only the last component
direct effect of naturally selected reinforcers. Self- behavior relations, each relation is maintained by that produce them.46 In the preceding example, for was reinforced -with a naturally selected elicitor.47
control and self-reinforcement are simply short- the discriminative stimulus produced by the pre~ First, the rat was taught to press a lever for food
instance, the sequence is only part of a longer
hand terms for some of the effects of acquired ceding response. Opening the vanity drawer was when a light came on above the lever (a discrimi-
sequence that may. be described as "getting up in
reinforcers; the "self" is neither the origin nor the reinforced by the sight of the brash; brushing your the morning and preparing for the day," In later nated operant). Then, it was taught to get in an
cause of internal reinforcement.45 It is equally hair established the sight of the mirror as a reinfor- chapters, we describe a number of examples of "elevator" and ride it to the bottom level of the test
inaccurate to speak of the brain "reinforcing itself:" cer; looking in the mirror was reinforced by your behavioral chains when we interpret some of the chamber, which caused the light to come on. Only
The environment, by activating the feedback path- reflection. (See Figure 4.10 for a diagram of this
phenomena of problem solving and remembering. then could the lever "be pressed for food. Next, the
ways that implement the neural mechanisms of sequence of relations.) Note that the various stim-
internal reinforcement, remains the guiding agent. Behavioral chains !of substantial length may be rat was taught to crawl through a tunnel to gain
uli functioned as acquired reinforcers only when
When the neural networks selected by past the environment-behavior relations occurred in a
environments mediate environment-behavior rela- particular order. Looking at your reflection in a
tions that are consistent with present contingen- mirror might not be reinforcing if your hair were
cies, then the effects of earlier selections are not brushed. Brushing your hair might not be rein-
beneficial. The benefit is most evident when the forcing if no mirror were available, and so on.
behavioral component of the selected relation is the When discriminative stimuli function as reinfor-
same in the past and present environments, as with cers for the responses that produce them, orderly
successive stimulus components in serial com- sequences of environment-behavior relations are
pound conditioning. However, when the responses maintained. In behavioral chaining, discrimina-
selected in the present environment differ from tive stimuli are produced by responses whereas, in
of past environments, internal reinforcement environmental chaining, successive stimuli occur
. may not be beneficial. The environment-behavior independently of responding.
relations produced by selection—whether by ac-
quired or naturally selected reinforcers—are not
necessarily appropriate for all future environ-
ments. The products of past selections are appro- $3 (see drawer) - R-^ (open drawer)
priate for future environments only to the extent
that the contingencies of reinforcement are similar
in similar environments. •
(see Hairbrush) - R2 (pick up brush)
Pe&rhaps the most com-
mon contribution of acquired reinforcers to the
development of complex behavior is through the (see mirror) - R-j (brush hair)
chaining of environment-behavior relations. Much
complex behavior consists of a sequence of rela-
tively simple environment-behavior relations pro-
duced in a particular order. As a hypothetical Reinforcer
(see reflection)
example, the sight of the bathroom mirror (Si)
evokes glancing (Ri) at one's reflection, and the FIGURE 4.10 A behavioral chain
Each response in the chain is guided by a preceding
glance is reinforced if (say) your hair is properly FIGURE 4.11 A behavioral chain with 10 components
discriminative stimulus and reinforced by a stimulus that
arranged. Your hair is properly arranged if the sight functions as an acquired reinforcer for that response and
Only the last component, pressing the lever when the light over the lever is illuminated, was followed by food. All
of a hairbrush (82) previously caused you to pick as a discriminative stimulus for the next response. (See earlier components were reinforced by the acquired reinforcer of the next discriminative stimulus in the chain.
up the and brush your hair (Rz). In turn, the Source: Figure from An Introduction to Behavior Theory and Its'Applications by Robert L. Karen. Copyright © 1974 by Robert L.
text for a more complete account.)
Karen. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers.
to the elevator. Gradually, compo- of extinction the the responses evoked by the discriminative (the histories, the behavior of any two
nents were progressively added to the chain, until sponse originally evoked by the reinforcer; but, tone-light compound) are greater than those is likely to be affected somewhat differently by
all 10 environment-behavior relations had been since the reinforcer is no longer presented, a dis- evoked by the environment (the food) that follows identical elicitors. As a result, in the natural envi-
acquired. This technique, in which the components crepancy recurs and the environment-behavior re- the stimulus. In nontechnical terms, since the ronment the reinforcing effect of an elicitor is
are added to behavioral chains, in reverse order to lation weakens until the discrepancy has once learner "expects" more food than he gets, the phe- commonly modulated by the individual's history
the one in which they will ultimately occur, is again been reduced. nomenon is commonly known as over-expecta- of past selections.5 ^ The reinforcement principle—
called backward chaining.48 The foregoing account of the reinforcement tion. Because of the nature of the discrepancy, the although intended to summarize selection proc-
and extinction of environment-behavior relations ability of the light or tone to evoke salivation esses common to all organisms—implies that the
is based on controlled laboratory studies in which should decline, even though they have received effect of those common processes will vary with
COMPLEX EFFECTS OF additional pairings with food during compound the unique and inconcipletely known experiences of
the learner has little or no prior history of selection
in the test environment. Such a simplification is training. Thus, pairing the compound stimulus the individual learner. As a consequence, behav-
necessary to carry out an experimental analysis with the same reinforcer should produce an effect ioral engineering will forever remain, at least in
So far we 'have identified two general effects of part, an art in which general principles are applied
selection on experienced learners—the effect of leading to the formulation of a principle of selec- similar to that of an extinction procedure—i.e., the
environment-behavior relation should weaken. to unique and incompletely known realizations of
retention of previously selected environment-be- tion. However, in the natural environment the
In experimental tests49 of this prediction of the common processes.
havior relations on the selection of new relations, learner increasingly does have a relevant history of
and the selection of new relations by acquired earlier selection, and the effects of that history must reinforcement principle, after simple and then
reinforcers. We found that some of the effects of be taken into account in interpreting the effects of compound-stimulus training, the component stim-
previously selected relations endured indefinitely, reinforcers. We have already considered one situ- uli were then presented separately. It was found Discriminative Function of
and that these retained relations caused new rela- ation in which a prior history of reinforcement in that the ability of each component to evoke condi- Reinforcer-Elicited Responses
tions to be increasingly selected by acquired rein- the presence of a stimulus prevented a second tioned (reinforcer-elicted) responses had been Stimuli acquire a discriminative function—-i.e, the
forcers. In this section, we consider additional stimulus from acquiring the ability to guide behav- weakened. Analogous results have been obtained ability to guide behavior—when they occur imme-
effects of prior learning that are closely related to ior, even when the eliciting stimulus occurred in a with operant procedures.50 If the environment in diately before a response that is followed by a
reinforcement process itself. These are the ef- favorable temporal relation with the second stimu- a produces an elicitor has been reinforcer. • In the experimental analysis of dis-
fects of earlier selection on the behavioral discrep- lus. This is the phenomenon of blocking. Here we paired with that elicitor in the past, then giving the crimination formation, we examined the discrimi-
ancies produced by eliciting stimuli and on the consider another case in which earlier selection elicitor after the response does not strengthen re- native function of environmental stimuli because
discriminative function of stimuli arising from affects the ability of an eliciting stimulus to func- sponding as much as it would otherwise. In short, such stimuli are readily manipulated and meas-
conditioned responses (i.e., acquired responses tion as a reinforcer. an elicitor is less able to function as a reinforcer of ured. However, any event that stimulates activity
similar to those elicited by the reinforcer). an environment-behavior relation in either the in the nervous system,\whether the event occurs in
Over-expectation. Suppose that two stimuli, a classical or operant procedure when the environ- the environment or within the organism, should
light and a tone, are separately paired with the same ment already evokes conditioned responses as a acquire a discriminative, function if the conditions
Behavioral Discrepancies in food reinforcer until performance is stable. At this result of prior selection. for selection are satisfied'-. Thus, any internal stimu-
point, each of the evokes a salivary re- Speaking less technically, if an eliciting stimulus regularly precedes a reinforced response
The analysis of reinforcement indicated that, to sponse appropriate to the amount of food with lus is already "expected,55 then the elicitor is under- acquire a discriminative function,52
function as a reinforcer, the eliciting stimulus must which it has been paired. Next, suppose that those mined as a reinforcer since it produces less of a In the earlier interpretation of discriminated
a behavioral discrepancy, As measured on stimuli are presented together in a simultane- behavioral discrepancy than it normally would. operant conditioning by-means of adaptive neural
the behavioral level, food functions as a reinforcer ous compound and followed by the same amount The phenomenon of over-expectation, together networks (see Chapter 2), a possible source of
to the that it evokes responses—such as of food as before. If the two components of the with blocking and edge effects, supports the con- internal stimulation was identified that could pro-
salivation—that do not occur in the absence of compound stimulus evoke more salivation to- clusion that, in experienced learners, the reinforc- vide discriminative stimuli. You will recall
food. Selection continues until environmental gether than either one would evoke alone, then the ing function of an elicitor cannot be determined conditioned responses are acquired before operant
stimuli evoke salivation in proportion to that compound stimulus will evoke more salivation from its-eliciting properties alone. The reinforcing responses because, at the beginning of selection,
evoked by the eliciting stimulus; then, since the than is appropriate for the amount of food. If the function of an eliciting stimulus depends on the reinforcer-elicited responses are evoked more
behavioral discrepancy has been reduced, selection tone-light compound evokes an excessive condi- behavioral discrepancy it produces, and the dis-' strongly by the eliciting stimulus operant re-
stops. Once an environment-behavior relation has tioned response, a discrepancy occurs—the same crepancy is, in part, a function of the responses that sponses are evoked by environmental stimuli. For
been selected, if the reinforcer is no longer forth- sort of discrepancy that is produced at the begin- the environment already controls as a result of past instance, food initially evokes salivation more
coming, the relation is extinguished. At the beginning of an extinction procedure. That is, the re- selections. Since different learners have different strongly than the sight of a lever evokes leverpress-
108 4 Selection in the Experienced Learner 109
And, occurs, ! nal by the

between more strongly activated units are changed stimuli are somewhat different. In order to alter the S chain) - R (pull chain) For example, the elimination of phobias would
more than connections between less strongly acti- control of responding by the conditioned-re- \^ Reinforcer
require the extinction of operants not only in the
vated units. If conditioned responses produce dis- sponse-produced stimuli, one reinforcer was (food pellet) presence of the stimuli that are the object of the
tinctive internal stimuli, then-—since they occur paired with a subiethal dose of poison that caused person's unreasonable "fear," but in the presence
before the operant response—the internal stimuli withdrawal responses to be conditioned to these c lever) - R (press lever) of those internal states conventionally called "fear"
are in a position to acquire control over the operant stimuli. As a result of this later training, the condi- Reinforcer that are evoked by such stimuli. If the environ-
in addition to the control exerted by the discrimi- tioned-response-produced stimulus paired with (sugar pellet) ment-behavior relation is to be weakened to the
native stimuli from the environment. Thus an op- poison should evoke withdrawal responses, Then, point that the opera.nt no longer occurs, both com-
erant response can be guided by stimulation of two when the animals were again presented with the Phase II ponents of the compound discriminative stimulus
origins—from the environment and from the con- chain and lever, the environmental stimulus con- (food pellet)
must lose their ability to guide the operant.57
ditioned response. That is, operant responses may trolling the conditioned-response-produced stimu-
often be guided by a compound stimulus composed lus that had been paired with poison should evoke poison
COMPLEX CONTINGENCIES OF
of both environmental and internal stimulus com- withdrawal responses that interfere with the oper-
Test REINFORCEMENT
ponents.53 ant response. As a result, the operant whose rein-
If operants are partially guided by internal stim- forcer had been paired with poison should occur S.j (see chain) - chain pulling decreased Complex behavior is jointly determined by the
uli provided by conditioned responses, then proce- less frequently than the operant whose reinforcer legacies of past selections as they .are acted upon
dures that affect those internal stimuli should also had not been paired with poison. This is precisely S (see lever) - lever pressing maintained by the contingencies of reinforcement that exist at
affect the operant. Ruth Colwill and Robert Res- what occurred. If leverpressing had been rein- FIGURE 4.12 Training and test conditions used to the moment. The effect of the prevailing contin-
corla have carried out an extensive series of studies forced with a food pellet and the animal had later study devaluation gencies of reinforcement—or schedules of rein-
that bear on this issue.54 One such study is con- been poisoned after eating a food pellet, then lever- In Phase 1, two environment-behavior relations are se- forcement—is the primary focus of the final
cerned with the devaluation of reinforcers, and is pressing occurred less frequently than chain-pull- lected using different reinforcing stimuli—a food pellet section of this chapter. Darwin spoke of the capac-
described here. a sugar pellet. In Phase 2, one of the reinforcing ity of the ancestral environment "to change her
ing during a test session. (See 4«12 for a
stimuli, here the food pellet, is paired with an aversive species & -adapt to the wondrous & exqui-
diagram of this complex procedure.) unconditioned stimulus, here poison that elicits nausea
Devaluation. At the end of conditioning, an op- A number of other studies have been conducted sitely beautiful contingencies to which every living
and withdrawal responses. In subsequent testing, the
erant may be guided by a compound stimulus, one in which procedures were instituted to alter the environment-behavior relation acquired with the reinfor- species is exposed."58 The contingencies provided
of whose components is a stimulus produced by the discriminative effects of conditioned-response- cer that was paired with poison is weakened relative to by the individual environment are no less wonder-
conditioned response. If, after selection has con- produced stimuli. The outcome of these studies has the other relation. The reinforcer paired with poison is ful or exquisite.
cluded, the control of the operant by stimuli from been consistent with the interpretation that internal said to be "devalued."
Source: Based on procedures from Colwill & Rescorla, 1985.
the conditioned response is altered, then the control stimuli of this origin are components of a com-
of the operant by the discriminative stimu- of
pound discriminative stimulus guiding operant re-
lus—the environmental stimulus—-appears weak- sponses. These internal-stimulus components are A of is a complete de-
ened. A weakened relation should appear because well placed to guide the operant response, since sis—which measures the internal responses scription of the environmental and behavioral con-
component of the compound stimulus guiding their onset occurs more immediately before the stimuli at the microbehavioral or physiological ditions that are present when a response is followed
the operant is no longer effective. operant response than does the onset of the envi- levels-—is required if these issues are to be inves- by a reinforcer. specific type of reinforcement
As an indirect test of the guiding role of stimuli ronmental component (the nominal discriminative tigated directly.56 schedule has been explicitly encountered in this
from conditioned responses, two different operants stimulus). Moreover, the conditioned response that This implication of the reinforcement princi- chapter—the concurrent schedule. Since there are
were first selected using rats as subjects.55 The produces the internal stimulus appears early in ple—that conditioned-response-produced internal an infinite number of different conditions under
operants were: sight of a chain—-pull the chain, and training, before the behavioral discrepancy re- stimuli guide operant responses together with the which a response might be followed by a reinfor-
sight of a lever—press the lever. One operant was quired for selection has been reduced. The onset of nominal discriminative stimuli—provides an addi- cer, concurrent schedules are but one type of sched-
selected with a food pellet as the reinforcer and the this internal stimulus necessarily occurs more im- tional means by which past selections may affect ule among an infinite number of different
other with a sugar pellet. If distinctive stimuli are mediately before the operant response because the present selections. An implication for behavioral • schedules of reinforcement.59
provided by the conditioned responses to food conditioned response, which produces the stimuli, engineering is that weakening dysfunctional oper- To study some of the important conditions
sugar reinforcers, then chain-pulling and lever- is evoked by the environmental component and ant behavior requires extinction—or selection of affect behavior in the infinity of possible schedules
pressing are guided by compound discriminative therefore must occur after it. Experimental analy- alternative responses—in the presence of the inter- of reinforcement, B- F. Skinner and Charles Per-
110 4 Selection in the Experienced
ster60 two of variables Fixed- Interval Variable-

which responses produced reinforcers—stimulus after a variable number of responses Is called a 200
conditions (an important subset of which (VR) (See 4.13
uli that vary with the passage of time since a prior for cumulative records showing the patterns of
event has occurred) and response conditions. For responding produced when a response is exposed
example, disk-pecking might produce food if the to the contingencies manipulated in the standard
disk were green and at least 60 sec had elapsed schedules of reinforcement.)
since a previous food presentation. These vari- Although integrated theoretical treatments
ations were chiefly studied by what may be called have been developed for the temporal and behav-
the standard schedules of reinforcement. Such ioral variables manipulated in the standard sched- CD
_Q
E Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio
schedules and their effects are described in most ules of reinforcement,64 these are, not our concern
introductory textbooks. This work determined that here. Instead, we focus on some general conceptual 400
organisms are extremely sensitive to the specific issues that are raised by the experimental analysis
environmental (including temporal) and response and interpretation of reinforcement schedules. =3
conditions that are present when the response is These issues are discussed in our analysis of con-
u
reinforced. For example, when a pecking response current schedules—schedules in which responding 200
by a pigeon produced food only after at least 60 sec is simultaneously exposed to more than one sched-
had elapsed since the last food presentation, peck- ule of reinforcement. The effects of concurrent
Ing occurred very infrequently after a food presen- schedules are particularly interesting because, as
tation and then grew more frequent as the 60-sec noted in the earlier discussion of self-control, such
period neared its end. The pattern of responding schedules permit an analysis of "choice." That is,
produced by this contingency is the "scallop" of the learner is faced with several response alterna-
:
what is technically known as a (FI) tives permit to Time (min)
• schedule. When pecking produced food after a investigate the variables that determine the likeli-
FIGURE _ 4.13 Effects of different reinforcement schedules on operant responding
variable time since the previous reinforcer, a mod- hood of responding. Concurrent schedules also Illustrative cumulative records after training in which responding was acquired and maintained on various reinforce-
erate, relatively constant rate of pecking was pro- more closely approximate the many possibilities ment schedules. The occasional "tics" beneath the curves indicate the occurrence of reinforcers. Note that, other factors
duced, with little pausing after the reinforcer. This for action that exist at every moment in the natural being equal, ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules antt variable schedules produce
schedule Is called a variable-interval (VI) sched- environment. As one wag has put it, "life is a bowl more constant rates than fixed schedules. \
ule. In interval schedules—whether fixed or vari- of concurrent schedules." Source: Hypothetical records based on findings from Ferster & Skinner, 1957,
able—the likelihood that a response will produce
a reinforcer is primarily a function of stimuli that. Concurrent schedules. The most commonly
vary as a function of time since the previous rein- studied concurrent schedule has been one in which
forcer.61 *- the learner is faced with two response alternatives, The general result from the study of choice with Herrnstein called the i.e., the
In —-the other major type of of which Is associated with a different stimu- concurrent VI schedules has been that the relative relative frequency of responding on an
standard schedule—the likelihood that a response lus and a different variable-interval reinforcement frequency of responding on an alternative matches matches the relative frequency of reinforcers for
will produce a reinforcer is primarily a function of schedule. For example, a pigeon might be pre- the relative frequency of reinforcers produced by responding on that alternative.65 Figure 4.14, left
the number of responses since the previous reinfor- sented with two disks on the wall of the test cham- responding on that alternative. Thus, with a con- panel shows the outcome of an experiment which
cer.62 For example, if pecking produced food after ber, with pecking one disk reinforced on a current VI-60, VI-30 schedule, only half as many reports findings for animals exposed to a number
a fixed number of responses, say 20, then respond- variable-interval 60-sec schedule (VI-60) and the pecks would be directed at the disk associated with of different pairs of VI schedules. The straight line
ing occurred at a high rate with little pausing except other on a variable-interval 30-sec schedule (VI- the VI-60 schedule as at the one with the VI-30 indicates how the relative frequency of responding
Immediately after the reinforcer. This Is the "break- 30). Since during VI schedules reinforcers occur schedule. Over a one-hour period, only 60 food varies as a function of the relative frequency of
and-run" produced by what are technically only occasionally do not require the emission presentations would occur for peeking the VI-60 reinforcement when perfect matching occurs,
called fixed-ratio (FR) schedules. (They are so of more than one response, the relative frequency disk, while 120 would occur for pecking the VI-30 ' The matching principle is a molar principle,
called because the contingency insures a fixed ratio of responding on the two alternatives provides a disk. Findings from concurrent schedules were in contrast to a because it
of responses to reinforcers—here, 20 to I).63 A sensitive measure of "choice" or "preference," 'described by a principle proposed by Richard describes the relation between two variables that
112 4 Selection in the Experienced
the for — the of envi- example of a- limitation of a molar matching prin-

by the individual environments. ronments' for periods those ciple, consider the following study. During train-
1.0r
for a moment. The ancestral environment ing, pigeons pecked either of two disks with each
selects reinforcement processes that, acting at the. of three colors on the disks associated with a dif-
moment of selection, favor reproductive fitness ferent VI schedule—VI-30, VI-60, and VI-90
.5
of Selection over the long run£% From this perspective, molar sec.75 Only one response-disk was illuminated at
principles are appropriate to describe the outcome any one time. After training with each of the three
The principle of natural selection describes the of natural selection and, perhaps sometimes, the schedules on each of the two disks, the pigeons -
.5 1.0 0 .5 1=0 effects of the ancestral environment on the fre- cumulative effect of selection by reinforcement. were tested with two disks illuminated simultane-
quency of genes in populations of living organ- However, molecular principles are needed to de- ously. Note that before the test with the concurrent
Relative Frequency of Reinforcement
(RNF1/Total Reinforcers) isms. It summarizes a selection effect that emerges scribe the processes responsible for selection by schedule, a number of different environment-be-
over substantial periods of time when summed reinforcement. A molar principle appears to de- havior relations had been selected, with each color
over many individuals. There is no guarantee that scribe the effects of reinforcement accurately only on both disks controlling pecking at three different
FIGURE 4.14 Performance on concurrent on every occasion natural selection will favor any
schedules of reinforcement to the extent that it is equivalent to the cumulative rates. If performance on concurrent schedules is
particular structure (and the behavior that utilizes effect of a molecular principle.69 simply a function of "choice" or "preference"
The left panel shows the relative frequency of responding
that structure) or any particular individual. For In keeping with this general expectation, the among the schedules, then the subjects should
after a pigeon had been exposed to a number of pairs of
variable-interval (VI) reinforcement schedules in which example, George and Martha Washington left no molar relation between response frequency and match their relative response frequencies to the
different colors on the disks were associated with differ- children of record (i.e., they had zero reproductive
reiriforcer frequency described by the matching relative frequencies of reinforcers received during
ent schedules of reinforcement for pecking the disk. fitness), yet many of the characteristics that they
principle has been sho^vn to be derivable, under training with each color. Instead, the subjects did
Various combinations of colors occurred representing possessed are surely favored by natural selection
certain conditions, from the cumulative effects of not match, but distributed their responses in an
three reinforcement schedules—VI30 s, VI60 s, and VI over the long run. Natural selection can favor
90 s. The relative rate of responding on a disk closely the processes described by a molecular reinforce- - all-or-none fashion: Pecking was directed almost
changes that benefit reproductive fitness over the
matched the relative frequency of reinforcement for ment principle.70 Not surprisingly, matching exclusively at the color associated with
because, in a of individuals,
pecking that disk. The right panel shows the relative other "molar accounts 7l have'been most helpful in frequent reinforcer. (See Figure 4.14, right panel.)
changes in gene frequency do not occur immedi-
frequency of responding under the same test conditions, summarizing relations between variables that are If, however, performance on concurrent sched-
ately but only after reproduction. In contrast, a
but when the pairs of reinforcement schedules to which heavily influenced by natural selection—a process ules is a complex mixture of several operants—in-
the subjects were exposed prior to testing were restricted principle of selection by reinforcement describes
the immediate effect of the contemporary environ- that does operate over long time intervals. For cluding the operant of "switching" from one disk
to pairs of the same variable-interval schedules—i.e., VI example, animals vary in how they allocate their
ment on the population of environment-behavior to the other—then matching would not be expected
30 s - VI 30 s, VI 60 s - VI 60 s, and VI 90 s - VI 90 s.
Without prior exposure to different concurrent sched- relations from a single individual.67 There is no behavioral resources in the natural environment, on the first exposure to a concurrent schedule; The
ules, matching did not occur. Instead, responding was guarantee that selection by reinforcement will fa- depending on the availability of food in various animals^ selection histories did not include rein-
directed almost exclusively toward the disk whose color vor any particular environment-behavior relation "patches." Thus an insect-eating bird may find forcement for switching behavior.76 To assess this
was associated with the more frequent reinforcement. on all occasions, but. if a particular relation is more insects in one patch within its range in the interpretation of the failure to obtain matching, the
Source: Based on findings from Crowley, 1981. morning and more in another patch, at twilight.72 pigeons were given additional training with a spe-
selected it must be because of events that existed
at the moment of selection. Although changes in The proportion of time and other resources allo- cial concurrent schedule. Each trial consisted of the
gene frequency do not appear immediately upon cated to traveling between and searching the vari- simultaneous presentation of a pair of identical
the selecting action of the ancestral environment, ous is. reasonably well described by the colors on the two disks—one of the three colors,
are defined over an appreciable time interval—the the synaptic changes accompanying behavioral se- matching principle, which the its associated VI reinforcement schedule,
frequency of responses and the frequency of rein- lection must occur immediately upon the selecting form as corresponding principles from evolution- used in the original training. This procedure
forcers over a test session. A molecular principle, action of the individual environment. The effects ary biology.73 switching behavior to the operants that were rein-
such as the reinforcement principle, describes the of selection by reinforcement are not postponed forced in the training procedure. After this training,
relation between variables that are defined over a until the individual organism has been exposed to Limitations of molar principles. However, when the pigeons were again tested with different
brief time interval—the interval between the oc- hundreds of three-term contingencies. since a molar principle describes the effect of se- colors on the two disks, pecking was distributed in
currence of a single response and the occurrence of Although selection by reinforcement must be lection by reinforcement rather than its cause, the a manner that was well described by the matching
its reinforcer.66 In the following section, we exam- based on conditions that exist at the moment of correspondence between molar principles, and the principle. (Again, see Figure 4.14, left panel.) That
ine the distinction between molar and molecular selection, there is an important interdependence functional relations between variables produced by ia, the birds approximately matched the relative
principles, since it is central to the difference be- between the principles of natural behavioral -• behavioral selection is often imperfect.74 As one frequency of pecking a particular color to the rela-
114 < Selection in the Experienced Learner 115
live frequency of reinforcement produced by peck- behavioral selection accommodate the effects of ible shock-elicited responses. Punish- In a response-reinforcer contingency is
ing that color. aversive elicitors as well as those of appetitive ers act by causing' conditioned responses to inter- gradually changed to select environment-behavior
The experimental analysis of concurrent sched- elicitors? fere with operants. relations that progressively approach some crite-
ules demonstrates that performance is the result of rion response topography.
a complex mixture of different operants, and not a Punishment According to the unified principle When selection begins, stimuli guide the occur-
simple reflection of the relative strengths of peck- of behavioral selection, when aversive elicitors are Aversive stimuli as reinforcers. • If the responses rence of only a small fraction of the responses of
ing operants alone. Thus the relative frequency of contingent on responses, they produce interactions elicited by an aversive elicitor are not incompatible which the organism, is capable of emitting. For
pecking is not a measure of a unitary quantity— between operants and conditioned escape re- with the operant, then the elicitor does not function example, consider a child learning to catch a ball.
choice, or preference.77 All of the environment-be- sponses. Recall that when a behavioral discrepancy as a punisher but as a reinforcer! An all-too-com- Initially, the sight of a rapidly approaching object,
havior relations occurring in a complex situation occurs, whatever responses occur in the vicinity of mon example is provided by the parent who spanks such as a ball, might evoke escape and protective
must be taken into account if the behavior is to be the discrepancy come under the guidance of what- a child for crying. The operant is crying and one of responses. Thus the child might jump to the side to
interpreted. Since complex situations often do not ever stimuli preceded the discrepancy. If the oper- the responses elicited by spanking is crying. Cry- escape the oncoming ball or extend his hands to
permit an experimental analysis of all of the rele- ant and the elicited response are incompatible, then ing quietly is about the "best" that this procedure fend it off. Extending the hands to make contact
vant relations, understanding complex behavior the strength of the operant declines because the can produce. Of course, spanking also elicits a with the ball is a component of the more complex
must often take the form of interpretations based eliciting stimulus evokes an escape response that number of responses other than crying—escape, behavioral skill required to catch it, but the escape
on biobehavioral principles grounded in prior ex- biting, etc,—and we-may expect these responses to and protective components of the initial behavior
prevents the operant from occurring. If the elicitor
perimental analyses. Since a complete experimen- increase in strength as well.84 interfere with catching the ball. Accordingly, a
reduces the strength of the operant that produces it,
tal analysis is often foreclosed in complex then the eliciting stimulus is said to function as a Paradoxical effects of aversive elicitors occur in parent might begin by slowly rolling the ball to-
situations, interpretation often provides the only situations in which an operant is chosen that is not ward the child instead of throwing it, and using a
punishing stimulus, or punisher, and the proce-
road we may travel toward understanding. The incompatible with the responses elicited by the "pun-
dure is termed a punishment procedure.81 Aver- ball made of foam rubber rather than some harder
experimental analysis of even the relatively simple isher." As one example, shock to the tail of a restrained and heavier material. In this way, the escape and
sive elicitors function as punishers because,
case of concurrent schedules remains partially in- rat elicits extension .of the hind legs-—i.e., "running protective, responses would extinguish while con-
according to the unified reinforcement principle as
complete, but its interpretation seems to fall well away." If an operant procedure is instituted in which tacting the ball with the hands would be main-
in condi-
within the reach of a molecular principle of rein- ''spontaneous" extension of the hind leg occasionally
tioned responses are acquired before operants. tained. Next, the parent might vary the speed and
forcement.^ produces shock to the tail, then shock will function as
Since the conditioned response—an escape re- path of the ball as it rolled toward the child. At first,
a reinforcer for leg extension. The rat extends its leg
sponse—is acquired before the operant, the oper- merely. intercepting the rolling ball would be
and, under these circumstances, shocks itself for-
ant does not occur and is therefore not among the praised by the parent, put gradually grasping the
ever.85 The operant is leg extension, the elicited
Contingencies with Aversive Stimuli responses available to be selected by the discrep- ball would be required,*,After the child had devel-
response is leg extension, and-—-because the two
ancy.82 responses are compatible—shock functions as a re- oped skills in moving 'his hand toward the ap-
Until this point, we have considered contingencies proaching ball and grasping it, the same ball might
in which the eliciting stimuli were appetitive. An As a specific experimental example of punish- inforcer. Lest it be thought that only the "lowly" rat
ment, leverpressing that was maintained by the victim, to such arrangements, the effect was first be thrown slowly though', the air with praise first
appetitive elicitor is a stimulus that evokes an
occasional presentation of food was then some- demonstrated in monkeys.86 This example also illus- being given merely for contacting it and later for-
approach response; i.e., a response that brings the
learner into contact with the stimulus. For example, to produce a shock.83 The effect of trates the fallacy of equating reinforcers'with stimuli grasping the ball. Once again, the speed and path
introducing the shock was to reduce or eliminate are "liked" and punishers with stimuli that, are of the ball could then be varied so that many
an animal approaches environmental locations in
leverpressing. Under these circumstances, the "disliked." The rat in the above experiment did not different response topographies of "catching" were
which food is presented. In this section, we briefly
consider aversive elicitors. An aversive elicitor is aversive eliciting stimulus of shock functioned as "like" electric shock. The effect of presenting an elici reinforced. Finally, the foam rubber ball might be
a stimulus that evokes withdrawal, or re- a punisher with respect to the operant of leverpress- tor an operant depends on the specific interac- replaced by a hard rubber ball and, ultimately, by
sponses.79 A learner escapes from locations in ing. That is, shock-elicited escape responses were tion conditioned the a baseball with a glove used on the catching hand.
which shocks are presented. In addition to natu- guided by the some of the same stimuli that for- Through these gradual changes in the topography
rally selected aversive stimuli, such as those that merly guided leverpressing and, as a result, condi- of the response required for reinforcement, a full
stimulate pain receptors, learners withdraw from tioned shock-elicited responses interfered or repertoire of "catching" behavior would be ac-
stimuli that have been paired with aversive elici- competed with leverpressing. The most salient ef- quired. Note that if the parent had insisted upon
tors.80 Thus there are acquired aversive elicitors as fect of introducing the shock was to decrease the The final contingency of reinforcement considered using a baseball from the outset, the child might
well as naturally selected aversive elicitors. The likelihood of leverpressing, but this was the indi- here, and one that makes an important contribution never have learned to catch it—and, indeed, would
question of present interest is: Can the principle of rect result of increasing the strength of incompat- ••to the emergence of complex-behavior, is shaping. probably have learned quite different responses
116 4
.Selection in the Experienced Learner 117
of the with the 300 10-s food— each reli- selective breeding experiments to support natural
In hand. ably Its into a with a selection as the basis for direction in evolution.
Shaping is often used in laboratory situations— radius of only 30 mm. The topography of the While Darwin's critics agreed that dairy cattlemen
as when leverpressing Is shaped in a rat or disk reinforced head movement was a "bowing" re- pigeon fanciers' could bring about progressive
pecking in a pigeon—and in applications of blobe- sponse that ended about 160 mm above the floor changes as the 'result of their breeding programs,
havloral research—as when a child is taught to of the chamber. Control experiments in which food these changes could be attributed to the intentions
"sound out" the letters of an unfamiliar word. was delivered independently of the birds' behavior of the animal husbandryman and not to a blind
Although shaping plays an absolutely crucial role showed that the target response never occurred in selection process.
in the emergence of complex behavior, the experi- 300 the absence of the shaping contingency; i.e., it was
B3116 What Darwin pointed out, and what is equally
mental analysis of shaping has been difficult to not produced-by the presentation of food alone. true of shaping, is that the environment imposes
carry out because the topography of the responses The experimental study of gradually changing natural contingencies that yield directed change
are so varied and the criteria for the occurrence of the criteria for the reinforcement of a head-move- without the need for explicit human Intervention.
reinforcers so changeable. However, with the re- ment .response elegantly illustrates the shaping Breeding programs simply permit the evolutionist
cent development of computer-controlled video process. Still, it provides only a glimpse of the to study the selection process under controlled
systems, it is now possible to subject the process .2 extensive shaping history that predates the com-
T3 circumstances; they do not introduce contingen-
of shaping to experimental analysis. In one exam- plex behavior of which experienced learners are cies in an otherwise contingency-less environment.
ple, 87 the behavior of three pigeons was automat- capable. Much of the'remainder, of the book is
300 B3117 Even a simple leverpressing example can illustrate
ically tracked by a video system when each was concerned with an examination of that history and the role of natural contingencies in selection by
placed in a test chamber. From preliminary obser- its consequences. Because we are usually unaware reinforcement. Although a rat can produce reinfor-
vations, one point within the space of the chamber of the extensive history on which later selection cers by pressing a lever with either its snout or its
was identified into which the pigeons never moved depends, human behavior often appears too com- forepaw, It is likely that the rat will eventually
their heads. The computer then defined an imagi- plex to be the result of a selection process. Occa- confine its responses to the forepaw without the
nary sphere surrounding this point and an effort sionally, when we observe efforts to shape intervention of an experimenter. Pressing a lever
was made to the behavior of moving the head environment-behavior relations in children or in
Time with a forepaw take less time—to say nothing of
into this region. At first, the radius of the imaginary adults having behavioral deficits, we are forced to being less painful—tlian pressing with the snout.
sphere _was made large enough so that the head of FIGURE 4.15 Shaping an environment-behavior appreciate the extensive history on which most The environment teaches the rat this lesson—how
the pigeon would occasionally enter the sphere. relation adult behavior depends. to respond efficiently—Without the intervention of
When the head entered the sphere, the computer The shaped response was the movement of a pigeon's an experimenter. .\
delivered grain to the pigeon as a reinforcer. Fol- head into an "imaginary" target sphere within the test Consequences of shaping. A l t h o u g h overly Second, the reinforce^ did not completely spec-
lowing the reinforcer, the radius of the imaginary chamber. The pigeons never moved their heads into this simple, the laboratory study of shaping Illustrates
region during an observation period prior to shaping. The ify the topography of the response that was se-
sphere was gradually reduced In 10-mm steps and two important points about the process. First, note
panels depict changes in the radius of the target sphere lected. In the shaping example, any topography of
delivery of the next reinforcer required a closer that the target response was not in the learner's
during the shaping of head movement by a computer- response that resulted in movement of the pigeon's
approximation to the designated point in space. If controlled video tracking system. The criterion radius of behavioral repertoire at the beginning of the shap- into the imaginary target sphere produced the
the bird's failed to the smaller the target sphere into which movements were reinforced ing process; the learner never moved its head into reinforcer. Thus, the contingency implemented by
within 10 s, the sphere was gradually expanded in gradually decreased a radius of 30 mm was the region of the chamber. Thus the shaping the shaping schedule defined a class of response
2.5-mm steps until the bird again moved Its reliably attained for each bird. Criterion responses were process can produce behavior that is novel In the topographies rather than a response of a single
the imaginary sphere. reinforced with food. By the end of training, all laboratory, the contingencies that produce the
birds moved their heads into the 30-mm criterion region. form. The contingency did not distinguish between
The findings from this study of shaping are novel behavior are the result of the experimenter's
The horizontal axes indicate a total shaping time of various "styles'5 of head movement as long as all
shown in Figure 4.15. As you can see, the position intervention into the environment of the learner. It
approximately 122 m for bird B6698, 138 m for bird met the criteria of a target response. In general, a
of each of the three pigeons' heads initially moved is the experimenter that provides direction to the
B3116, and 30 m for bird B 3117. variety of response topographies meet the criteria
within the Imaginary sphere only when its radius Source: Adapted from Pear, J. J. & Legris, J. A. (1987). Shaping selection process. But we can learn without a hu- 1 for selection,, and any of these topographies may
was very large (150—300 mm). However, upon by automated tracking of an arbitrary operant resonse. Journal "teacher;" how then can shaping be the basis come under the control of the environment. Hitting
continued exposure to the shaping contingency, the of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 47, 241—247. for novelty and complexity In the world outside the
Copyright 1987 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis a baseball is reinforced for all-baseball players, but
radius-of the imaginary sphere progressively con- laboratory? This question is reminiscent of the
of Behavior, Inc. the contingency between swinging and hitting does
tracted—with occasional expansions following posed to Darwin when he appealed to not completely specify the stance from which the
is swung. In the topography of the variable-interval (VI) 7. How does prior experience with "eliciting ENDNOTES
selected behavior determine the members of the fixed-ratio (FR) schedule stimuli affect their ability to function as reinfor- 1. Gibbs, Latham, & Gormezano, 1978.
response class, and unnecessary restrictions on variable-ratio (VR) eers? Illustrate your answer with findings from the 2. For the effects of intermittent reinforcement on
class membership limit the variability available for matching principle studies of over-expectation and devaluation. acquisition, maintenance, and extinction in classical and
future selection. molar principle operant procedures, see Gibbs, Latham, & Gormezano,
8. Indicate why reinforce-elicited responses
Similarly, just as the response-reinforcer con- should be selected before operant responses. What 1978 and Amsel, 1958. The cellular mechanisms in-
molecular principle
tingency does not completely restrict the response volved in changing synaptic efficacies also appear to
appetitive elicitor are the implications of this for the nature of the
topographies that are components of the selected differ from those involved in maintaining them; cf.
aversive elicitor stimuli that guide operant responses?
environment-behavior relation, so the contingency Cotman & Monaghan, 1988.
may not completely restrict the stimulus compo- escape response 9. What is a schedule of reinforcement? Illus- 3. Skinner, 1938, p. 135.
nents of the selected relation. Whether the pigeon punishing stimulus (or punisher) trate your answer with several of the commonly 4. Capaldi, 1966, 1971.
used schedules and the behavioral effects they 5. Spivey, 1967.
was looking toward the floor or toward the cham- punishment procedure
produce. .6. See Mackintosh, 1974 for a review of this litera-
ber wall as it "bowed," if head movement entered shaping ture.
the target sphere, then food was delivered. 10. Comment on the following: Even though the 7. cf. Amsel, 1958,1972.
Thus, the stimulus components of the selected cumulative effects of selection by reinforcement 8. The effect of intermittent reinforcement on resis-
environment-behavior relation often vary as well. Text Questions may be describable-by a molar principle, the rein- tance to extinction is one aspect of the more general area
In short, an environment-behavior relation typi- forcement principle itself must be a molecular prin- of schedules of reinforcement. Additional implications
1. Four general types of effects of reinforcement of schedules of reinforcement will be considered in later
cally consists of variable components and, for that ciple. •;
on selection in experienced learners are discussed. sections of this chapter. With regard to the relation
reason, is a relation between classes of stimuli and (These are described in the four main (capitalized) 11. Under what conditions may an eliciting stimu- between schedules of reinforcement and "motivational"
responses.^ In the next chapter, the characteristics headings.) After reading the chapter, be able to lus function as a punisher? As a reinforcer? What effects, consider the following: "By the manipulation of
of those classes are examined for their contribution identify these types of effects and to describe an are the implications of these findings for the view schedules, a wide range of changes in behavior can be
to complex behavior. experimental example of each. that reinforeers are stimuli that the learner "likes" produced, most of which would previously have been
and punishers are stimuli' that the learner "dis- attributed to motivational and emotional variables," Fer-
2. In general, what is the effect of intermittent
likes"? ster & Skinner, 1957, p. 2.
STUDY AIDS reinforcement on the acquisition and extinction of 9. As with most behavioral phenomena, the persist-
environment-behavior relations? What biobehav- 12. What is a shaping procedure? Does shaping ence of a selected environment-behavior relation is sig-
Technical Terms ioral processes contribute to these effects? always require, a "shaper"? Explain. nificantly influenced by a number of variables; i.e., most
3. Does extinction completely undo the effects responses are multiply determined. The variable empha-
intermittent reinforcement (or partial rein-
of prior selection? How may this finding be inter- sized in the present treatment—the discriminative stim-
forcement) uli correlated with specific, sequences of nonreinforced
resistance to extinction (or persistence) preted? What is the evidence regarding how long
Discussion Questions and reinforced responses-Ads, perhaps, the most impor-
the effects of prior selections are retained? tant one. Another important variable is the frequency
continuous reinforcement
cumulative record 4. Describe procedures and results which indi- 13. Comment on the following statement: As the with which the environment-behavior relation has
cate that acquired reinforeers can select environ- complexity of behavior increases, experimental reinforced. The more often \a relation has been rein-
higher-order conditi
ment-behavior relations in both the classical analysis must increasingly be supplemented by forced, the greater its persistence—other things being
operant procedures. scientific interpretation. equal; cf. Amsel, 1972; Capaldi, 1966, With more fre-
quent reinforeers, the likelihood is increased that all of
5. Is the reinforcement principle describes 14. Why is it important for the selection of com- the stimuli that can potentially reliably occur before a
Internal reinforcement
unconditioned reinforeers useful in describing behavior that reinforcing stimuli are not re- response in that situation will become discriminative
compound conditioning
conditioned reinforeers? How are the neural stricted to unconditioned (naturally selected) stimuli for the response. The greater the number of
concurrent-chain procedure mechanisms of unconditioned and conditioned re- stimuli that guide a response, the more likely that any
eiicitors? Do conditioned reinforeers permit-learn-
behavioral chaining inforeers (internal reinforcement) related? ers to reinforce themselves? Explain. given environment will contain at least some of those
backward chaining stimuli and, hence, that the response will occur and/or
6. Distinguish between environmental chaining 15. Critique the following statement: Other spe-
over- expectati on persist. Also, with more frequent reinforeers, the greater
behavioral chaining. Describe experimental cies require immediate reinforcement for their be- the likelihood that conditioned-response-produced stim-
devaluation procedures for the study of each. Indicate some of havior, but our behavior can be affected by remote uli will occur prior to the operant and acquire a discrimi-
schedule of reinforcement their contributions to the emergence of complex consequences. Include information on "self-con- nation function with respect to the operant as discussed
fixed-interval. (FI) behavior. • trol" in your answer. in the interpretation of the over-expectation effect later
120 4 in the Experienced Learner
in this chapter. Environment-behavior relations that are 20. When different responses are selected in pres- 22. Throughout this discussion, the phrase acquired mechanisms of reinforcement has focused on these
resistant to change are said to display behavioral mo- ence of the same stimuli, interference effects are pro- elicitor refers to a stimulus that controls behavior as a structures for technical reasons, e.g., Hoebel, 1988;
mentum, Nevin, 1988, 1992; Nevin, Mandell, & Atak, duced. The nature of interference effects and an analysis result of either the classical or operant contingency. Thus Kelley & Delfs, 1991. Other projections of the VTA to
1983. of the conditions under which they occur in adaptive acquired elicitors include both conditioned stimuli and structures involved in the processing of sensory input
10. For evidence with classical procedures, see, e.g., networks is a matter of intense current interest, and will discriminated stimuli. Similarly, the phrase acquired also play an important role in selection, but we have
Hoeler, Kirschenbaum, & Leonard, 1973. For evidence - be considered at a later point in the text; e.g., Lewan- reinforcer refers to an acquired elicitor that functions as postponed their consideration until the chapter on per-
with operant procedures, see, e.g., Spear, 1973. dowsky, 1991; McCloskey & Cohen, 1989. a reinforcer in either the classical or operant procedure. ceiving.
11. e.g.,Lattal, 1972. 21. In the application of behavioral principles to the Thus acquired reinforcers may be studied with either 34. Studies have shown that electrical or chemical
12. Consideration of all of the stimuli present during remediation of dysfunctional behavior, a central prob- higher-order or conditioned-reinforcement procedures. stimulation that affects dopaminergic s)/napses in the
acquisition and extinction, and of the consequences of lem is to insure that a favorable environment-behavior 23. Pavlov, 1927. motor association cortex can function as a reinforcer;
any changes in stimulation between these conditions, relation—once selected—will endure; cf. Stokes & 24. Skinner, 1938. e.g., Goeders & Smith, 1983; Hill, 1970; Roberston,
permits an interpretation of a number of extinction-re- Baer, 1977. If the training and later environments are 25. Rescorla, 1980. 1989; cf. Cohen & Branch, 1991.
lated phenomena. For example, responding is typically similar, and if the contingencies of reinforcement for the 26. Gormezano & Kehoe, 1981; Kehoe, Feyer, & 35. e.g., Shizgai, Bielajew, & Rompre, 1988; Yeo-
strongest at the beginning of each extinction session, response are similar, then the trained relation will en- Moses, 1981. mans, 1975, 1982, 1988, 1989; Yeomans, Kofman, &
even after prolonged extinction. This phenomenon, 27. e.g., Bersch, 1951. For a review of much of the McFarlane, 1988. Additional experimental work is re-
dure. As an example, a group of hospital caregivers
earlier literature, see Hendry, 1969. quired to specify precisely the neural circuitry and
known as spontaneous recovery, can be attributed to tending disabled patients suffered from back injury as a
28. Williams & Dunn, 1993 a, 1991b. neurotransmitter systems involved in the projections
stimuli that occur only at the beginning of the extinction common job-related health risk. Back injuries occurred
29. Ferster& Skinner, 1957. from the prefrontal cortex and the ventral tegmental area.
session. Since such stimuli occur only briefly, they guide when they were transferring patients from wheelchairs 30. Palmer, 1987. See also Dinsmoor, 1950, and 36. Kehoe, Gibbs, Garcia, & Gormezano, 1979.
responding for many sessions and produce spontaneous to beds. Research had shown that simply instructing Thomas & Caronite, 19(64, for related experimental 37. This account is not necessarily intended to apply
recovery; cf. Estes, 1955; Skinner, 1938; cf. Welker & caretakers about safer lifting behaviors had little effect. work and Keller & Scho&nfeld, 1950 for the proposal to the neural mechanisms of acquired reinforcement in
McAuley, 1978. Accordingly, an operant procedure was implemented in that a stimulus that functions as conditioned reinforcer the rabbit nictitating membrane preparation. Simple
13. The conditions under which synaptic efficacies which verbal praise (i.e., a learned reinforcer) was given for one response also functions as discriminative stimu- NMR conditioning can occur in the absence of a func-
are modified are consistent with observations at the after execution of correct lifting behavior. The desired lus for a second response. tioning cerebral cortex, although more complex condi-
neural level, e.g., Desmond & Levy, 1986; Levy & behavior included such responses as standing in front of 31. For an early study of response interactions, when tioning procedures do involve the cortex; Berge'r, Berry,
Steward, 1979, Most information about these conditions the patient rather than to the side, lifting by hugging the a discriminative stimulus was approached to secure food & Thompson, 1986. Physiological research in the rabbit
comes from studies of what is called long-term poten- patient rather than holding him at arm's length, and so during initial training, that stimulus functioned as an on the role of the cortex in serial compound conditioning
tiation (LTP) of activity in cells of the hippocampus; forth. The caregivers' behavior rapidly changed to the effective conditioned reinforcer for a different response has not yet been conducted. However, dopaminergic
e.g., Bliss & Lomo, 1973. Long-term potentiation refers safe practices and framing was then discontinued. Fol- during a subsequent task in which the stimulus was also mechanisms are known to affect NMR conditioning in
to a long-lasting increase in synaptic efficacy as the low-up observations one year later indicated that the approached (Saltzman, 1949). However, when the dis- the rabbit; Gimpl, Gorrnezano, & Harvey, 1979; Mar-
result of high frequency of stimulation by a presynaptic environment-behavior relations selected by the training criminative stimulus was withdrawn from to secure food shall-Goodell '& Gormezano, 1991.
cell. Although LTP has been most extensively studied in contingencies remained at undiminished strength; Ala-' (but also signaled the availability of food), it did not 38. Because the effect of serial compound, condition-
the hippocampus, it is known to occur generally in vosius, 1987. function as a reinforcer for an approach response in a ing is a dynamic process' depending on the complex
neurons throughout the cerebral cortex. However, if the training and subsequent environments subsequent task (Long, 1966). Interactions of this sort interplay between these biobehavioral processes, com-
14. Holt & Kehoe, 1985, are similar and the contingencies of reinforcem ent are are probably at the root of many findings purporting to puter simulations are required to interpret the outcome
15. Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer, 1993. See also Ke- different, then the previously selected environment-be- demonstrate fundamental differences between the learn- of such complex procedures;- cf. Kehoe, 1988; &
hoe, 1988 for recognizing triis implication of reinforce- havior relations will not endure and new relations will ing processes associated with .conditioned stimuli in Napier, 1991.
ment principles when implemented in multi-layer emerge. There are no remedial procedures that ""immu- classical procedures and discriminative stimuli in oper- 39. Myers & Myers, 1965. See Wolfe, 1936 for an
networks; cf. Sutton & Barto, 1981. The variables affect- nize" the learner against the potentially undesirable se- ant procedures (e.g., Rescorla, 1988, 1991). early study of conditioned reinforcement
ing reacquisition discussed here—stimulus generaliza- lecting effects of all later environments. Such 32. Nonhuman animals do sometimes respond toward in chimpanzees.
tion and the partial preservation of synaptic procedures, were they to exist, would contradict the very acquired reinforcers in ways that are ordinarily directed 40. For clear early statements of the dependence of
changes—should not be viewed as the only ones affect- principle upon which any remedial procedure is based-— toward the reflexive elicitors with which they have been behavior on immediate acquired reinforcers, see Skin-
ing subsequent learning, cf. Harlow, 1959. A number of that environment-behavior relations are selected by the paired. For example, monkeys put tokens that have been ner, 1953 and Spence, 1956.
other variables will be described in later portions of the contingencies of reinforcement to which the learner is paired with food in their mouths (e.g., Kelleher, 1958a, 41. e.g., Logan, 1965; Rachlin & Green, 1972.
book. later exposed. The continued sensitivity of behavior to b). See Breland & Breland, 1961, for other examples. 42. e.g., Mischel & Bakler, 1975.
16. Liddell, James, & Anderson, 1935. selection poses a serious threat to the durability of any 33. In addition to the motor association cortex of the 43. e.g., Grosch & Neuringer, 1981; Logue, 1988,
17. Donahoe & Marrs, 1982. therapeutic procedure when the learner is returned to the frontal lobes, the dopaminergic VTA system also inner- 44. cfTspence, 1947.
18. e.g., van Willigen, Emmett, Cotte, & Ayres, 1987; environment in which the dysfunctional behavior was vates various motor nuclei lying beneath the frontal 45. cf, Catania, 1975; Gewirtz, 1971: Goldiamond,
Levinthal, Tartell, Margolin, & Fishman, 1985. originally selected, and undoubtedly plays a major role lobes. Because of the concentration of cell bodies in 1976; Hayes, Rosenfarb, Wulfert, Mum, Korn, & Zettle,
19. Skinner, 1938. in "relapses" and recidivism generally. nuclei, much of the physiological research on neural 1985,
46. For surveys, see 1977; 1966, 52. On the physiological level of analysis, of course, Dickinson, 1979; Rescorla, 1991). Some efforts have for theoretical treatments of the schedules of
andNevIn, 1973. all events, that immediately precede a reinforced re- been made to differentiate between the interpretation reinforcement.
47. Karen, 1974. sponse are internal. That is, environmental stimuli that given here and alternative associationistic accounts (e.g., 65. Herrnstein, 1970. See Baum, 1974 for a more
48. Skinner, 1953; cf, & Warzak, 1981; are discriminated necessarily produce distinguishing in- Rescorla & Colwill, 1989), but they do not compel general statement of the matching principle and Killeen,
Weiss, 1978. ternal events; cf. Skinner, 1938. acceptance of the alternative accounts. 1972 for a theoretical discussion of such principles,
49. Krerner, 1978; Rescorla, 1970, 53. This view resembles two-factor accounts of oper- 57. The behavioral technique c&l&d. flooding may ex- Much of the research related to the matching principle
50. Engberg, Hanson, Welker, & Thomas, 1972; ant conditioning in which stimuli from conditioned re- ert its beneficial effect on the extinction of "fear" in this is summarized in de Viilieurs, 1977. Alternative molar
Konorski, 1967. sponses are assumed to have a motivating (Rescorla & way. In a flooding technique, the learner is not permitted principles have been developed, e.g., Killeen & Fantino,
51. For other phenomena of this type, such as super- Solomon, 1967) and/or a mediating function (Dickin- to avoid the feared stimulus but must remain in its 1990, and the analysis has been extended to acquired
conditioning, see Rescorla, 1971, 1985b. Although be- son, 1988; Trapold & Overmier, 1972) for the operant presence while the eliciting stimulus that evokes the reinforcers as well; Williams & Dunn, 1991b.
havioral discrepancies—and the physiological response. The role of conditioned responses in operant "fear" is omitted. For example, a rat that received shock 66. The use of the term "molecular" to differentiate
mechanisms underlying them—modulate the effects of conditioning, according to the unified reinforcement after a tone might be held in the chamber while the tone moment-to-moment accounts of behavior from more
selection, they are not the only means by which prior principle, differs in several respects including the fol- was repeatedly presented, but without the shock. Under global accounts was first introduced in Skinner, 1938.
selection affects present selection. A learner has a his- lowing: (a) The adaptive-network interpretation of con- such conditions, subsequent testing indicates that escap- 67. The view that a population of environment-behav-
tory of selection with respect to relations between envi- ditioned responses is based on experimental analyses of ing from the tone declines in strength more rapidly and ior relations from a single individual is the focus of
ronmental events as well as between environmental and both behavior and physiology, (b) The distinction be- more completely than if a simple extinction procedure selection by reinforcement has important implications
behavioral events. The analysis of environment-envi- tween classical and operant conditioning is not one of had been instituted; Mineka, 1979; cf. Solomon & for the manner in which research should be conducted
ronment relations is postponed until the chapter on per- two different "types" or "kinds" of learning, but proce- Wynne, 1953. in biobehavioral science. While averaging findings from
ceiving, but these relations also modulate the effects of dural only, (c) The stimuli from conditioned responses 58. From a letter written by Charles Darwin to Asa different individuals is appropriate in the study of natural
selection—especially in response to complex stimuli do not necessarily play a mediating role with respect to Gray, a botanist who was1 among Darwin's more stalwart selection, it is inappropriate (and potentially misleading)
such as stimulus compounds. The study of complex the operant response. They simply provide a potential American supporters. Reprinted in Dupree, 1988. in the study of the behavioral selection. For discussions
stimuli in basic conditioning procedures is often carried additional source of stimuli that may, when such stimuli 59. Because there are an infinite number of schedules of this matter, see Sidrrmn, 1960; Estes, 1955; and Dona-
out under the heading of configural conditioning (cf. occur before the operant, acquire a discriminative func- of reinforcement, some have questioned the importance hoe & Wessels, 1980.
Rescorla, 1973, 1976; Wagner, 1981; Krieckhaus, tion with respect to the operant. (d) The occurrence of of understanding the specific schedules investigated by 68. Staddon & Hinson, 1983.
Donahoe, & Morgan, 1992). conditioned responses not only serves a potential dis- Ferster and Skinner (1957). Iri our view, this reservation 69. The distinction that is being made here corre-
The present discussion does not include an analysis of criminative function for the operant response, but also a misses the central point. Investigating ratio and interval sponds to the,distinction made in evolutionary biology
effects that are usually discussed under the heading of reinforcing and motivating function through the internal schedules per se may not be required, but understanding between selection for and selection of a. characteristic;
inhibition. On the behavioral level, no concept of inhi- reinforcement mechanism described in the previous sec- the effects of the contingencies of reinforcement embed- Sober, 1984. A given characteristic (or gene) may be
bition appears in the present treatment; cf. Donahoe & tion of this chapter. All efforts that exploit the stimulus ded in these standard schedules is both central and selected/07- and have the cumulative effect of increasing
Palmer, 1988; Weiss & Schindler, 1985. Most phenom- consequences of conditioned responses in operant con- unavoidable if the selection of behavior by complex the frequency of some characteristic that is con-elated
ena in which "inhibition" is appealed to by other formu- ditioning may be traced to the earlier work of Guthrie, contingencies is to be understood. The standard sched- with the characteristic for which selection occurs.
lations are viewed here as instances of stimulus 1935, and Hull, 1934. ules were constrained by the technical limitations inher- 70. Shimp, 1969. See a\lso Hinson & Staddon, 1983;
discrimination (Skinner, 1938). For example, when Si 54. See Colwill & Rescorla, 1986 and Rescorla, 1991 ent in electromechanical switching circuits of the time Donahoe, 1977, among others.
is paired with a reinforcer and an 81-82 compound is for reviews. and are, therefore, limited as instruments for the experi- 71. For other molar theories of performance on con-
oonreinforced, the control of responding exerted by 82 55. Colwill & Rescorla, 1985. mental analysis of contingencies of reinforcement. current schedules, see Timtbrlake, 1980.
is the result of extinction a| interpreted by the standard 56. With a number of notable exceptions—-e.g., These problems are now better addressed with' com- 72= On the relation between matching and
discrepancy account of extinction and interference from Shapiro, 1962; Kintsch & Witte, 1962; Konorski, 1948; puter-controlled procedures that implement contingen- theory, see Dallery & Baum, 1991,
selection of competing environment-behavior rela- Sheffield, 1965—technical difficulties in simultane- cies of reinforcement with greater specificity 73. Biological models commonly
tions, cf. Staddon, 1977. There is no separate construct ously measuring reinforcer-elicited responses and oper- precision; e.g., Platt, 1979. selection, has led to behavior that leads to .optireality of
of inhibition (cf. Wagner & Rescorla, 1972) and, hence, ant responses have impeded the experimental analysis 60. Ferster & Skinner, 1957. some quantity; e.g., the number of calories
there is no inhibition to be extinguished (cf. Zimmer- of response interactions. Accounts of the effects of rein- 61. Ferster & Skinner, 1957. relative to the number of calories expended in
Hart & Rescorla, 1974; Witcher & Ayres, 1984). In forcer-related events (sometimes called outcomes] on 62. For a careful analysis of the behav- food (Dallery & Baum, 1991; Stephens & Krebs, 1986;
general, decreases in responding that are attributed to operant conditioning have recently proceeded along a ioral variables that are manipulated in the conventional Roberts, 1991). A number of papers have pointed out the
inhibition (or negative association values) in other for- different line from that described here and previously schedules of reinforcement, see Morse, 1966. relationship between such theories and molar principles
mulations are here attributed to the addition to the be- (e.g., Trapold & Overmier, 1972). Briefly, these ac- 63. For a full presentation of the effects of the standard such as matching; e.g., Dallery & Baum, 1991.
havioral mixture of other and competing environ- counts have appealed to interactions between different schedules of reinforcement, singly and in combination,. 74. For example, see Hinson. & Staddon, 1983; Silber-
ment-behavior relations that interfere with, and hence "kinds" of associations—e.g., stimulus-response, stimu- as well as a variety of other schedules, see Ferster & berg, Hamilton, Ziriax, & Casey, 1978; Silberberg &
reduce the strength of, the measured behavior; cf. Bickel lus-outcome, and response-outcome associations—and Skinner, 1957. Ziriax, 1982. However, the appropriate level at which to
& Etzel, 1985; Donahoe & Wessells, 1980; Miller & to "higher-order" associations—e.g., between a stimulus 64. See Morse, 1966; Schoenfeld, 1970; and Schoen- evaluate the matching principle continues to be debated;
Schachtrnan, 1985; Miller & Matzel, 1988; Weiss, 1972. and a response-outcome association (Mackintosh & feld, Cole, Blaustein, Lachter, Martin, & Vickery, 1972 e.g., Herrnstein & Loveland, 1975; Williams, 1991.
124
Increasingly, various of molecular are to a

replacing the more molar formulations, e.g., Hermstein, by means of an alternative-response procedure is one of 5
1982; Vaughn, 1981. See Marr, 1992 for a general the important implications of the matching principle.
discussion of this and related issues. 82. Whether the frequency of the operant upon which
75. Crowley, 1981.
76. Skinner,-1950.
the aversive elicitor is contingent continues to be re-
duced depends on several factors. First, the aversive
•
77. cf. Skinner, 1938.
78. The relative merits of molar and molecular ac- elicitor must continue to evoke escape responses; i.e.,
counts of behavior remain a controversial topic within habituation of the aversive elicitor must not occur. Sec-
biobehavioral science. References on this topic include ond, the environment to which the escape response takes
Arbuckle & Lattal, 1992; Hinson & Staddon, 1983; the learner should not resemble the environment to
Mazur, 1981; Rachlin & Burkhard, 1978; Shimp, 1969; which the escape response has been conditioned. If the The legacy of experience is the accumulation of an selection took place. 1 (See Figure 5.la.) How does
Silberberg, Thomas, & Berendzen, 1991; and Williams, environments are similar, then the learner may "escape" ever-larger repertoire of environment-behavior re- the cumulative effect of selection bring behavior
1990a, 1991, among many others. back to the environment in which the aversive elicitor is lations. These relations are selected by reinforcers under the control of a class of stimuli? Or, in
79. Because the escape responses evoked by aversive presented. Third, if the learner is to minimize contact that are themselves increasingly the product of everyday language, "How are concepts formed?"
stimuli vary with the evolutionary history of the species, with the aversive elicitor, then the escape response must
such responses are also known as species-specific de-
previous selections—of behavioral, rather than The cumulative effect of selection also causes
either be reinforced or lead to an environment in which natural selection. The selected relations include a stimulus to guide a class of responses. A baby
fense reactions; Bolles, 1970.
80. Aversive elicitors may result from natural selec- other responses are reinforced. All of these factors are variable stimulus and response components. The who has only crawled to get to the pots and pans in
tion—e.g, stimuli that activate pain receptors such as important if contact with the aversive elicitor is to be stimuli sensed by the learner inevitably vary from the kitchen cabinet makes a dash for the "toys" as
electric shock—and from behavioral selection. These minimized; i.e., if an avoidance response is to be se- moment to moment, ..producing variation in re- soon as he can walk. Walking toward the cabinet
last are termed acquired aversive elicitors—e.g., stimuli lected (cf. Donahoe & Wessells, 1980, pp. 207-210). sponses, and a range of these variations is tolerated door is guided by the sight of the door, even if
paired with shock or with extinction (Hearst & Franklin, 83. e.g., Church, 1969; cf. Mackintosh, 1974. by the prevailing contingencies of reinforcement. walking has never before occurred in its presence
1977). 84. Skinner, 1953.
Since the stimulus, and response components of and, therefore, never been followed by the potent
81. The likelihood of an operant can also be decreased 85. Donahoe & Burns, 1986.
86. See Morse & Kelleher, 1977.
environment-behavior are variable, a elicitors behind the door—shiny pots
by reinforcing a second operant that competes with the
87. Pear & Legris, 1987. For other experimental ex- class of environmental events comes to guide be- wonderful noises when banged together. How may
• first. For example, reinforcing pecks to one disk de-
creases pecks to a second disk. This procedure, called an amples and discussions of shaping, see Eckerman, havior and a class of behavior is, in turn, guided by selection lead to a response class, a range of
alternative-response procedure, decreases an operant Hienz, Stern, & Kowlowitz, 1980; Platt, 1979; Skinner, the environment. In'!this chapter, we examine the behaviors not necessarily confined to the specific
without punishing it, and is often used in applied work 1953; and Staddon, 1983. processes that affect membership in stimulus responses that were previously selected by reinfor-
because it does not require the use of an aversive elicitor 88. Skinner, 1935. classes and response classes. cers in that environment? (See Figure 5.1b.)
Although human experience consists of a series \
of specific environmental and behavioral events, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
the cumulative result of experience commonly has
general effects. For example, after a child has said Both stimulus classes and response classes are the
"dog"—-and received, reinforcement for doing- so— cumulative products of selection. That is, neither
in the presence of many particular dogs, he is likely phenomenon may emerge or be fully understood
to respond "dog" when asked to identify a dog that on the basis of a single occasion on which an
he has never seen before. His ability to. do this is environment-behavior relation is selected. A child
described in everyday language as "having a con- "recognizes" dogs does not do so by having
cept." (Note that, for present purposes, it is the same dog repeatedly pointed out to him. In-
critical that the "concept" be correct. The issue is stead, the child's experience typically consists of
a person's competence to respond at all, which is sensing the sights and sounds of specific dogs on
basically the same whether he calls a Bedlington many occasions when the verbal response "dog" is
Terrier a lamb—which it resembles—or a dog—- followed by acquired reinforcers.
which is the conventionally correct response.) The Because the emergence of stimulus and re-
term stimulus class denotes that a response is sponse classes results from a prolonged history of
guided by a range of stimuli, whose members are selection—usually incompletely known to an ob-
not restricted to the specific stimuli present when server'—experimental analysis must be supple-
125
5 of Environment-Behavior Relations
(a) by the interpretation of As in of verbal interpretation,-based'on the sci- is

other historical sciences, understanding complex ence of physics: When a boulder rolls down a a consumer, not a producer of principles.3
both hillside blocks the road below, we attribute The reliance of interpretation on experimental
analysis, which uncovers fundamental processes outcome to variables that may have dislodged the analysis is what chiefly distinguishes between, for
largely through laboratory work, and interpreta- boulder (perhaps a heavy rain), thus permitting example, biobehavioral and psychoanalytic ac-
tion, which explores the implications of those proc- gravitational forces to cause the boulder to roll. We counts of complex behavior. Psychoanalytic ac-
esses as rigorously as circumstances permit. are quite comfortable with this interpretation be- counts may be every bit as intricate as bio-
Understanding stimulus and response classes re- cause it appeals to processes, and the principles that behavioral accounts, but in psychoanalysis the
quires us—for the first time—to make extensive summarize them, that are well known and gener- principles are inferred from the very types of ob-
use of interpretation. For that reason, we shall ally agreed'upon. Note, however, that we are igno- servations that they seek to explain. In biobehav-
examine some of the general approaches to inter- rant of the precise sequence of events that occurred ioral science the principles arise from independent
pretation before using them to understand stimulus as the boulder moved down the hillside to its experimental analyses. Unless a principle is the
and response classes. resting place on the road. Moreover, although result of an independent experimental analysis, it
Although experimental analysis is applied to physics has identified all of the relevant processes is difficult to identify the origins of any problems
the study of complex behavior, two major factors thought to operate in this situation, even a skilled that arise in interpreting the complex phenomenon.
limit its use. The first limitation—our incomplete Do the problems result from a failure to trace all of
physicist could not predict the boulder's final rest-
knowledge of the learner's full selection history— the implications of the principles, a failure to iden-
ing position with certainty. First, the physicist does
has been noted before. The second is, perhaps, less tify all of the relevant principles, or an inadequacy
not know the values oV all of the relevant variables.
obvious: If complex behavior requires a complex in the principles themselves? When the principles
Second, even if he tried to determine these values,,
selection history, then conditions that allow us to arise from an independent experimental analysis,
assess all the relevant variables may be too impov- exact prediction would still elude- him. There are
(b) Response Class their adequacy is knowable apart from the complex
erished to permit complex behavior to emerge, simply too many variables—the boulder's irregu-
behavior they are used to interpret.
Thus, in our effort to control and variables lar shape, which changes as it bumps against other
verbal interpretation provides a very
precisely, we may unintentionally prevent the oc- rocks while rolling downhill; the irregular of
-useful method for understanding complex phe-
currence of conditions that foster complex behav- the hillside; the irregular composition of the mate-
nomena, it .has distinct disadvantages. Very often,
ior. For this reason, understanding complex rials making up the hill, and so forth. Even when so many processes are involved—many of them
behavior almost always requires interpretation as experimental analysis has identified all of the rele- acting simultaneously-—that a purely verbal ac-
well as experimental analysis. Indeed, it could be vant processes, understanding complex phenom- count cannot keep track of them all. Too much is
argued that the central purpose of science is inter- ena usually requires interpretation. happening at once fbr a sequence of words to
pretation, because it is through interpretation that What, then, distinguishes verbal interpreta- faithfully describe the interrelations of the proc-
we understand our behavior in the natural environ- tion—or, indeed, interpretation .generally—from esses. For example, verbal interpretation might
ment.2 mere speculation? As illustrated by the example of provide an acceptable account of a rock bouncing
the boulder, interpretation relies solely on princi- down a hill, but it would not provide an equally
ples established through experimental analysis, satisfying account of the formation of a planetary
of The physicist is not free to postulate principles of system—-although many of the same principles are
any other origin. While earlier cultures might have involved. Verbal interpretation will always play an
Three general interpretive strategies supplement
attributed the boulder's movement to a spirit of important role in understanding complex phenom-
the experimental analysis of complex behavior.
nature residing in the rock, or to divine will, the ena, particularly in the early stages of inquiry, but
FIGURE 5.1 Relation between the environment and These complementary strategies are verbal inter-
behavior with (a) stimulus classes and (b) response pretation, organismic interpretation, and formal physicist may not appeal to such entities. His inter- biobehavioral science ultimately seeks more pre-
classes interpretation. pretation is restricted to principles that have,been cise means of interpretation.
With a stimulus class, multiple stimuli (S) guide the identified by experimental analysis. Similarly, stu-
occurrence of a single response (R). With a response dents of complex behavior must confine them-
class, a single stimulus guides the occurrence of multiple Verbal interpretation. Verbal
is the most familiar interpretive strategy because selves to principles based on experimental analyses is the second strategy for understanding
responses. A given stimulus may be a member of more
we engage in something very much like it when we of biobehavioral processes. New processes, and , complex behavior. In this approach, an investiga-
than one stimulus class and a given response may be a
member of more than one response class. try to make sense of our daily lives. Consider this principles that describe those processes, are never tor provides a learner with the experience that
128 5 Classes of Environment-Behavior Relations 129
experimental-analytic principles is suffi- ods to the of In .-to the stimulus class concept
cient to produce the complex behavior.4 We have plex human behavior. simulations, computer simulations have the advan- of the same types of environment-be-
already come upon several examples of this strat- tage of exhaustively describing the history of the havior relations, they are by no means synony-
egy in previous chapters. For example, everyday Formal interpretation. Formal Interpretation complex behavior from the beginning of the pro- mous. Technical terms, such as stimulus class, are
experience teaches us that a given stimulus will not is the third interpretive strategy. Computer simula- gram's execution to its final state when the simu- the products of experimental analyses while
function as a reinforcer for all learners. Experimen- tion is the most common type of formal interpreta- lation is ended. Moreover, an 'individual selection nontechnical terms, such as concept, arise from the
tal analyses of phenomena such as blocking and tion in modern biobehavioral science.5 In history that might encompass many months or give-and-take of everyday experience. As a result,
over-expectation indicate how some of these indi- computer simulation, a computer is given a set of years in a human learner may be simulated in a technical terms are applied to environment-behav-
vidual differences could have come about. In keep- instructions, called ^program, that embodies prin- computer in a matter of minutes or hours. ior relations that are produced by a common set of
ing with the general practice of historical science, ciples established by experimental analysis. As A major disadvantage of computer simulations well-defined biobehavioral processes. Nontechni-
if the principles are sufficient to account for the expressed in the program instructions, the princi- is that the program' s designer is often only partially cal terms, on the other hand, group together phe-
phenomenon, they are tentatively accepted as ex- ples are repeatedly applied to determine if they are knowledgeable of the initial state from which the nomena that bear some similarity to one another
planations of how the complex behavior arose. sufficient to generate the complex behavioral phe- simulation should begin. That is, information com- but that may result from a variety of diverse proc-
Organismic interpretation attempts to simulate nomena observed in nature. As with other forms of parable to the evolutionary history of the learner is esses. Put briefly, technical terms 'are theoretically
in the laboratory the naturally occurring history of interpretation, no new principles may be intro- often unknown. The inherent limitation of all his- coherent, whereas nontechnical'terms are com-
selection that produces complex environment-be- duced; the principles informing the program are torical sciences—incomplete knowledge of the en- monly theoretically incoherent—they are not the
havior relations. When based on an experimental restricted to those that are derived from research on tire relevant selection history—may also occur product of a consistent set of basic processes. As
analysis using methods that permit manipulation the relevant biobehavioral processes. This use of an example of the distinction, consider the non-
with computer simulations.^ In this respect, organ-
of many relevant,environmental variables, organ- computer simulation should be distinguished from technical term flying. Many different objects can
ismic simulations have an advantage over com-
ismic interpretation is a powerful tool. Most re- that in which the goal is simply to devise a program be said to fly, but the particular combination of
puter simulations of complex behavior. Man and
search with human subjects falls into the category whose output mimics some aspect of complex physical processes responsible for flying can vary
other animals, especially' closely related species,
of organismic interpretation because, with very behavior, but whose instructions are not con- widely, A blimp flies because it is lighter than air,
a partially common, evolutionary history. To
few exceptions, not all of the variables affecting strained by biobehavioral principles. Efforts of this a glider flies because of the pressures created by
the extent that this history is similar, organismic
human behavior are under the investigator's con- second type fall within the field of artificial intel- the flow of air over its wings, a rocket flies because
simulations of human behavior with nonhuman
trol. Although research with human subjects may ligence. Biobehaviorally constrained simulations of the forces generated by its exhaust gases, a stone
very carefully control the variables within an ex- animals begin from similar initial conditions.
should also be distinguished from those that use flies because someone threw it, and- so on. If an
periment, the subjects' differing pre-experimental principles based on inferences from the complex As should now be clear, there is no one uni-
aeronautical engineer were to treat these different
histories outside the study cannot be completely behavior itself.6 formly "best" approach to the interpretation of
cases of flying identically, problems would imme-
controlled or, often, even described. We have encountered examples of computer complex behavior; this formidable challenge re-
diately arise. To say tibat a nontechnical term, such
In spite of these limitations, research—particu- simulations in our interpretations of selection by quires all the forces we can muster—verbal inter-
as concept,is theoretically incoherent is not to deny
larly developmental comparative research—-is of adaptive neural networks; e.g., of reac- pretation, organismic interpretation, and formal
that it identifies an important set of phenomena. It
very helpful in interpreting complex behavior. Al- quisition after extinction. This method of interpre- interpretation. is to say these phenomena are likely to be the
though each of us has a unique history, as members tation is also used in other historical sciences. In products of different combinations of selection
of the same culture we share a partially common studies of the origins of the universe, for example, processes.
history of behavioral selection and as members of galaxy formation and planetary formation are often Consider as a term.-We
the same species we share a largely common his- interpreted through computer simulations based on The cumulative effect of selection produces a dis- say that a has a concept of dog, and we also
tory of natural selection. To the extent that aspects Newtonian principles. Similarly, many examples criminative stimulus class if a range of stimuli is say that a person has a concept of triangle. Al-
of complex behavior are unique to our species, exist in evolutionary biology, as when the natural able to guide a common response and if the mem- though it is conventional to use the term concept to
understanding them requires research with human selection of adaptive behavior is simulated by com- bers of the class are not restricted to the particular refer to both, the environmental guidance of the
subjects. However., research with other species— puter programs informed by the principle of natu- stimuli present when selection occurred.' After verbal responses fi<dog" and "triangle" are likely to
particularly closely related species—-can aid inter- ral selection.7 enough experience, the child says "dog" when a involve quite different biobehavioral processes. As
pretation because our greater ability to control In comparison to purely verbal interpretations, dog is present that he has never seen before. (See already noted, a person ordinarily acquires the
individual history partially offsets the lesser simi- computer simulations have the advantage of being 5.2.) The technical term stimulus class stimulus class to which "dog" is an appropriate
larity in evolutionary history. As noted in Chapter precisely stated in the program's instructions and denotes environment-behavior relations that are ., verbal response as a by-product of the selection of
1, both the developmental and comparative meth- of being able to keep track of many simultaneously often referred to by the nontechnical term concept. "dog"in the presence of many dogs. In
130 5 Classes of Environment-Behavior 131
To the of physical similarity to zation. Finally,

a victim who acquired the verbal response another and that control common responses. occurred in which responses had one consequence
"triangle" through exposure to many different tri- Stimulus classes of this sort are exemplified by the during one range of stimuli and a different conse-
angles and one who acquired "triangle" only "concept" dog. Functional are composed quence during an adjacent range, different re-
through a definition in a geometry class might be of stimuli that may not be physically similar but sponses were evoked -by stimuli within the two
differently affected by damage to the same brain bear some functional similarity to one another and, ranges. This is stimulus discrimination, and the
area. Different environment-behavior relations are like any stimulus class, control common re- phenomenon of edge effects indicated that differ-
Verbal
Reponse involved when the verbal response "triangle" is sponses.11 Functional"classes are exemplified by ential responding was greatest near the boundary
"Dog" guided by the spatial stimuli provided by particular the "concept" toy, Toys differ widely in appear- between stimuli correlated with different rein-
triangles than when it is guided by the verbal ance, but. all -support the kind of behavior we call forcement contingencies.
stimuli provided by a definition. This difference playing. Because all toys guide playing, they may
further illustrates that the form of a response— be said to have a common function, Qrgamismic interpretation. Taken together, se-
here, the word "triangle"—provides an inadequate Stimulus classes, whether based on physical or lection by reinforcement, generalization, and dis-
basis for experimental analysis. Behavioral selec- functional similarity, do not exhaust the environ- crimination provide a strong foundation for
tion changes environment-behavior relations. Any ment-behavior relations that conventionally fall interpreting discriminative stimulus classes. Con-
construct sensitive only to response topography, under the heading of the nontechnical term consider the 'following study of the formation of a
Growl
and not to the stimuli guiding the response and the cept. Both discriminative stimulus classes and discriminative stimulus class with human sub-
Bow-wow processes leading to that guidance, creates confu- functional classes are products of the cumulative jects.13 One group of subjects was successively
sion. Constructs that are insensitive to the guiding effect of differential reinforcement on a number of exposed to 30 pairs of items, e.g., VVTRXR -
"Doggy" Smells stimulus and the selection history are usually theo- environment-behavior'relations. That is, both DETROIT. The first member of each pair (e.g.,
retically incoherent.9 stimulus classes are instances of contingency- VVTRXR) served, as a stimulus to guide the re-
Because nontechnical terms, such as concept, behavior.\Other stimulus classes, such as sponse with which it was paired (e.g., DE-
FIGURE 5.2 An example of a specific stimulus class . lump. together many different types of environ- triangle, may result from the-guidance of behavior
in which a common verbal response, "DOG," is TROIT).14 The subjects' was to produce
ment-behavior relations of many different origins, by verbal stimuli in. the form of definitions, instruc- response when its stimulus was '^presented. The
guided by a number of different stimuli
Some stimuli involve the same sensory modality; e.g., the they often appear richer than technical terms. How- tions, and the like. Environment-behavior relations stimulus of each pair'consisted of a letter sequence
appearance of various breeds of dog ranging from an ever, their apparent richness is achieved at the cost that are established by verbal stimuli are instances constructed according to either of two sets of rules,
Afghan to a mutt; and other stimuli involve other sensory of theoretical incoherence. This incoherence ulti- of rule-governed behavior, and are treated in later although the subjects were not told this when they
modalities; e.g., the sounds and odors emanating from mately leads to confusion when behaviors purport- chapters when verbal behavior is examined.12
were asked to learn the task. Thus, the letter se-
dogs. Under appropriate circumstances, all of these stim- ing to be the same are affected in different ways by " quence VVTRXR simply provided the stimulus for
uli are capable of guiding the same response, "DOG." the same variables. Experimental analyses, and the response DETROIT;• VVTRVV for GIRAFFE,
interpretations based on such analyses, must make Interpretation of MRMRTV for BABOON, XMVRXR for BOS-
a place for the full richness of behavior,
TON, and so forth. Training with the 30 pairs of
it is unlikely that a single technical can
continued the set had been completed
all of the environment-behavior relations The biobehavioral processes.'producing
contrast, the response "triangle" is likely to by reinforcement stimulus generalization, are one time without error. Although it was not pointed
implied by an incompletely analyzed nontechnical
be the result of instruction in which the the starting points for understanding discrimina- out to the subjects, all the responses to one range
To regard the illusory richness of nontechni-
is partly guided • by a stimulus cal as a virtue is to obscurity for tive stimulus classes. Experimental work described of stimuli were the names of cities, while all the
a definition"—e.g., "a triangle is profundity. demonstrated that reinforcers bring the be- to the were the of
a figure." havior that precedes them under the control of the animals,
"dog" and "triangle" as examples of concepts environments in which those behaviors took place. To determine whether a stimulus class had
would lead to problems when the emission of This is selection by reinforcement, or contingency- formed, the subjects were tested with 30 letter
Varieties of Stimulus Classes
"dog" and "triangle" were later found to be af- shaping. Other experimental work showed that sequences that had never been presented before,
fected differently by similar variables. For exam- Two distinguishable of phenomena fall under environments that were not identical to those pre- ' (Recall that all the members of a stimulus class
ple, a stroke victim who is unable to say "triangle" the heading of stimulus classes—discriminative sent during selection, but that contained some of need not appear during selection.) One-third of the
when shown a triangle might still say "dog" in the stimulus classes and functional classes.10 Pis- the same stimulus elements, also acquired the ca- test stimuli were constructed according to one of
presence of dogs. are composed of pacity to guide behavior. This is stimulus generali- the rules used to construct the training stimuli,
132 5 r Relation*-1 133
one-third to the rule, the re- crimination the in the show a in silhouette at the crest of with of the
maining third according to neither rule. As is clear group responded similarly to stimuli within the a hill, while a more difficult slide might show a the undoubtedly
the preceding examples of the letter se- class, or category, and differently to stimuli outside single branch, with the remainder of the tree ob- previously other stimuli. The
quences used as stimuli, the two sets of sequences the class. This pattern of responding was found structed by a building. (See Figure 53 for exam- subjects, although reared laboratory condi-
were quite similar and the construction principles with the stimuli used in training with novel ples of some of the stimuli used in this experiment.) tions, extensive histories of seeing and peck-
were not obvious.15 The subjects were asked to sort stimuli as well. Subjects in the second group were The preceding organismic simulations indicate ing. Thus, as in all historical sciences, the complete
the novel test stimuli into one of three categories'— less successful in categorizing the new stimuli. The that discriminative stimulus classes are produced selection history contributing to the complex phe-
category A, category B, or neither—although the weaker evidence for the formation of a stimulus as an emergent consequence of the differential nomenon remains only partially identified. Never-
test stimuli used in training had never been de- class in the second group indicates that a stimulus reinforcement of responding in the presence of a theless, these studies clearly indicate that—with
scribed as belonging to two categories. When the class may sometimes develop more readily range of stimuli. Such stimulus classes were dem- prior selection histories that are likely to exist in
new letter sequences were sorted, 60% of them through contingency-shaping than through rule- onstrated with both people and pigeons. Of course, many cases—differential reinforcement is suffi-
were placed in the correct categories, although governance. the entire selection history that is potentially rele- cient to produce discriminative stimulus classes.
only 33% correct categorizations were expected by The finding that contingency-shaping produces vant to the formation of stimulus classes has not
chance alone. These results occurred despite the a discriminative stimulus class without the explicit been specified by these studies. The human sub- Formal interpretation. Formal interpretation
subjects' protests that they did not know how to participation of verbal behavior, or rules, suggests may also be used to interpret complex environ-
sort the test stimuli and could not describe the basis that nonhuman learners may also acquire environment-behavior relations, such as discriminative
on which they made the sorting! ment-behavior relations that exemplify stimulus stimulus classes. As in earlier treatments of rein-
Compare the sorting behavior produced by the classes. Indeed, the evidence supports this expec- forcement, the formal interpretations use adaptive
conditions just described with the performance of tation.17 Pigeons were presented a series of more neural networks that implement biobehavioral
a second group of subjects trained with the same than 1,500 photographic slides without repetition. processes identified in independent experimental
30 letter sequences, but using a different training Half the slides showed naturalistic scenes that con- analyses.
procedure. During training, the second group was tained different examples of the critical stimuli— When the learning of a complex environment-
given instructions that were intended to encourage e.g., trees for some pigeons, people for others, and behavior relation is simulated by an adaptive net-
categorization of the letter sequences by means of for still others. The remaining half of the work, a computer program is written that
verbal stimuli, or rales. Specifically, the subjects slides showed otherwise comparable scenes that represents the units and the initial connection
were told that each letter sequence belonged to one did not include the critical stimuli. Pecking a disk weights between them. Then, environmental stim-
of two categories—either category A or B. The 30 was occasionally reinforced with food if the slide uli activate various input units, which in turn acti-
letter sequences were then presented one at a time contained an example of the critical stimuli. Fol- vate various hidden units and, ultimately, the
and the subjects assigned each of them to either lowing training, tests were conducted with occa- output units. At first,\which output units are acti-
category A or B, and were told if the categorization sional presentations of unreinforced test photo- vated depends 011 the initial connection weights
was correct. The were presented repeatedly differed from previously shown in between the in the network In the nervous
until subject sorted all 30 letter sequences training. system, the strengths of the
once without error. Following training, the sub- The results were the same which- reflect the cumulative effects of natural
in the second were to sort the ever type of critical —trees, people, or as the grows experienced, of
novel had given to the water—was in When the novel test by reinforcement. In an adaptive-
first group. The group of subjects, who had stimuli were presented, the percentage of total network simulation, the initial weights are typi-
known from the that to cate- responses when the contained the critical FIGURE 53 Renderings of photographs rejected or cally assigned randomly assigned values at
gorize the stimuli, only 46% of the test stimuli ranged from 72 to 94% correct for individ- accepted as instances of two stimulus classes—TREES the beginning of learning. Thereafter, the connec-
stimuli correctly. ual pigeons, with an average of 84% correct and WATER tion weights change based on the degree of corre-
This study demonstrates that contingency- Clearly, differential reinforcement had produced a The upper left drawing of celery was rejected and the spondence between the activation of the relevant
shaping is sufficient to produce a discriminative upper right was accepted as TREE by pigeons. The lower output units by the environment and the activation
discriminative stimulus class. Moreover, when.hu- left drawing of the lines on a tennis court was rejected and
stimulus class. That is, a stimulus class may man subjects were asked which slides they found required for the reinforcer. A large discrepancy
the lower right was accepted as WATER by pigeons.
emerge as a by-product of selection without any particularly easy or difficult to categorize, their Acceptance was indicated by pecking a disk on which the between the output of the network activated by the
"conscious effort" on the part of the learner to form responses were in general agreement-with the pi- image was projected (see text), training stimuli and the output required for the
a stimulus class,16 As a result of a stimulus dis- geons'. For example, an easily categorized slide Note: See also Herrnstein, Loveland. & Cable, 1976. reinforcing stimul as produces large changes in the
134 5 Classes of En.vironment-Behavior
the Con- various of dogs. After each

versely, the between the output stimulus presentation, the connection weights were Brown
by the environment the required adjusted so that the canine stimulus (input) patterns
is the change very little. This - Feathered
progressively produced the "dog" response (out-
is consistent with selection by reinforcement In put) pattern, and the non-canine patterns produced Four Legs
the change in connection weights reduces the dis- other output patterns. The cumulative effect of this
crepancy between the output produced by the en- selection process was that the various canine input
vironment and the target output required for the patterns activated the same output pattern-—the
reinforcing stimulus. *8 one corresponding to "dog"—and the other input
patterns did not. Thus, the cumulative effect of
An example. Consider the following example of discrimination training changed the connection
the use of an adaptive network to simulate the weights so that the network distinguished between
formation of a discriminative stimulus class. Sup- canine and non-canine input patterns. In short, the
pose that a child sees a number of dogs that differ network "recognized" dogs.
somewhat from one another, but share certain fea- The competence of the network to produce a "Bow-wow"
tures in common. Some dogs are brown, but there "dog" output when any of 50 canine inputs acti-
are occasional black dogs and white dogs; some vated the network is illustrated in Figure 5,4. For
dogs have a tail, but others do not, and so on. In the each of the 16 features represented by the 16 input
adaptive network used to simulate these condi- units, a filled circle indicates that the feature that
tions, there were 16 features, each represented by activated the unit was present and an open circle
an input unit. An Input unit was activated if the Indicates that it was absent. For example, the first
feature was present, but not if it was absent.19 feature, which is present, might represent having a Output 1.0
input
Suppose further that the child's parents reinforce brown color, and the second feature, which is ab- Units Units
the verbal response "dog" in the presence of the sent, might represent having feathers. The alternat- Degree of Activation of Output Units
by Input Pattern After Learning
canine input patterns of features provided by par- ing pattern of strongly and weakly activated output
ticular dogs, but reinforce other responses in the Canine jlnput "Dog" Output
units represents the verbal response "dog/' The Pattern Pattern
presence of non-canine input patterns. In the simu- relative strength of activation of each output unit
lation, there were 8 output units, with a particular FIGURE 5.4 The 16 input units and 8 output units of an adaptive network with the connections
by the canine input patterns at the end of training between units indicated by the lines emanating from the units
pattern of activation representing the verbal re- Is shown by the bar graph in Figure 5.4. Only the When the input units indicated by filled circles were activated, some of the output units were activated. The
sponse "dog." Output patterns representing other output units that produced the pattern correspond- activated input units correspond to various characteristics of dogs, e.g., "has four l«igs." The inactivated
verbal responses, e.g., "cat," might be strengthened ing to a "dog" response were appreciably activated input units correspond to characteristics not possessed by dogs, e.g., "has feathers.5'The connection strengths
in the presence of other input patterns. by the canine Input patterns. between the input and output units were modified by leareing until activation of the- filled input units caused
The goal of the was to only the output units to be activated. The of filled output units represents the target
reinforcement the con- Characteristics of simulated stimulus class-es. output pattern, and corresponds—for example—to the verbal response "DOG,"
In the network so that the Three characteristics of a discriminative stimulus Source: Adapted from procedures and findings of McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986.
containing the features of dogs could class simulated by adaptive networks merit special
evoke the output pattern representing the verbal comment. First, a stimulus class produced by se-
response "dog." The effect of reinforcement was lection has what are called fuzzy boundaries.20 The would be able to evoke the "dog" tions are path-dependent—I.e.,influenced by the
by adjusting connection weight in indicates that no single fea- response. Thus a dog unfortunate 'enough to have particular sequence of events the network's
proportion to the discrepancy between the activa- ture need be present in an input pattern to evoke a leg through an accident, but possessing other selection history. Connections in networks, like
tion levels of the output units produced by the the output pattern corresponding to the correct canine features, would still be called a dog. synaptic efficacies in the nervous system, reflect
training stimulus and the levels required for rein- response. For example, suppose that one of the Second, the values of the connection weights their unique selection histories. To illustrate, the
forcement. The network was repeatedly exposed to Input features corresponded to has four legs. Al- depend on the particular examples of dogs and pathways activated by the feature "has legs" would
50 different dog input patterns and 100 input pat- though the connection weights linking this feature nondogs that were used to train the network, and have large connection weights in a network that
terns corresponding to other stimuli. The dog input with the output pattern for "dog" might be rela- on the order in which the inputs were presented , had been trained to distinguish dogs from fire
patterns were variable, consisting of random com- tively strong, input patterns not containing this during training. Thus, the'strengths of the connec- "hydrants, but would have smaller and com-
136 5 Classes of Environment-Behavior Relations 13?
in. a to a as an of cer is is gradually

dogs Fire do not selection. Second, the emerges the or the of responses is gradually made
legs, bet do; the "has legs" functioning of portions of the network, as longer. Simplifying the initial exposure to complex
would be in hy- determined by the connection weights. The proto- tasks is not confined to work with animals or
drants but not from cats. type is not a thing stored at some one place within formal instruction. When parents speak with their
Third, selection of the verbal response "dog" in the network; it is not an ideal representation of young' children, they use a simplified grammar and
the presence of the particular 50 canine input pat- reality waiting to be retrieved by a stimulus. Net- vocabulary.22
terns would change the way the network responded works, and the living organisms whose functioning Another important way in which complex tasks
to input patterns on which it had not been trained. they simulate, act as if there were prototypes, but may be simplified is through the use of a
The network would respond correctly to input pat- what exist are sets of connection weights and sy~ procedure. In fading, the stimuli to be discrimi-
that had features overlapping the pat- naptic efficacies, respectively. Responding as if nated initially differ substantially from one another
o
terns to which it had been exposed; i.e., a stimulus there were a prototype is simply how a
then, as the learner begins to respond differen-
class would be formed, and not merely a series of network or an experienced organism functions af-
•tially, the training stimuli are progressively and
particular discriminations. Moreover, the network ter selection.
gradually changed to their final and more similar
might respond most strongly to an input pattern to In summary, adaptive networks simulate the values.23 For example, a learner might be taught to
which it had never been exposed! This would be formation of discriminative stimulus classes that discriminate between two very different colors, FIGURE 5.5 The Display of nine stimulus panels
the input pattern that shared the most features in share three characteristics with classes formed by
common with the 50 specific input patterns used in such as red and green, as the first step toward used to train a stimulus discrimination between circles
humans and other organisms: (a) the boundaries of
training. The input pattern shown in Figure 5.4, acquiring a final discrimination between two more and ellipses
stimulus classes are fuzzy in that no single feature
which was not used in training, is the pattern of similar colors, such as red and orange. Fading A trial began when tfte subject pressed the center panel
is required to distinguish one class from another, (shown here as shaded). Pressing the center panel caused
features to which the "dog" response was greatest. denotes a gradual change during training in the
(b) the formation of stimulus classes is path-de- eight panels to be iliuiniaated with a circle on one panel,
(Recall the training input patterns were ran- in the of the vary stimulus components of environment-behavior re-
lations; shaping denotes a gradual change in the whose position varied from trial to trial, and ellipses on
variations of the canine input pattern.) Thus, the of the history, the other 7' panels. Tfie similarity of the ellipses to the
selection of environment-behavior relations (c) the of selection causes the response components. circle could'be varied- Pressing the panel containing the
particular canine stimuli produced a network that network to function as if a prototype has Fading the training stimuli has been shown to circle produced a reijiforcer.
responded most vigorously to a typical dog, and formed. We now consider one last important re- facilitate discrimination formation in many studies Source: Adapted from procedures of Sidman & Stoddard, 1967,
not to any of the particular input patterns to which spect in which networks mimic the environment- with both human and nonhuman learners. Consider
it had been exposed. This characteristic, commonly behavior relations formed by living organ- the following experiment, in which children ac-
observed with trained networks, is denoted by say- isms—their reactions to a procedure known as quired a discrimination between two forms—cir-
ing that the network responds most strongly to a fading. cles and ellipses—using a fading procedure for fading procedure, seyeii successfully confined
prototype of the input. A prototype may be some learners and a nonfading procedure for oth- their presses exclusively to the circle.
of as the typical combination of the ers.24 The shown eight stimuli, each The procedure consisted of the follow-
when the on a (See 5.5.) When ing steps. First, only the panel containing the circle
response was selected.21 *' a child the panel, the was illuminated, add touching it was reinforced.
Several comments be made about the When new environment-behavior were touching the circle produced Next, the other panels were gradually brightened
prototype as it is in the context of selec- relations, the initial for successful candy, a toy, or the sounding of as but blank. Responding to the circle con-
tion in adaptive networks and living organisms. are modest. A child just reinforcers. Touching one of the ellipses caused the tinued to be reinforced. Then, ellipses were dimly
First, the prototype is an emergent property of beginning to read is not given a copy of James display to until the next trial began. The illuminated on the incorrect panels and gradually
selection. No additional processes are required for Joyce'sFinnegan's Wake, Instead, a new skill such final discrimination was between a circle and a brightened and made more similar in shape to the
the network to respond maximally to a stimulus as reading begins with simpler tasks—single let- very similar elliptical form displayed on the other circle. Fading the ellipse-circle discrimination en-
having the most features in common with the stim- ters are discriminated and then single words are panels. abled the subjects to discriminate highly similar
uli used in training. No central agency, as implied "sounded out." More demanding tasks are intro- Of the children exposed to the nonfading ellipses from the circle.
by terms such as "intelligence" or "reasoning," is duced only gradually. One way of simplifying a procedure, in which training was'begun with the' Adaptive-network simulations of discrimina-
necessary to oversee the changes that permit the complex task has already been identified—shap- circle and the most similar ellipse, only one child formation also show the beneficial effects of
network to function in this way. The extraction of ing. In shaping, the on the reinfor- to confine his to the panel display- •fading. In one such simulation, very many trials
ing the circle. Of the ten children exposed to the were -required for the network to make a particu-
138 5 Classes of En.vironnierxt-Behavior Relations
two in the pic-

on its input units. However, when four steps of of trees.
fading from an easy to the final discrimination Testing for the formation of functional stimulus Si
were used, the same discrimination was acquired classes was carried out as follows. After the two
with less one-quarter of the training!25 had been discriminated, the reinforcement
Before concluding the discussion of adaptive contingency was reversed. Slides to which pecking
networks as a means for interpreting discrimina- had previously been reinforced were now nonrein- S-,
tive stimulus classes, note that our presentation has forced, and vice versa. If a functional stimulus
left several important problems untouched. For class had been formed, then—after experiencing
example, the simulations assumed that different Phases
the first few reversal trials—subjects should re-
stimuli may be represented by different patterns on spond appropriately to the reversed contingency on Trials Within Successive Reversals
the input units and that different responses may be the initial presentations of the other stimuli in the
represented by different patterns on the output class. The subjects were given repeated cycles of FIGURE 5.6 Formation of functional stimulus classes with sets of arbitrary stimuli, Si and Si
units. Clearly, perceiving a stimulus and executing discrimination training followed by reversal train- The stimuli were 80 pictures of trees arbitrarily subdivided into two sets of 40 pictures. During any one phase of the
a response require analysis as challenging prob- ing. After 20 to 30 cycles, five of the 6 subjects study, responses to members of one stimulus class were reinforced and responses to members of the other stimulus
lems in their own right. The simulations do indi- began to respond appropriately to the reversed class were nonreinforced (extinguished). Between different phases of the study, which are shown in separate panels
cate, however, that selection with adaptive contingency on their initial exposures to stimuli in of the figure, the reinforced stimulus class was reversed. That is, Si was the reinforced class in the leftmost panel, 82
networks produces many salient aspects of the the newly reinforced or nonreinforced class. (See in the next panel, and so forth.
Source: Hypothetical findings based on data from Vaughn, 1988.
complex environment-behavior relations of dis- Figure 5.6.) That is, if the reinforcement contin-
criminative stimulus classes. gency had changed for a few members of the class,
subjects responded as if it had changed for the other
members of the class as well.27
The analysis and interpretation of the formation over, if a never-before-encountered stimulus, such That is, the environment-behavior relation selected
of functional classes in animals remains largely a as a new breed of.dog, is called a "pet," we imme- by the reinforcer depends on the. context In which
classes not only when stimuli within
task for the future. However, the stimulus conse- diately engage in pet-appropriate behavior without the guiding'stimulus appears. Equivalence classes
the class are physically similar—-as in discrimina-
quences of conditioned responses probably play an the need for that behavior to undergo selection by play a crucial role in the development of complex
tive stimulus classes—but also when stimuli
important role in this phenomenon. Recall the phe- reinforcement in the presence of the new stimulus. environment-behavior relations, and their modern
within the class guide similar responses. To the
nomenon of devaluation, in which pairing a rein- Some behavior is common to all pets; e.g., ap- study was initiated by Murray Sidman and Ms
extent that the stimuli in a class guide similar
forcer with an aversive stimulus reduced the proach responses occur and withdrawal responses colleagues.
responses, the stimuli are functionally equivalent.
strength of the responses that had previously pro- do not occur because pets are "safe." Other behav-
duced that reinforcer, but not the strength of other ior, of course, is influenced by the particular fea- Contextual discriminations. When carefully
produced re infer ~ tures of stimulus—and, therefore, the most discrimination procedures involve
cers.28 the of the It is a
In animals, stimulus have formation of functional classes on the basis that is a Thus we is all a
with the following procedure.26 Pi- responses to all stimuli in the same class produce a Cocker Spaniel and a parakeet a pet, but a stimulus is present- For instance, it is quite appro-
were successively with 80 differ- the reinf orcer,29 to one and not to the other.30 to speak to a stranger at a party, but not on
ent of projected on a screen. In this section, we identify the conditions the street. Talking to strangers at parties is often
When a random of the slides were presented, which stimuli become of a particular type talking to strangers on the is not.
the intermittently reinforced of functional class as an equivalence class. In the laboratory,
with food. When the remaining half were' pre- Equivalence classes are the cumulative products are studied with a procedure called matching-to-
sented, pecking was nonreinforced. The slides The most striking examples of functional classes of selection after a learner has been exposed to a sample. In a matching-to-sample procedure, a
presented in a mixed order that varied from are found in verbal behavior, although they are not series of differential training procedures called single stimulus, the sample stimulus, is presented
to day. Thus the subjects received discrimina- restricted to such behavior. For example, a Cocker contextual discriminations. In a dis- followed by two or more other stimuli, the
tion training with multiple stimuli in the reinforced Spaniel, a Siamese cat, a goldfish, and a parakeet— crimination, a stimulus guides one response in one parison stimuli. Which response to a comparison
nonreinforced classes, with no simple although physically dissimilar—are alike in that stimulus context and the same stimulus guides a .stimulus is reinforced depends on the value of the
physical basis on which to distinguish between the they all guide the common response "pet." More- different response in a second stimulus context. sample stimulus. For instance, suppose that the
140 5 Classes of Environment-Behavior Relations 141
is a the Contextual Sample Comparison Stimuli

the D-C task, the
are a a Under Discriminations Stimuli Correct Incorrect consisted of new, visually presented Greek
circumstances, a to the triangular com- letters and the comparison stimuli were the same
parison stimulus might be reinforced. However, if visually presented (3reek letters- used as compari-
the sample were a circle, a to the circular "Lambda" A JET r son stimuli in the A-C task. All three contextual
comparison stimulus might be reinforced* Note
"Xi" .=" A r discriminations are examples of arbitrary or sym-
that reinforcement of responding to the triangular
"Gamma"
r AH" bolic matching, rather than identity matching,
or circular comparison stimulus depends on the since the sample and comparison stimuli bore no
context provided by the sample stimulus. (This physical similarity to one another. Figure 5.9 sum-
particular type of contextual discrimination is marizes the relationships among the three contex-
"lambda"
known as identity in that the response A-C "Xi" Y discriminations.
is reinforced if the comparison stimulus is the same "Gamma" The foregoing contextual discriminations—A-
as—i.e., matches—the sample stimulus. Other
Y A, B, A-C, and D-C—were acquired through the use
types of contextual discriminations will be consid- FIGURE 5.7 Display of six stimulus panels used to of fading techniques- First, one component of the
ered shortly.)31 train a contextual discrimination by the A-B task was acquired (e.g., "lambda" - A), then
To illustrate equivalence classes, consider a matching-to-sample procedure its other components -were progressively intro-
The center display contains the sample or contextual
study in which eight children, between five and stimulus, here 0. Pressing the center display caused three
D-C G A, Y
seven years of age, were successively taught three comparison stimuli—here X, £, and y—to be presented 8V Y
contextual discriminations.32 The study is com- in three of the remaining five positions. The positions
plex, but complex experience is necessary to pro- occupied by the comparison stimuli varied from trial to FIGURE 5,8 Sample and comparison stimuli used in
the three contextual discriminations, A-B, A-C, and
duce the important environment-behavior relations trial. When the panel was pressed containing the correct
comparison stimulus for that contextual stimulus, a rein- D~C A
known as equivalence classes, The first letter of each contextual discrimination refers to
forcing stimulus was presented,
During a trial, each child was presented six Source: Sidman, M. & Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional the set of sample (contextual), stimuli and the second
displays arranged as shown in Figure 5.7. The discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the letter refers to the set of comparison (discriminative) "Lambda"
testing paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of stimuli for those sample stimuli. For each contextual "Xi"
stimulus that appeared in the central display was "Gamma'1
the sample stimulus; the stimuli in the five periph- Behavior, 37, 5-22. Copyright 1982 by the Society for the discrimination, there were three sample stimuli and three
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc. comparison stimuli—one of which was the correct stimu-
eral displays were the comparison stimuli. A trial
lus to which to respond for a given sample stimulus. The
began with a stimulus on the central display only. A stimuli consisted of tape-recorded spoken words, the
When the child pressed the central display contain- B and C stimuli were upper and lower case Greek letters.
ing the sample stimulus, the comparison stimuli nearly confined to the in the Source: Sidman, M, & Tailby, W, (1982). Conditional
in the displays. Reinfor- experiment. discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the
paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of 0
the the In the Behavior, 37, 5-22. Copyright 1982 by the Society for the
son display the the A-B Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.
appropriate for the on on the display the
Reinforcement consisted of the ringing of chimes visual stimulus (an upper-case Greek letter) corre-
after a correct the occasional sponding to an auditory stimulus (a repeat- consisted of three possible upper-case Greek letters 5.9 Sumn-iary of the three trained
tation of pennies. edly presented, tape-recorded word), 33 An and two blank displays, the position of each stimu- contextual discriminations^—A-B, A-C, and
The three contextual discriminations taught to auditory sample stimulus was presented to begin lus varying unsystematically from trial to trial. In D-C—showing the relations between the stimuli used
each child are depicted in Figure 5*8. The stimuli -each trial, and the comparison stimuli were then the second contextual discrimination, hereafter in the various discriminations
used in all three tasks were letters of the Greek presented after the central display was pressed. For the A-C task, the sample stimuli were the The A, B, C and D stimuli are enclosed in boxes,
alphabet. Since the children were unfamiliar with Source: Sidman, M. <£ Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional
instance, if the sample word "lambda" was pre- auditory stimuli (spoken words) as the A-B discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the
these stimuli, the conditions required to produce sented, then pressing the peripheral display con- and the visual comparison stimuli were the testing paradigm. Journal Of the Experimental Analysis of
the contextual discriminations—-and, subse- taining the comparison stimulus was reinforced. corresponding lower-case Greek letters (see Fig- Behavior, 37, 5-22. Copyright 1982 by the Society for the
quently, equivalence classes*—-could be more The five comparison stimuli presented on each trial 5.8). In the final contextual discrimination. Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.
142 Classes of Environment-Behavior Relations 143
This by the successive intro- the A-D as the by- £ or y as the While the —six types, having three components—
duction of components of the A-C and D-C tasks, of selection for the A-C and D-C relations, A-D relation indicates an equivalence class based found. In short, twice as many derived envi-
with a gradual intermixing of components from all without explicit training. on a. common response to the C stimuli in the A-C ronment-behavior relations were produced as were
three tasks. Before moving from one task to the The derived A-D relation is only one of the D-C tasks, the B-C and C-B relations indicate directly trained! Other work indicates that all of the
next, each child was required to perform the con- environrnent-behavior relations that occur as by- an equivalence relation based on a common con- reciprocal relations, including the untested D-A,
textual discrimination to a criterion of over 95% products of contextual discrimination training. textual stimulus in the A-B and A-C tasks. C-A, and B-A relations, also occur. If additional
correct. Final performance, with intermixed pres- Figure 5.10 shows the full range of relations found Consider also the.B-D and D-B relations. All contextual discriminations are directly trained,
entations of all components of all three contextual in this experiment through probe trials. Several are three contextual discriminations contribute to with each discrimination consisting of many com-
discriminations, was at least 97% correct for each of particular interest. Consider the derived B-C and these derived relations. For example, when D is ponents, then the increase in the number of derived
child. While this experiment may seem complex, C-B relations. Here, prior A-B and A-C training presented in the context of B (i.e., D is the com- relations is even greater."
the total number of environment-behavior rela- caused responses to B and C to be guided by the parison and B is the sample), a sequence of covert The practical significance of derived equiva-
tions is trivial compared to the number acquired by contextual stimulus (A), and this common processes guiding the appropriate D response lence relations is better appreciated when they are
children in the course of their daily living. stimulus produced the new relations. As an illus- might be as follows. (Refer to Figure 5.10 through- illustrated with cotfirnoflplace stimuli rather than
tration of the derived B-C relation, when A was out the following account.) Because of prior A-B Greek letters. As a component of the A-C task,
Derived relations. Environment-behavior rela- presented as the sample, A, was responded to rather training, the presence of B makes the appropriate suppose that in the presence of the spoken word
tions that are strengthened by a training procedure A processes more likely. Given the occurrence of "pet," responding to a picture of a parakeet is
but not directly reinforced within the procedure are A processes, prior A-C training in turn makes reinforced and responding to a lion is nonreinfor-
called derived relations. Among the derived rela- appropriate C processes occur. Finally, given the ced. As a component of the D-C task, suppose that
tions produced by contextual discrimination pro- occurrence of C processes, prior D-C training in the presence of the printed word BIRD, respond-
cedures are those that document the formation of makes the appropriate D processes occur. Since the ing to a picture of a parakeet rather than a chair is
equivalence classes. An equivalence class is a type D stimuli are present in the'B-D task, the appropri- reinforced. In this case, the derived A-D relation is
of functional class having the distinctive charac- ate response to D then occurs. By this behavioral demonstrated by presenting the spoken word "pet"
teristics described below/ chain of previously established relations (B to A, the learner responding to BIRD rather to
Consider first the A-C and D-C tasks. These A to C, C to D), the derived B-D relation may be other printed words as comparison stimuli. The
tasks require panel-pressing responses to be guided mediated. For example, in the context of A as the spoken word "pet" and the printed word BIRD are
by common stimuli (C) in the presence of different sample stimulus, (|) was responded to when it ap- members of the s^rne equivalence class without
contextual stimuli (A or D). A and D are equivalent peared with a and 8 as comparison stimuli. ever having 'been presented tog ether. Such derived
in the sense that A and D both provide the context relations can:guide appropriate behavior in new
for responding to the C stimuli. In order to evaluate Significance of equivalence relations. The above environments—a bird v/ould be responded to as a
their functional equivalence, rionreinforced A-D study and many others indicate that the selection pet without the need for direct reinforcemeiit. In-
probe trials were occasionally introduced among of multiple contextual discriminations produces a deed, such derived relations are the beginnings of
the If A and D contained equivalent large number of derived environment-behavior re- "reasoning" by metaphor'-arid analogy.
occur between lations without direct'reinforcement of those rela- On the average, environrnent-behavior rela-
components without additional tions. In the experiment just described, a series of tions derived from contextual discriminations
training. When A stimuli were presented as contextual discriminations yielded two types of greatly affect responding in environments in which
pies and D stimuli as comparisons, the children did FIGUEE 5.10 Summary of the three trained and six equivalence relations (one based on common com- direct selection has tiotyet occurred.36 A beneficial
the D display corresponded to the derived contextual discriminations parison stimuli and the other based on common result is not inevitable, however. Consider a child
The three directly trained contextual discriminations—— sample stimuli) and a chaining relation. Since there that, has acquired three contextual discriminations
C response that was common to both A and D, For A-B, A-C, and D-C—are indicated by the solid lines. The
instance, when the spoken word "lambda" was the were three contextual discriminations, each con- consisting of the following components: "pet" -
six derived relations that testing revealed after training sisting of three components, there were nine di-
sample and (|), 0, and 8 were the three comparison Cocker Spaniel,-CocKer Spaniel - "dog," and "dog"
with the three contextual discriminations are indicated by
stimuli, the children pressed the display containing the dashed lines. rectly selected environment-behavior relations. As - pit bull. Through the derived chaining relation, if
Source: Sidman, M. & Tailhy, W. (1982). Conditional the result of these nine direct selections, a substan- the child were given the word "pet," he would
((). (Refer to 5.9.) All children showing the tial number of derived environment-behavior rela-
discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the select a pit bull in preference to other objects!
A-D relation responded with the common response tions were produced. Considering only the
testing paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Hearing "pet" and responding to dogs is very often
to C on at 85% of the probe trials. To appre- Behavior, 37, 5-22. Copyright 1982 by the Society for the in 5.10, 18 rela- reinforced, but necessarily. Derived environ-
ciate the full significance of these findings, recall Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.
144 5 Classes of EnvironniejiOBeiiavior Relations
merit-behavior are no to lence or The the of nor- that itiost—butnot all—of the chil-
be reinforced in are two children also failed to show symmetry. After and children.38 Even when simple dren could emit th^ appropriate verbal response,
tions that were directly reinforced in past environ- all contextual discriminations (A-B, A-C, and C~ nonverbal stimuli.are used, e.g., triangles instead e.g., "lambda," when sliown the corresponding
D) were completed and all derived relations were of letters or words, such stimuli are also more likely Greek letters from the B, C, or D stimuli, e.g., A,
The fact. are not necessar- tested, symmetry was assessed in probe trials. For to have been used in earlier differential training X, 0. That is, most of the children could orally
ily maintained in future environments indicates example, appropriate matching performance did with humans than with nonhumans. For many chil- name, or read, the letters even though naming had
that these relations must often undergo further not occur on D-C probe trials although these two dren, a triangle is seen as a unitary "figure." For a not been directly reinforced. Sometimes, however,
modification by direct selection, as do all other children had completed the C-D task. If symmetry nonhuman—particularly one without the relevant the derived relations were present even though
relations. Nevertheless, derived relations greatly is not demonstrated when the sample and compari- experience—the same visual stimulus may be seen naming had not yet' occurred.46 These- findings are
extend the effects of direct selection and thereby son stimuli are interchanged, then the derived rela- as a number of unintegrated "lines" or "corners."39 consistent with the view that both verbal behavior
enrich the variation available for later selection. tions dependent on symmetry cannot occur. In general, more experimental analysis is needed and equivalence classes are dependent on common
The practical benefits of derived relations arising The final basic relation, the transitive relation, to determine which specific aspects of the sample prior selections that are'rjot unique to verbal behav-
from multiple contextual discriminations are now is demonstrated if, after A-B and B-C training, and comparison stimuli are guiding behavior.4® ior. Some of these earlier selections may be. found
being realized in the design of efficient procedures appropriate matching performance occurs on an. The guiding features of the "same" stimulus may in the individual history of the learner, but others
for teaching children such skills as reading and A-C task. That is, when A is the sample, the subject be different for humans and nonhumans in what may eventually be traced to the ancestral selection
counting. 37 responds to C as a comparison stimulus. The tran- appear to the experimenter to be identical contex- history—i.e., to species differences.
tual discriminations.
Basic relations. Experimental work indicates sitive relation is required for the occurrence of
chaining. Appropriate performance on an A-C task Whatever the differences in individual or an- Internal reinforcement. One factor that prob-
that the derived relations of equivalence and chain- cestral selection history, experimental work has yet ably makes an important contribution to the devel-
ing are dependent on three basic relations—reflex- after A-B and B-C training involves transitivity
alone. Appropriate performance on an A-C task to find evidence for all of the basic relations in opment of equivalence classes is internal
ivity, symmetry, and transitivity. A reflexive species other than humans. Reflexivity (i.e., gen- reinforcement. Internal reinforcement occurs, you
is demonstrated when, after learning iden- after A-B and C-B training requires both transitiv-
eralized identity matching)'has been demonstrated will recall, when activity from neural networks
tity matching with set of stimuli, e.g., A-A, the ity and symmetry of the C-B relation,
in monkeys,41 as has transitivity.42 However, de- in motor association cortex by prior rein-
subject matches a different set of stimuli, e.g., B-B, spite considerable effort, no evidence has been forcers feeds back t^> the reinforcement system in
without additional training. That is, when B is the Origins of the basic relations. To date, equiva-
found for symmetry and the equivalence relations the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The activity
sample, the subject responds to B as a comparison lence classes have been demonstrated experimen-
that depend on symmetry.43 Can a history of selec- caused by feedback to the VTA then projects dif-
stimulus after A-A training alone. The reflexive tally in only one species—our own. Only in
tion by reinforcement be found that produces in fusely to the motor association cortex and modifies
relation demonstrates generalized identity humans have multiple contextual discriminations any active connections; there. Internal reinforce-
nonhuman animals the full range of basic relations
matching. In the previous experiment, before the consistently and unequivocally produced the full and the equivalence classes that those relations ment is implicated in the, formation of equivalence
study began the children were given training for range of derived relations. What is responsible for generate? This remains to be determined. classes because the prdbe trials used to assess
identity matching with colors. When tested for this crucial difference? Which of the basic rela- equivalence relations often show the relations
generalized identity matching on their first expo- tions—reflexivity, symmetry, or transitivity-—are Equivalence classes verbal behavior. In the growing stronger with repeated probes, even
to the Greek letters^the children responded from the repertoire of nonhumans? And, for the critical equiva- though no reinforces are delivered during probe
That is, if A the sample what are the reasons for their absence? lence the and individual selection trials! According to the internal-reinforcement in- •
A, E, and F were the comparison stimuli, the Experimental analysis has yet to provide com- histories with respect to verbal behavior—less terpretation of these observations, the stimuli pre-
to A. answers to questions. Humans technically, —are sented on the probe trials activate networks in
The second basic relation, the humans differ in their evolutionary histories, and equivalence were first motor association corte>: to which connections
is demonstrated if, after contextual discrimi- also in their pre-experimental histories of selection though from a different theoretical perspective and have been strengthened on previously reinforced
nation training, the sample and comparison stimuli by reinforcement with the stimuli used in contex- with different methods, in research on verbal be- with those stimuli. The feedback - from the
44
are interchangeable. That is, after training on an tual discrimination tasks. Although the children in havior. Some research has been interpreted to activation of these networks then strengthens the
A-B task, when the sample is changed to B the the previous experiment probably had little prior mean that equivalence relations are restricted to connections that mediate equivalence relations.
subject responds to A as a comparison stimulus. experience with Greek letters, they almost cer~ verbally competent organisms.45 Other work indi- - The neural mechanisms implementing internal
During the experiment, the performance of six of tainly had experience with other types of letters. that verbal responses to the stimuli used in . reinforcement may be more extensive in humans
eight children showed all of the derived rela- Also, they probably had earlier experience with the contextual discriminations need not precede in other species, but this difference alone
tions described previously. However, two of the contextual discriminations using letter-like stim- the emergence of equivalence classes. For exam- would not be enough to account for a species
did show of either equiva- uli. Research indicates such ple, in the using Greek probe —if one exists. For internal reinforce-
146 5 Classes of Environment-Behavior 147
to the to be in the book, the origins of response classes in the

Video Monitor the possible contribution of polysensory integra- selecting effects of both the ancestral and individ-
equivalence relations, must al-
ready exist and the neurons the Speaker to equivalence 'classes and other complex en- ual environments. We make use of experimental
must already be activated. Put simply, such con- vironment-behavior relations. work on biobehavioral processes, supplemented
Video Monitor
in our but not (or not as by interpretations based on adaptive networks.
in
Poly sensory integration. The species difference Origins of Response Classes

In our treatment of classes of environment-behav-
that may be linked most persuasively to equiva-
ior relations, we have focused on stimulus classes. Some response classes ID humans owe their exist-
lence classes is the capacity for polysensoiy or
Through the formation of discriminative stimulus ence to natural selection. For the cumulative effect
cross-modal integration.41 Poly sensory integra-
classes, a range of physically similar stimuli come of natural selection to produce a response class, the
tion may be illustrated by the phenomenon of
to guide responding. Through the formation of selecting influences must be relatively constant
cross-modal generalization. Cross-modal gener-
equivalence classes arising from contextual dis- over long periods of time. One of the', most compel-
alization occurs when selection of an environment-
criminations, a range of functionally similar stim- ling examples of a response class of this origin is
behavior relation in one modality enables stimuli
uli may also guide .responding. Since most movement through the environment, or locomo-
in a second modality to guide the same behavior,
FIGURE 5.11 Procedure for testing the effects of
discriminations qualify as contextual discrimination. All of the various forms of human locomo-
without specific reinforcement of the second rela-
combined auditory and visual stimuli on head tions, the most common result of selection is that tion—crawling, walking, runninjg, and even
tion. For example, if a response is selected by food
orientation in human infants behavior is guided by Both physically and func- swimming—depend on much the same parts of the
reinforcement when a triangular object is seen and
The auditory stimulation came from a central loud- tionally similar stimuli. In-short, most stimuli come motor system52 and develop their basic topogra-
the same response later occurs when the object is
speaker that presented a series of speech sounds. Two to be components of both discriminative stimulus phies largely independently of specific experience.
touched, cross-modal generalization has oc- television monitors were used, with one displaying a and equivalence classes. The general conditions of life required for survival
curred.48 picture of a person speaking the words presented by the The discussion of stimulus classes should have are adequate for the -emergence of a. class of loco-
In the experiment on equivalence classes using loudspeaker, The other monitor displayed a picture of the
it clear the same selection history that
Greek letters, auditory stimuli (the spoken letter same person speaking different words, motor responses. A stiniulus that causes a young
Source: Adapted from procedures of Kuril & Meltzoff, 1982. produces stimulus classes often produces response child to crawl toward, an object will later evoke
"names") were used as samples to provide the classes as well. (A response class, you will recall,
context in which responding was guided by differ- walking toward that saute object without the need
is a range of responses guided by a single stimulus.) for the separate reinforcement of walking. Nonhu-
ent visual stimuli (the printed letters). Successful By definition, when "an equivalence class is
performance on this task clearly requires a conver- man animals display a similar class of locomotor
auditory and visual stimuli are both crucially im- formed, any stimulus within that class may evoke responses: A rat that Jiasyearned to run a. complex
gence somewhere in the nervous system of path- all of the responses that have been separately con-
ways activated by auditory and visual stimuli. portant for the verbal skills involved in speaking maze to find food will swim the same maze cor-
and writing, and poly sensory integration may conditioned to the individual members of the class. For rectly when it is later filled with water.53
Behavioral data indicate that connections of this example, in the study using Greek letters, a single
sort exist in even very young infants. As an experi- to the formation of equivalence as
well. e.g., cj), not only the by
example, infants were placed in front of a
Research with nonhuman animals indicates children's to the stimulus for By far the most common origin of response classes
which emitted the sounds of a series of
words. Two video monitors, one on each side of that selection by the ancestral environment impor- which selection took place, e.g., A,, but also their is the selecting effect of the individual environ-
the speaker, displayed images of the person tantly contributes to cross-modal generalization to the corresponding comparison stimu- ment. The specific circumstances of the learner's
talking. (See Figure 5.11.) One monitor showed a and thereby, perhaps, to equivalence classes. Only lus, e.g., A, as well as the corresponding verbal selection history largely determine which 're-
whose mouth movements were synchronized our relatives the primates have ctem- "lambda/' to 5.10.) sponses "go together." The particular responses
with the words; the other showed the same face across modalities. For exam- The of is not simply up the classes vary from one culture,
mouthing different words. When simultaneously ple, chimpanzees and perhaps some species of that a single stimulus guides a single response, but situation, and person to the next. Such changing
confronted with these visual and auditory stimuli, monkeys can match a tactile (i.e., touched) com- more typically that a class of stimuli guides a class circumstances require the more rapid action of
the infants turned their heads toward the monitor parison stimulus with a visual sample stimulus.50 of responses.51 selection by reinforcernerit.
whose visual stimuli were synchronized with the Further comparative work on species differences Although response classes do not emerge inde- As a normal outcome of their functioning, the
auditory stimuli! Thus the temporal characteristics in cross-modal generalization is required before its pendently of stimulus classes, we consider re- biobehavioral processes involved in selection by
of visual and auditory stimuli jointly determine origins and possible contribution to equivalence sponse classes separately to simplify the pre- reinforcement automatically bring a range of re-
head orientation in the human infant.49 Clearly, classes can be fully evaluated. Work on perceiving, sentation. In this last section of the chapter, we sponses under the control of the environment. Any
148 5
Classes of Environment-Behavior Relations
response topography satisfies the prevailing also. In a highly network, almost half What effect does this mechanism have on the abil-
contingencies of reinforcement becomes a member the connections may be lost before it suffers a ity of the brain to with unreliable compo-
of the response class. On the neural level, when a in its ability to mediate input- 1. What are meant by the technical stimu-
lus class and response das si Give laboratory nents (neurons) in some instances of brain
behavioral discrepancy occurs, the diffusely pro- output relations reliably. Moreover, if the losses damage?
jecting reinforcement system is activated all occur slowly with the opportunity for releaming everyday examples of each.
connections between active neurons are modified. between losses, then performance shows even less 2. Indicate the similarities and differences be-
Since there are generally a number of possible deterioration.56 Since humans lose brain cells al- tween experimental analysis and scientific inter-
paths between the relevant input and output units, most from birth, we should be thankful to natural pretation. How does Interpretation differ from
selection for this property of nervous systems and mere speculation? Describe and give an example 1. cf. Goldiamond, 1962.
and since the active pathways mediating the se- 2. Skinner, 1957; t)Gnalioe & Palmer, 1989; Palmer
lected input-output relation are likely to vary over the adaptive networks that simulate them. of each of the following forms of interpretation—- &Donahoe, 1993.
time, the selected pathways include a number of verbal, orgamsmic, and formal. What are the 3. Donahoe & Palmer, 1989; Skinner, 1957.
alternative paths between the input and output strengths and weaknesses of each? 4. Epstein, 1984.
units. Within the network—and that portion of the 3. The environment-behavior relations defining 5. Computer simulations are used rather than
nervous system the network is intended to simu- Technical Terms discriminative stimulus classes bear some similari- "closed-form" mathematical formulations because the
behavior to be interpreted is often too complex to permit
late—an input unit evokes activity in a class of ties to those phenomena grouped together by the
stimulus class such formulations. This situation is by no means unique
pathways between the input and output units. At nontechnical term ''concept.*9 In what ways are to the inteipretation of behavior. In the physical sciences,
the end of selection, the discriminative stimulus response class they similar; in what ways are they different? Indi- complex situations sucli as many-body problems in as-
that activates the input units does not so much elicit verbal interpretation cate how discriminative stimulus classes are ac- tronomy or turbulent, 0,0 w of liquids defy precise mathe-
the response as permit the response to be mediated organismi c interpretation quired, and their 'major, characteristics, as illus- matical analysis even though all of the relevant physical
by one or more of the selected 'pathways in the formal interpretation trated by formal interpretations using adaptive- principles are known.
network. The discriminative stimulus does not theoretically coherent neural networks. Are only humans capable of dem- 6. Not all computej simulations of human behavior
elicit the response; it permits the response to be onstrating discriminative stimulus classes? Ex- qualify as interpretations as the term is used here. For
theoretically incoherent example, a computer simulation could implement prin-
emitted by the organism.54 plain.
discriminative stimulus class ciples that are based on inferred processes rather than
The class of selected pathways resulting from functional class 4. Indicate the selection history that produces independent experimental analyses. The considerations
a diffuse reinforcement system allows a network to functional stimulus classes. How do such classes that should inform computer simulations is a matter of
contingency-shaped behavior
mediate input-output relations with great reliabil- differ from discriminative- stimulus classes? current controversy; e.g-, Donahoe & Palmer, 1989;
rule-governed behavior Marr, 1992; McClelland &L Rumelhart, 1986; Smolen-
ity. If some of the pathways in the class are not 5. Describe, using technical terms, the selection
activated by the input, then others are capable of fuzzy boundary sky, 1986.
path-dependent history that produces equivalence classes. Indicate 7. e.g., Dawkins, 19S6;'\Maynard-Smith, 1982.
mediating the relation. The selection of a class of the basic relations that appear to be necessary for
prototype 8. This problem may be Addressed by what is called
pathways also allows the functioning of a network the emergence of the derived relations defining genetic programming*. In genetic programming, the
to be relatively resistant to disease or aging proc- fading equivalence classes. Be able to illustrate with an. structure of an adaptive network is generated by princi-
esses cause the loss of some connections. equivalence class example each of the basic relations and their role ples that reflect natural selection. The connections be-
When connections along"' pathway are lost, contextual discrimination in the interpretation of equivalence relations. tween elements of the network can then be modi fed by
are available to the input-output matching-to-sample procedure principles that reflect, selection by reinforcement. In such
6. What factors have been identified that may simulations, both genetic and learning principles inform
The behavior of ani- sample stimulus contribute to the emergence of equivalence classes the simulation just as the processes described by these
rm>'S demonstrates this relative insensitivity to comparison stimulus to their appearance thus far only in humans? principles affect living organisms; cf. Ackley & Litman,
d;- -age. Damage within a region of the network identity matching 1991; Hinton & Nowlan, 1986.
ry - ;:ally produces a general lessening of the func- 9. For a review of concept formation that makes a
arbitrary (symbolic)
L U . ^ S served by that region; the loss becomes sub- similar point, seeFarah ^Kossiyn, 1982, p. 161: Medin
derived relations
sinitial only with extensive damage. Damage to & Smith, 1984. See also Harlem, 1986.
pathways that communicate between regions usu- reflexive relation 7. What basic biobehavioral processes contrib-• 10. For a related a distinction arising from a different
ally produces more severe losses, unless there are generalized identity ute to fading? [Hint: How might the processes that theoretical perspective 9 see Mervis & Mervis, 1988;
alternative pathways whose connections can be symmetric relation lead to blocking also affect fading?] 'Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Bpyes-Braem, 1976.
11. Functional classes are closely related to James
by later selections.55 Computer Simula- transitive relation 8. Why may it be said that the neural mecha- Gibson's concept of offor dance, Gibson, 1979. The
adaptive networks display prop- cross-modal nisms of reinforcement select classes of pathways? affordance of a stimulus refers to the behavior that the
150 5 Classes of 151
is capable of evoking. For example, chairs 21. cf. & upper-case but is not indicated in the symboliza- the to find equivalence classes in eonhumans, see
differ in their physical characteristics but they share in 22. Snow, 1972; see also Reeve, Reeve, Brown, tion. * Hayes, 1989. For discussions of methodological issues,
common the behavior that all may be sat upon. All chairs Brown, & Poulson, 1992. 34. e.g., Dube, Mcllvane, Mackay, & 1987; see & Verhave, 1987; O'Mara, 1991.
afford sitting, 23. Fading was introduced in the technical literature Spradlin & Saunders, 1984. See Lipkens, & Mat- 44. Jenkins, 1965; 1953; e.g., &
12. See Skinner, 1966a for the distinction between as a means of facilitating discrimination formation by thijs, 1988, for a summary of this work. Kjeldegaard, 1961.
contingency-shaped and rule-governed behavior. Skinner, 1938. Subsequently, fading was investigated by 35. Saunders, Wachter, & Spradlin, 1988. 45. e.g., Devaney, tfayes, & Nelson, 1986; Spradlin,
13. Brooks, 1978. a number of investigators in connection with "errorless55 36. Sidman, 1986. Cotter, & Baxley, 1973.
14. Complex stimuli and responses of the sort in- learning; e.g., Terrace, 1966; Rilling, 1977. Perhaps the 37. Sidman & Cresson, 1973. 46. Sidman, Cresson, & Wilson-Morris, 1974.
volved in this study present complications not encoun- most extensive work using fading to facilitate the acqui- 38. Stromer, 1986. 47. See Geschwinci, 1965.
tered when stimuli such as simple lights and tones or 39. Other animals without prior experience with line 48. Cross-modal fejjtnation of equivalence classes has
sition of difficult discriminations has occurred with
responses such as leverpressing are used. Issues related drawings of objects may have such "piecemeal" and been reported using the visual and tactile modalities,
handicapped humans; e.g., Sidman & Stoddard, 1967;
to differences in the interpretation of the effects of such "fragmentary" perceptions; e.g. Cerella, 1980; Watan- e.g., Feniello,-1988.
Stoddard & Sidman, 1967. There are differences in abe, 1988.
stimuli are discussed in the treatment of verbal behavior terminology, with fading sometimes called stimulus 49. Kuhl & Meltzkoff, 1982. It is important not to
in Chapter 11. The present discussion disregards such 40. e.g., Cohen, Looney, Brady, & Aucella, 1976; overinterpret this finding to mean that the infants were
shaping or, more recently, stimulus control shaping] Kohlenberg, Hayes, & Hayes, 1991; Santi, 1978; Sid-
differences. doing anything as conaple^ as "lip-reading." For a re-
e.g., Mcllvane & Dube, 1992. Different terms are used man, 1980; Sidman, Rauzin, Lazar, Cunningham,
15. The principles used in this study form what is view of cross-modal relations in infants, see Rose &
because changes in the procedure have included gradual Tailby, & Carrigan, 1982. Ruff, 1987; and Spelfce, 1976.
called a phrase-structure grammar. Grammars of this alterations in aspects of training other than the stimuli to
type have been used by linguists to characterize lan- 41. e.g., Wright, 1989. 50. Davenport, Rogers, & Russell, 1973; Jarvis &
be discriminated, e.g., changes in the interval between 42. e.g., D'Amato, Salmon, Loukas, & Tomie, 1985. Ettinger, 1977; Mishkin, 1979.
guage, and consist of sets of rules which state how
sample and comparison stimuli in the matching-to-sam- 43. e.g., Sidman, Rauzin, Lazar, Cunningham, Tailby, 51. Skinner, 1935.
elements, in this case letters, may be combined to form
ple procedure. & Carrigan, 1982; ,cf. Mclntire, Cleary, & Thompson, 52. Kolb&WhishaW, 1985.
sequences. The particular phrase-structure rules are not
24. Sidman & Stoddard, 1967. 1987 in which the relations were directly trained. Al- 53. MacFarlane, 1930. ' '
of concern here.
25. Jacobs, 1988. See also Selfridge, Sutton, & Barto, though most studies of equivalence classes have em- 54. On the-level o/f the nervous system, is the
16. Similar results have been obtained with children
1985. ployed visual stimuli, equivalence classes have been counterpart of Skinner's distinction between elicited
as well as adults, e.g., Kossan, 1981.
26. Vaughn, 1988. found using auditory stimuli as- well, e.g., Dube, Green, responses (respondents) (oper-
17. Herrnstein & Loveland, 1964. For other examples,
27. Work on the of & Serna, in press; Fields, Adams, Verhave, & Newman, 1937. .
see Bhatt, Wasserman, Reynolds, & Knauss, 1988;
classes is related to earlier work on. the development of 1990. For a discussion of the- relation of functional 55. Cowley, Green, & Braunling-McMorrow, (in
Herrnstein, 1984; Herrnstein, Loveland, & Cable, 1976; •
learning sets', Harlow, 1959. stimulus classes and equivalence classes, see Sidman, press); Green, .1991.
Holmes, 1979; Malott & Siddali, 1972; Roberts &
28. For several examples of this and related phenom- Wynne, Macguire, & Barnes, 1989. For a discussion of 56. Anderson, 1984-
Mazmanian, 1988.
18. Donahoe & Palmer, 1989; Donahoe, Burgos, & ena, see Rescorla, 1991.
29. Urcuioli, 1991.
Palmer, 1993,
30. Saunders, Wachter, & Spradlin, 1988.
19. McClelland & Rumelhart, 1985, 1986; cf. Knapp
31. Contextual discriminations are also known as con-
& Anderson, 1984. This simulation used a technique for
ditional discriminations; Lashley, 1938. The appropri-
changing the connection weights called the delta rule.
ate response to the comparison stimulus is conditional
The delta rule is closely related to discrepancy theories
of reinforcement, e.g., Sutt<$n & Barto, 1981. With the upon the value of the sample stimulus. Also, the sample
delta rule, the discrepancy is a function of the difference stimulus is sometimes said to exert instructional control
between the activation levels of each of the output units over the response to the comparison stimuli; Gumming
and the target activation levels for those units. With the & Berry man, 1965. The sample stimulus instructs the
unified reinforcement principle, the discrepancy is a learner which comparison stimulus to respond to.
function of the activation level of only those output units 32. Sidman & Tailby, 1982.
activated by the reinforcer; Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer, 33. The symbolization A-B task, in which both upper
1993. However, since the reinforcing stimulus only ac- case letters represent sets of stimuli in a matching-to-
tivates its output units when the target activation levels sarnple procedure, should not be confused with a similar
occur on the output units corresponding to the operant, and more common symbolization used in paired-associ-
the two methods for changing connection weights can ate verbal-learning procedures. In paired-associate
be closely related. The discussion that follows does not learning, A refers to the set of stimuli in the pairs arid-IB
depend on which method is used for changing the con- refers to the set of corresponding responses. In match-
nection weights within the adaptive network. ing-to-sarnple procedures, the response of interest is
20. Rosch & Mervis, 1975. controlled by the stimuli symbolized by the second
Attending 153
CHAPTER 6 the
is no technical justification for
the rejection of the term as
to the stimulus. Four major
interrelated sets of biobehavioral processes in-
scientifically useful in no way denies the impor- volved in attending are identified here. Each is
tance of the phenomena conventionally grouped explored in later sections. First, although the envi-
ATTENDING heading. Questions about why different ronment may contain all of the required stimuli
people behave differently on the' same occasion are selection has occurred with those stimuli, the
fascinating, and the answers are important for the learner does' not s^jise them.4 Perhaps the learner
interpretation of complex human behavior. On this does not sense all of the controlling stimuli, or does
Because human behavior is the cumulative product We avoid using attention as a technical term for point, investigators of different theoretical persua- not sense them in the required temporal order.
of an extensive selection history, it cannot be un- several reasons. First, because "attention" is theo- sions can agree.2 Because of the importance of Most behavior, especially complex behavior, is
derstood solely by appeals to the environment of retically incoherent, using the same term to discuss interpreting individual differences in behavior, we guided by multiple stimuli. If some of these stimuli
the moment The environment of the moment di- phenomena of different origins misleads us into treat many of them in one chapter even though the are missing, or if they, appear in an order different
rectly guides behavior, but the behavior of the treating superficially similar phenomena as if they differences are expressions of a diverse set, of proc- from that in which selection took place, the "appro-
moment is the result of the present environment were identical. Behavior does differ among indi- esses. However, we use the verb, attending, rather priate" (i.e., selected) response may not occur.
acting on an organism that has been changed by an viduals in the same environment, but it is unlikely than the noun, attention, to emphasize that these Difficulties in environmental guidance caused
ever-richer history of selection. The same environ- that all or even most differences are the result of a differences arise from diverse processes, not a by the absence of some of the required stimuli are
ment evokes different responses from the same common set of biobehavioral processes acting in unitary thing. By emphasizing process, we hope to illustrated in the following diary enpries by college
person at different moments, and different re- the same manner. There can be no one account of minimize the temptations of the nominal fallacy. students who kept records of their own lapses of
sponses from different persons at the same mo- "attention" because there is not one phenomenon "attention:"5 (a) "I ftad decided to cut down on my
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr commented
ment. The outcome of selection is diversity, not of attention. Persons of diverse theoretical persua- sugar consumption and wanted to have my corn-
on the progress made in biology when nouns were
sameness. sions agree that attention should not be thought of flakes without it. However, I sprinkled sugar on my
replaced by verbs,'and the ..study of behavior would
as a single entity, but as a field of study.1 the just as I always done." (b) "I to
Second, the noun "attention" lends a unitary off only my shoes but took off my socks as
and thing-like quality to the diverse expressions of well." What these examples have in common is the
INTRODUCTION a number of different biobehavioral processes. An to absence of some of the triis criminative stimuli when
Treating "attention" as a thing tempts us to use it the response failed to occur. Sugar was mistakenly
When—in the same environment—we observe A common characteristic of the diverse phenom-
as an explanation of behavior rather than—at sprinkled on the coriiflakes because the stimuli
differences in behavior among persons, we often ena that exemplify attending is the failure of envi-
best—a heading under which a set of superficially guiding the ' ^sprirxJclir^g" response were present
use the everyday term "attention" in discussing ronmental stimuli to guide behavior even when
those differences. For instance, we might describe similar phenomena may be grouped. When "atten- (e.g., the sight of the Cornflakes and the sugar-
tion" is used to describe the differing behavior of they are apparently adequate to do so. Viewed in bowl), but the stimuli th$t had guided the decision
a student who is taking notes during a lecture as way, attending is part of the more general field
"paying attention" to the lecturer, and her neighbor the two students, for example, it is easy to slip into to go without sugau* vver$ no longer present (e.g.,
such as "The first took notes of the environmental .guidance of behavior, a topic the sight, a few moments': earlier, of the student's
who is not taking a| not "paying attention."
because the student we have examined in some detail. The environ- weight on the bathroom scale). Similarly, the socks
However, attention and other the every-
did not because he wasn't attending." To use atten- ment comes to guide behavior through the select- were removed because the stimuli that guided their
day vocabulary are prone to theoretical incoher-
tion in way is to to the ing effects of the ancestral environment (natural removal were present (a,g., the. stimuli accompa-
ence. That is, nontechnical terms usually to a
varying of fallacy; i.e., to the of a phenomenon as selection) and the individual environment (selec- nying removing on^'s while sitting on the
processes. Different of selection lead if it were an Further, the nominal tion by reinforcement). According to a selectionist of the bed), but those that guided the
student to take notes and another student not to take fallacy encourages circular reasoning. To wit- account, behavior can fail to occur in an environ- earlier decision to remove only the shoes were not
notes, even though both are in the classroom. Question: Why did the first student take notes? ment for one of several reasons: Selection has (e.g., painful stimuli from a pebble in the shoe).
Our purpose in this chapter is to identify some of Answer: Because was attending. Question: never brought behavior under the control of stimuli
the differences in selection history that produce the How do you the student was attending? in that environment, the discriminative stimuli are history. A second source of
behavioral differences conventionally grouped un- Answer: Because was taking notes. When mis- present but are not sensed by the organism, or the failures in environmental guidance is the specific
der the heading of attention. However, we interpret in this way, "attention" deludes us into believ- biobehavioral processes evoked by other stimuli history of selection with respect to the stimulus.
differences without to a ing we have explained when we have interfere with the control of behavior by the dis- Consider an example from the laboratory. If a
process of "attention." it. • -criminative stimuli. stimulus'(e.g., a tone) is present when an environ-
152
154 6
is a by do not In cases, second and, third order; for the people in the
(e.g., a light) is with the several outcomes are possible—the responses oc~ street. , . took on these expressions in reaction to
cur successively, some mixture of the two re- her; and these expressions, in turn, were re-fleeted, of the selection history of the individ-
stimulus while the response continues to pro-
sponses occurs, or one response occurs and not the re-directed, re-distorted, by the Touretter, causing ual, a stimulus must be sensed if it is to guide
duce the reinforcer, the second stimulus does not
other. The student diaries also provide illustrations a still greater degree of outrage and. shock . . . . behavior.11 But, sijice two persons in the same
acquire the ability to evoke the response. The sec-
of these outcomes: "I unwrapped a candy, put the Suddenly, desperately, the old woman turned aside, environment cannot siitiultaneously occupy the
ond stimulus has been sensed, the critical response into an alley-way which led off the main street. And
paper in my mouth and threw the candy into the same point in spac^, no two people can ever sense
has occurred in its presence, and a known reinfor- there, . . . she expelled, tremendously accelerated
wastepaper basket."7 Here, the simultaneous pres- the environment identically at the same instant.
cer has followed the response, but the supposed and abbreviated, all the gestures, the postures, the
ence of two stimuli—the wrapper and the candy— The light energy reflected from a surface differ-
discriminative stimulus (the light) does not guide expressions, the demeanours, the entire behavioural
guided two incompatible responses by the same ently stimulates the visual receptors of two per-
the response. In the language of "attention," the repertoires, of the past forty or fifty people she had
sons—or even tjie two eyes of the same
learner has failed to attend to the second stimulus. hand—throwing away the wrapper and placing the passed . . . . And if the taking in had lasted two
candy into the mouth. Each response occurred, but person—because the visual receptors are located at
You will recognize this as an instance of blocking.6 minutes, the throwing-out was a single exhalation—
different points in space. Thus, each eye has a
Some attentional phenomena are the outcome of guided by an inappropriate stimulus. Thus, the fifty people in ten seconds, a fifth of a second or less
same example also illustrates a mixture of two for the time-foreshortened repertoire of each slightly different view of the world from that of
the same processes that produce blocking. every other eye, whether the eyes are located in the
environment-behavior relations. Lest it be thought person.
that only students are afflicted by such lapses, the same or different heads. Similarly, the sound en-
Context. A third—and frequent—source of at- For this unfortunate woman, the responses by ergy emitted by an object differently stimulates the
tentional phenomena is a change from the context same study describes a professor whose work had which we all mirror the expressions of others—
been frequently interrupted by visits from col- auditory receptors of two persons-^—and the twro
in which the environment-behavior relation was smiling when they lai^gh, frowning when they ears of the same person—because the auditory
leagues and students: "During a morning in which
originally selected. to the context in which the cry—were expressed in \exaggerated form as rap- receptors also occupy different points in space.
there had been several knocks on my office door,
discriminative stimulus now appears. As noted idly as their incompatibility permitted. When one person s^s of hears what another does
the phone rang. I picked up the receiver and bel-
before, almost all discriminations are contextual The final resolution of the dilemma posed by not, the two persons tnay respond differently in
lowed 'Come in' at it."
discriminations. Thus, a stimulus that has been the concurrent presence of multiple discriminative what, to an observer, appears to be the same envi-
Interfering processes are dramatically illus-
fail to behav- is the of of the ronment. The observer, who is sensing still a third
trated by a neuropsychological disorder known as
ior when it occurs outside the context in which the possible responses; This can be illustrated in the
Tourette's syndrome.8 This disorder reveals the view of the "same" environment, may describe one
discrimination was acquired. Many everyday ex- laboratory with the iStroop task.10 In the Stroop person as attending and the other as not.
multitude of environment-behavior relations that
amples-of failures to attend are probably of this task, subjects are asked to speak the names of It would be a mistake, however, to regard the
can be evoked by stimuli in the natural environ-
origin. Have you ever walked past someone at a ment. Tourette's syndrome—named for its first various colors as quickly as possible, but the colors individual as simply a1 passive recipient of what-
shopping mall whom you had previously met only describer, Georges Gilles de la Tourette—is a he- are presented in the form of letters that spell the ever physical energies happen to fall on his recep-
at work, and—for a moment, at least—not been reditary disorder affecting subcorticai motor sys- names of other colors; e.g., the word BLUE, tors. Individuals, ttirough their own behavior,
able to place him? Have you ever been introduced tems of the brain. This disorder results from a printed in yellow ink. Under these conditions, sub- profoundly influence tile environmental events
to someone at a party, then failed to recognize in the brain's ability to inhibit simul- jects often say "blue" rather than "yellow." That is, they sense. Responses that affect the sensing of
the person the very next day on seeing her in taneously activated responses. The deficit is de- in spite of the contextual stimuli provided by the environmental events are the joint products of se-
setting? Most of ils have had experiences scribed by a neurologist in the following report of instructions, the letters that spell the word BLUE lection by the ancestral and individual environ-
of sort, and they the important role of he observed on a busy city street. guide the verbal response "blue'9 more strongly ments. We have already come across one product
the context in which the discriminative stimulus than the yellow ink guides the verbal response of ancestral selection that affects the sensing of
appears, My eye was caught by a grey-haired woman in her "yellow." stimuli, the orienting response. When a dog pricks
sixties, who was apparently the centre of a most In the sections that follow, each of these four up its ears at the sound of a tone, the response
Concurrent stimuli A fourth source of atten- amazing disturbance ... As I drew closer, I saw what sources of attentional phenomena is considered enhances hearing tlfre tone. Similar environment-
tional phenomena is the simultaneous occurrence was happening. She was imitating the passers-by—if further. The interpretations are based primarily on behavior relations are found in human infants. For
'imitation' is not too pallid, too passive, a word. In
of discriminative stimuli guiding biobehavioral findings obtained with laboratory methods, but use example, in the first few weeks of life, a visual
the course of a short city-block, this frantic old
processes that interfere or compete with one an- woman frenetically caricatured the features of forty a range of approaches—developmental, compara- stimulus presented to one side of an infant elicits
other. Although each of the stimuli is or fifty passers-by, in a quick-fire sequence of kalei- tive, neuropsychological—and a range of in- rapid and increasingly coordinated movements of
each is an effective discriminative stimulus in that doscopic imitations, each lasting a second or terpretive strategies—verbal, organismic, and the the head and eyes that cause the stimulus energy to
environmental context, the responses normally two . . . And there were ludicrous imitations of the formal interpretations provided by adaptive neural fall on the center of tfte retina, where vision is most
networks. acute.12 Likewise, a sound presented to one side of
156 6
the the the no How- is the of the

of the intensely ear. The turning ever, the red or green color appeared only if the bird acquired and maintained? According to the
response stops when the ears are equally stimulated depressed a pedal on the floor near the disk.15 analysis of selection by reinforcement, a stimulus
Otherwise, the disk remained white even though guides a response if the response is followed by a Although some Instances In which people behave
by the sound energy. When the sound energy falls
periods during which pecking produced food still differently in the sarn-e environment are due to
equally on the receptors of the two ears, the infant reinforcer. Since food did not immediately follow
differences in what they .sense, many differences
is directly facing the source of the sound and, alternated with those in which pecking had no pedal-pressing, we must look to a stimulus other
cannot be interpreted in this way. Many lapses of
therefore, is likely to see the source of the sound as effect. In this study, depressing the pedal served as than food for the reinforcer. Although food did not
"attention" are due to straightforward differences
well.13 Even in infancy, behavior exerts an impor- an observing response since it produced the dis- follow pedal-pressing when the disk was white,
in the history of discrimination training. For exam-
tant influence on the sensing of stimuli. criminative stimuli. Note that pedal-pressing itself one of two stimuli did immediately occur—a
ple, at the sound of a fire bell, the volunteer fireman
was never followed immediately by food but, change in the disk's color to either red or green. rushes to the firehouse while his neighbor contin-
rather, by a discriminative stimulus. As shown in Could the presentation of either of these colors ues behaving much as before. Both people heard
Observing Responses Figure 6.1, the pigeon acquired the observing re- function as a reinforcer? The answer is clearly the bell, but their different selection histories
sponse, and pedal-pressing occurred more fre- "yes." Since red was paired with food, the red disk caused the bell to guide different responses. To an
The processes by which behavior affects what we quently when it produced the red disk than the would acquire the capacity to function as an ac-
sense begin with the maturation of reflexive envi- observer who is ignorant of the different histories,
green disk. quired, or conditioned, reinforcer. In contrast, the fireman "attended" to the bell but his neighbor
ronment-behavior relations, such as those just de- since the green disk was never paired with food, it
scribed. However, these relations are soon did not.
should not become an acquired reinforcer and,
supplemented by acquired relations that reflect
therefore, should not maintain the observing re-
individual experience. Acquired environment-be-
sponse of pedal-pressiflg.'. Selective Attending ' _.
havior relations whose primary function is to affect
Later research has confirmed this interpretation
the sensing of stimuli are called observing re- Red Different selection histories also have more subtle
of the origin of observing responses. When an
sponses.14 effects on attending than those produced by simple
observing response produces a stimulus that has
Consider an everyday of an observing discrimination training. For example, in complex
been with a reinforcer, it is acquired and
response. Suppose you wanted to speak with some- o decision making, or jiidgrnent, behavior is guided
Q_ maintained. When the observing response pro-
one who lives in your house. For a conversation to by the combined effects of many stimuli, and there
duces only the stimulus that has not been paired
take place, the person must be within easy speaking may be differences eutioing decision makers in the
with the reinforcer, the observing response is not
distance and preferably within sight. If you ur- stimuli to which the^y ''attend." The phenomenon
gently wanted to speak with her, you would not acquired. This result has been obtained with both
of blocking provides a tneans by which some of
animals16 and humans.17 '
wait until she happened to walk by. Instead, you u these differences canbe%terpreted. Blocking, you
might call out her name and, when you heard a It is important to note that the interpretation of will recall, occurs when a. stimulus fails to guide a
reply, move toward its source. The conversation observing responses does not require any new prin- reinforced response because the stimulus is accom-
could then take place. In this example, calling out ciples. Observing responses are not a new type of panied by another'Stirnulus in whose presence the
Time They are responses having, a particular
the person's name and moving to the source of the reinforcer has already occurred. To the extent that
reply are observing responses. Their function is to function—that of producing discriminative stimuli the reinforcer is already "predicted" (or, more tech- •
FIGURE 6.1 Observing responses serve as acquired reinforcers-for the-observing
make it more likely that a stimulus will occur— Maintenance of an observing response (pedal-pressing) nically, to the extent that conditioned reinforcer-
here, the sight of a friend—in whose presence a and another operant (disk-pecking) in the pigeon. The
Observing responses are of the many responses "are already evoked by the-other
response—here, talking-—will be reinforced. In disk was transilluminated with white light and pecking means by which past selection produces ever more stimulus), the ability of the. first stimulus to
this case, the reinforcer might consist of an answer the disk produced food during some intervals and had no complex environment-behavior relations. In the behavior is reduced, or blocked.
to a question or a sympathetic hearing of a personal effect during others. When the pigeon pressed a pedal of observing responses, the result of earlier Blocking ordinarily benefits the efficient selec-
problem. during the intervals in which pecking produced food, the selection is an organism whose own behavior par- tion of environment-Behavior relations in the sense
disk was briefly transilluminated with red light. Pressing tially determines the environment will guide
Observing responses can be demonstrated un- that it prevents new relations from being formed
the pedal during intervals in which pecking was ineffec- its later behavior.
der the more controlled circumstances of the labo- tive caused the disk" to be briefly transilluminated with
when the learner's behavior is already "appropri-
ratory, with both animals and humans. In a study The cumulative product of selection is not a , ately" guided by other stimuli. However, in com-
green light. Thus pedal-pressing was immediately fol-
using pigeons as subjects, a disk located on one lowed by discriminative stimuli but not food. passive organism that is a "slave" to its present plex discriminations in which multiple stimuli are
wall of the test chamber appeared in two alternat- Source: Hypothetical cumulative records based on findings from environment, but an active organism whose behav- reliably correlated with reinforced responses, the
ing colors—-red when pecking the disk produced Wyckoff, 1962. ior increasingly affects its future environments. processes' that produce blocking can lead to the
158 6 Attending
of environment-behav- toms—say, —was in 40% of the ,30 weakly by others. However, since "selective atten-
ior relations. The effect of these processes can lead of the more common disease (disease A) and in tion" Is a phrase from the everyday vocabulary,
us to devote more "attention" to some stimuli 60% of the of the rare disease (disease B). likely to be theoretically incoherent, we may an-
Is warranted by their true correlation with the rein- Three other symptoms were equally or more likely cu ^ ticipate that there are other means by which organ-
to be present in the more common disease. The •^ isms respond selectively. Before indicating some
II
forced response. Consider the following hypotheti-
cal example: The enrollment in a class studying base rates and the percentages of the symptom for of these other means, let us first see how the same
Shakespeare's tragic plays is almost entirely com- the two diseases were such that, given the fever CD o
^20 processes—when realized in a different way—-
posed of students majoring in English; however, a symptom, the probability of the rare disease was
~ Q-
bp E
may enhance rather than restrict the range of dis-
few science majors are taking the course to satisfy only .15 (.25 x .60 = . 15). However, when the fever •~ LO criminative stimuli.
O C
C O
a university humanities requirement. Suppose you symptom was present, the subjects diagnosed the
see that one of the students in the course takes rare disease about 25% of the time. (See Figure
extremely orderly notes, neatly arranged in strict 6.2.) This greatly overvalues the fever symptom in .10 Heightened Attending
outline form. Is this student an English major or diagnosing the rare disease, and illustrates base- Through their effect on contextual stimuli, the
one of the few science majors? When asked this rate neglect. _
biobehavioral processes involved in reinforcement
question, many people guess that the student is a How is base-rate neglect to be interpreted by -§£
and, stimulus discrimination rnay enhance rather
science major, weighing heavily his orderliness means of the processes involved in blocking? than restrict the range of stimuli that guide behav-
and giving insufficient weight to the overwhelm- When the more frequent disease was diagnosed ior. As noted before, almost all discriminations are
ing odds that he is an English major. Our precon- correctly, the fever symptom was often accompa- Correct Student Network specific to some context; i.e., almost all discrimi-
ceptions (prejudices?) about the note-taking habits nied by other symptoms. Moreover, the other Estimate Estimate Estimate nations are contextual discriminations.'Here, we
of science and English majors override the infor- symptoms also occurred more often by themselves consider how contextual stimuli affect discrimina-
mation about the much greater likelihood that this when the diagnosis of disease A was correct (i.e, FIGURE 6.2 Base-rate neglect illustrated by the
probability of diagnosing the rarer of two diseases
tions later acquired in the same context. Under
student is an English major. reinforced). Because the fever symptom was fre- certain conditions, acquiring a discrimination in
when an uncommon symptom was present
quently accompanied by The actual percentage of cases of the rare disease when one context facilitates trie formation of new dis-
neglect Experimental findings Indi- disease A was the correct diagnosis, control of the the symptom was present was 15%. However, the un- criminations in that context. That Is, earlier dis-
cate that "paying too little attention" to the overall disease-A diagnosis by the fever symptom would common symptom influenced the diagnosis of the rarer crimination training may produce "heightened
likelihood of an event is a common failing of be blocked. Thus, relative to disease A, the stimu- disease more strongly. When the symptom was present, attention" to new stimuli in the same context.21
human judgment. We tend to overvalue a stimulus lus of the fever symptom would more strongly about 25% of the cases were diagnosed as having the
When acquiring any new environment-behav-
when we believe it is characteristic of an infrequent control the rare disease-B diagnosis than the more rarer disease. A computer simulation of the diagnostic
responses, which implemented a reinforcement princi-
ior relation, a major tasj^ for the learner is to deter-
event.18 This bias in judgment is called base-rate common disease-A diagnosis. mine which aspects of tlie situation are relevant to
ple, also revealed the tendency for the diagnosis to be
neglect, since the decision maker has not taken into This interpretation of base-rate neglect is con- overly influenced by the symptom. effective performance and which are not. Consider
account the overall likelihood—the base rate—of with the results of the diagnostic-judgment Source: Gluck, M. A, & Bower, G. H. (1988). From a driver whose car refuses to start even though it
the event. How can the processes involved in study, and may be simulated using an adaptive conditioning to category learning: An adaptive network model. has gas (the fuel gauge reads full) and the battery
blocking allow base-rate neglect to be Interpreted? network. In the computer simulation, four input Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 227—247'. Is charged (the starter turns over the engine). When
corresponded to the four symptoms, two out- Copyright © 1988 by the American Psychological Association.
To simulate the contribution of blocking to Reprinted by permission. mechanically inexperienced drivers raise the hood
base-rate neglect, a study was conducted in which put units to the two diagnoses, and the strengths of to view the jumble of paits that make up a modern
college students were given an artificial medical connections between the input and output units to engine, they are uncertain where to look to isolate
diagnostic task. ^ The multiple discriminated stim- the degree to which each symptom guided each ued the fever symptom in diagnosing the rare dis- the problem. If the engine Is not getting fuel, then
uli were various symptoms—fever, stomach ache, diagnosis. Whenever an input pattern of symptoms ease.20 (See Figure 6.2.) which parts might be malfunctioning? If the spark
and the like—and the responses were diagnoses of generated a diagnosis, the connection weights were "Selective attention" is nontechnically used to plugs are not getting electricity, then, which parts
either of two diseases—disease A or B. In the cases changed in accordance with a discrepancy-based describe behavior that is guided by only some of might be at fault? Tlie unskilled person is as likely
that the students were given, disease A occurred reinforcement principle. After the adaptive net- the stimuli present when a response is reinforced. to examine the window-washer pump as the fuel
three times as often as disease B. In other words, work had been trained with the same cases pre- Through earlier discrimination training and the purnp or the electroiiic windshield-wiper controls
of every 100 cases, 75 had disease A and 25 had sented to the college students, the performance of action of the biobehavioral processes involved in as the ignition system. For the skilled mechanic,
disease B. Thus, the base rates for disease A and B the network corresponded closely to that of the blocking, the behavior of an experienced organism however, the irrelevant stimuli provided by wind-
were .75 and .25, respectively. One of the symp- students. Like the students, the network overval- may be strongly guided by some stimuli and only shield-washer pumps and controls do not guide
Attending 161
is to To of produced the
20
be guided by those stimuli that are relevant to tion," it is crucial to recognize that, in addition to of training, the contextual stimuli could con-
locating repairing the true problem. What are being exposed to the blue and green disks during tinue to control responding and block acquisition
the processes responsible for heightened attention Experimental discrimination training, the experimental subjects of control by the vertical line. The lack of control
to the relevant stimuli, in comparison to the many were also exposed to a large number of other by line orientation is indicated by the "flat" gener-
irrelevant stimuli present in most situations? stimuli at the same time. When responding was alization gradient. (See Figure 6.3.) Because some
Although several processes are involved in reinforced, the disk was not only blue, it was round, of the controlling stimuli—those from the con-
most everyday examples of "heightened atten- of a particular brightness, located at a particular text—remained constant during the test, respond-
tion," we focus here on one source—the effect of place on the wall, and so forth. Each of these ing remained constant.24
earlier discrimination training on the control ex- stimuli and many others from the experimental The preceding interpretation indicates that the
erted by contextual stimuli during later training in chamber were simultaneously present when peck- same biobehavioral processes that produce "selec-
the same context. When earlier selection affects ing the blue disk was reinforced. Consequently, tive attention" are capable, under other circum-
selection in a later task, a transfer effect of the first each of these stimuli was eligible to become a stances, of producing "heightened attention."
45 90 135
task on the second task is said to occur. Heightened component of the compound stimulus guiding Although "selective attention" diminishes the con-
Line Orientation (degrees)
attending is thus a type of transfer effect. As an pecking. Every learner—whether pigeon or per- trol acquired by new stimuli and "heightened at-
experimental example, we return to the use of son—faces the same problem at the beginning of tention" enhances their control, each may be
FIGURE 6.3 General attentiveness produced by understood as a different expression of the same
animal subjects since their prior selection history discrimination training: Which of the many stimuli
prior discrimination training in the same context biobehavioral processes.25
may be better controlled. Shown are the percentages of disk-pecking responses that being sensed are relevant to the guidance of the
The experiment22 was conducted in two occurred during a stimulus generalization test in which response? Discrimination training addresses this
phases. In the first -phase a discrimination was various line orientations were projected on the disk. problem by initiating processes that restrict the
acquired in a particular context; then in the second Pecking a disk on which a 90° (i.e., vertical) line was guidance of behavior to those stimuli that are most CONTEXTUAL DISCRIMINATIONS
phase a new discrimination was acquired in that projected had previously been reinforced with food for highly correlated with the reinforcer.
same context. If earlier discrimination training fa- groups. For pigeons in the experimental group, In the pigeon experiment, restriction of control
differential training between two wavelengths on the disk Discriminations probably give rise to most of the
cilitates the guidance of behavior by a new dis- to the "blue stimulus was accomplished as follows. environment-behavior relations to which the term
had been given prior to line-orientation training. For
criminative stimulus in the same context, then pigeons in the control group, nondifferential training with Since the blue stimulus was always present when "attention" is corrtrndnly applied. And, since most
"heightened attention" is demonstrated. the same two wavelengths on the disk had been given pecking was reinforced, the blue color increasingly discriminations are contextual discriminations,
Pigeons in the experimental group were placed prior to line-orientation training. guided behavior. However, when the disk was not most of the attention^! language in everyday dis-
in a test chamber in which pecking a disk on the Source: Honig, W. K. (1969). Attenuationa! factors governing blue and pecking was guided by stimuli from the cussions of behavior re ay be traced to this source.
wall occasionally produced food when the disk stimulus control. In R. Gilbert & N. S. Sutherland (Eds.), experimental context—e.g., the shape of the
Discrimination learning (pp. 35-62). New York: Academic The context in whifeh a discriminative stimulus
was blue, but not when the disk was green. Thus, Press. disk—pecking was not reinforced. The cumulative appears comes about in a variety of ways. For
birds received discrimination training with re- effect of process was the color of the disk example, the context may be the result of observing
to the color of the disk. After the blue color rapidly acquired the capacity to guide pecking and, responses. If, while at home, you hear someone call
come to guide peeking, the birds were returned as a result, the ability of the other stimuli to guide "Open the door!" your response to this request is
to the same test chamber, but now the stimulus on A control group of other pigeons was also pecking was increasingly blocked. Since blue rap- quite different depending on whether you see a
the disk was a vertical line on a white background. trained to peck blue green, disks but was not idly and increasingly came to evoke food-related friend or a stranger when you look out the window.
Pecking the vertical line produced food, and no given discrimination training on the wavelength responses, the behavioral discrepancy required to The same auditory stimulus ("Open the door!")
other lines were presented during this phase. Thus, dimension. Then they too were trained to peck the select other environment-behavior relations was occasions very different responses depending on
discrimination training did not occur during the vertical line. When tested with various line orien- eliminated, thereby blocking the inclusion of other the visual context (the sight of the speaker) pro-
second phase. When pecking the vertical line had tations, the control pigeons pecked all of the line stimuli as components in the selected environ- duced by the observing response (looking out the
been acquired, the precision with which the verti- orientations equally. In the language of '"atten- ment-behavior relation. window).
cal line guided pecking was assessed by presenting tion," the experimental animals, which had re- For the control subjects, guidance of pecking In this section, the examples of "attention"
lines of other orientations on the disk. As shov/n in ceived prior discrimination training, showed by these other stimuli was not blocked since the . focus on instances where the contextual stimuli are
Figure 63, for pigeons in the experimental group, "heightened attention" to line orientation in com- subjects had not received prior discrimination provided by the environment relatively inde-
pecking was rapid when the line was vertical but parison to the control animals that had not received training. Thus, stimuli from the context could con- pendently of overt observing responses. For exam-
decreased as the orientation varied. discrimination training.23 • tinue to guide responding. Later, when pecking the ple, the admonition "Listen carefully to what I am
162 6 Attending
to say" it likely the speaker's the is to vocal by the to the-two ears. When the
words will guide the listener's behavior more ef- responses whose sounds are similar to those of the sage. Later research • showed that stimuli from contains a standard English phrase (e.g., ". .. crept
fectively. Contextual discriminations of this sort- shadowed message, the shadowing task is said to the unshadowed message may affect the guidance out of . . .") and the unshadowed message next
are the cumulative effect of a selection history in require the subject to emit echoic responses.27 of other responses and of the 'echoic responses contains a phrase that is a natural continuation of
which the words spoken after such admonitions are How are echoic responses to words in the shad- themselves. To demonstrate the guidance of a the shadowed phrase (e.g., ". . . the swamp . . ."),
especially highly correlated with reinforcement. owed message affected by the instructional con- nonechoic response by a stimulus from the unshad- the echoic response is often guided by the unshad-
text? Are echoic responses affected by the words owed message, galvanic skin responses were con- owed continuation. That is, the echoic response is
in the unshadowed message? ditioned before the shadowing task by pairing "crept out of the swamp." The subject has echoed
Dichotic Listening During a shadowing task, any stimuli that allow certain words (e.g., the names of towns) with an the continuation in the unshadowed message rather
the shadowed message to be discriminated from electric shock.32 Later, when these words, or even than the next words in the shadowed message!36
Listening to the words of another is, indeed, a the unshadowed message contribute, to the accu- similar words, occurred in the wnshadowed mes- The phrase "crept out of" reinstates an environ-
human behavior with an extensive selection his- racy of echoic responses. If the two messages are sage, they sometimes evoked a galvanic response. mental context in which the unshadowed phrase
tory. Moreover, we must sometimes listen in noisy However, even though galvanic skin responses "the swamp" guides the echoic response. Thus, for
presented separately to different ears rather than
environments where many people are talking at the were guided by the unshadowed words, the sub- a few moments, the new context overrides the
together to both ears, if they are spoken by different
same time. At a noisy party, effective listening is jects did not emit echoic responses to these words instructions and the words in the unshadowed mes-
voices rather than the same voice, if they are con-
aided by observing responses, such as looking during the shadowing task or recall them at the end sage control the echoic response.37
cerned with different topics rather than the same
toward the speaker while directing an ear toward of the experiment. Findings from the dichotic listening task, when
topic, and so forth, then shadowing is more accu-
his mouth. But listening is primarily guided by the taken as a whole, indicate that rriultiple response
rate.2^ As is true of discriminations generally, the The earlier findings indicate that stimuli in the
auditory stimuli provided by the speaker's words unshadowed message\can guide behavior.. Other measures must be used to-reveal the full effects of
more the two sets of stimuli differ from one an-
themselves. To simulate listening under such con- research indicates that pre-experimental histories selection. Verbal responses, although crucially im-
other, the more effectively the contextual discrimi-
ditions, an experimental procedure was devised portant for the understanding of human behavior,
nation is maintained. acquired in the natural environment can have the
called dichotic listening. provide an incomplete and potentially misleading
effect. For example, when commands such as
In the the lis- appreciation of the richness of selection. The find-
of verbal responses. The instxuo "Stop it!" in. the unshadowed message, they
tener wears stereophonic earphones that permit the ings from dichotic listening also re-emphasize that
tions implementing the contextual discrimination are detected, especially if .-preceded by emotion-
experimenter to vary the characteristics of the stim- a response is often guided by multiple discrimina-
are particularly effective in restricting the guidance arousing words such as curses.33 Also, whether
uli, i.e., the messages, that are simultaneously pre- tive stimuli. When subjects echo a word as speci-
of verbal responses to stimuli in the shadowed instructed or not, subjects often detect certain other
sented to the two ears.26 The contextual stimulus fied by the experimenter's instructions, the
message. If, while shadowing one message, sub- stimuli in the unshadowed message—e.g., their instructional content and the shadowed word itself
is provided by the experimenter's instruction to own names being spoken, or a change in the gender
attend to only one of the messages (e.g., auditory jects are asked to detect specific words occasion- are not the -only sources of stimulation that guide
ally appearing in the unshadowed message, they of the speaker.34 Stimuli that are characteristic of behavior. Much of the'person's selection history—
stimuli presented by the left earphone) and to ig-
are often unable to do so.2^ Also, if subjects are commands, one's name, and—apparently—the not just the conditions'-present when the observa-
nore other messages (e.g., stimuli presented by the
for their recall of unshadowed words only a speaker's gender are reliable guides to behavior in is —affect responding in the experienced
right earphone). To insure that the context pro-
minutes after completing the shadowing many different contexts. Hence, these stimuli guide learner.38
vided by the instructions i§ effective, the listener is
generally cannot remember them.30 behavior —including the context
to repeat aloud, as soon as they are heard, the
Since stimuli in the unshadowed message do provided by instructions to shadow the other mes-
words in the attended message. For example, if a
not guide verbal responses, we might conclude that sage.
discussion about adaptive networks is presented in of the • of
one earphone and a discussion about baseball in the they do not guide any behavior. This would be too Additional evidence for the influence of stimuli
on Attending
other, the person might be asked to repeat word for a conclusion, however. It assumes that in the unshadowed message is provided by the
word everything heard in the ear sensing the adap- everything we know—i.e., every environment-be- response itself, When two sets of words are Interpreting the contribution of contextual
tive-network message. The words in both mes- havior relation—is reflected in our verbal behav- separately presented to the two ears, a word in the to attentional phenomena does not require an ap-
sages appear at high rates, typically over 100 per ior. This assumption—that knowledge may be shadowed message (e.g., "couch") is echoed'more peal to unique "attentional" processes. Instead, the
min. equated with verbal behavior—is called the verbal promptly when it is preceded in the unshadowed joint guidance of "behavior by contextual and dis-
bias. Most persons in our culture are predisposed by a related word (e.g., "sofa") than by an criminative stimuli allows us to interpret
This technique for measuring the effectiveness
of the instructional context is called to this bias and, because it is so pervasive, we must unrelated word.35 A more dramatic effect of the phenomena as the cumulative product of the biobe-
the listener is said to shadow the attended be on constant guard against it.31 unshadowed message on .the echoic response is. ->havioral processes involved in the selection and
found when connected discourse is presented sepa- environmental guidance of behavior. Through
164 6
the in the the A B the Y by A if the At the level, to such a

sage, when accompanied by the contextual stimuli are assumed to be moderately strong at the between A and X were great enough, and if there stimulus by a single input unit or such a response
provided by the shadowing instructions, restrict the outset of the experiment, but not strong enough by was no interference between pathways by a output unit is a simplification,
guidance of echoic responses to the stimuli in the themselves to activate output unit Y reliably. those leading from input B to output Y. A network even a great oversimplification. Nevertheless, at
shadowed Such contextual discrimina- (Without limitation, whenever the > B with these characteristics would respond to the the behavioral level of analysis, the simplification
tions are, therefore, another way—in addition to inputs were stimulated the output units would be simultaneous presentation of the stimuli "tree" and is justified to the extent that orderly environment-
blocking—to produce selective attending. The re- activated at the same time. Such a network would "yard'"7 with the echoic response "tree," and with a behavior relations are found when the stimulus and
striction in the environmental guidance of behavior behave like the unfortunate victim of Tourette's
galvanic skin response to "yard," if "yard" had response are so defined.41 -When a stimulus defined
is, however, specific to echoic responses. The un- syndrome at the beginning of the chapter-—it
previously been paired with shock. as "Raise your hand35 occurs, a response defined as
shadowed stimuli may continue to guide nonverbal Other "attentional" phenomena, such as re- raising the hand is reliably observed. Defining the
would "try" to do everything at once.)
responses, e.g., galvanic skin responses, and some sponding to one's-name or to a command even complex acoustic stimulus as the command and the
The function of the third input unit (C)—the
verbal responses as well; e.g., when the subject's though these stimuli appear in the unshadowed -complex muscular contractions as the response
instructions to respond to message B only—is to
message, can also be interpreted through an adap- permits an orderly environment-behavior relation
own name appears in the unshadowed message. activate some of the same pathways activated by
tive network. If the connections between some to be described at the behavioral level.
These conclusions are not confined to simulta- the message B input. When the B and C inputs are input and output units are strong independent of Of course, processes at the behavioral and neu-
neously presented auditory stimuli. A study was stimulated simultaneously, their combined effect context, then the stimuli that guide those responses ral levels must ultimately be consistent with one
conducted to determine if a contextual discrimina- activates the common paths strongly enough to will activate their outputs whatever the context. It another, and each level of analysis potentially aids
tion produced by instructions to attend to one vis- activate output unit Y reliably. (See Figure 6.4.) is reasonable'to believ$ that hearing one's name
ual stimulus produced results analogous to those the experimental analysis of the other. The interre-
Thus, in the context of the instructions, output Y is spoken would be .such a stimulus. Unlike the re-
obtained in the dichotic listening situation.-^ Vide- lation between levels of analysis may be illustrated
guided by input B and not by input A. However, sponses to most stimuli, responding to one's name
otapes were prepared of two activities—e.g., play- with the previous network interpretations of selec-
other output units, e.g., X, could still be activated would have been reinforced in almost every envi-
ing catch or pat-a-cake. Then, subjects were shown tive attending produced by contextual discrimina-
ronment. Similarly, responding to commands is tions. In the network interpretation, a stimulus may
images of the two activities superimposed by in a wide variety of environments. The
means of a mirror arrangement The subjects were simultaneously guid^ one response (e.g.,/' a gal-
difficulty of the game Simon 'says depends on this. vanic skin response) and not another (the verbal
instructed to follow one of the activities (e.g., Message A Galvanic When the leader of the game commands "Raise
throwing a ball or handclapping), and to press a in Left Ear: Skin response of echoing the stimulus). We have al-
"Tree"
your hand!" many rJlayers do so, in spite of the
button whenever they saw it. In agreement with the Response ready seen evidence from neuropsychology that
instructional context to follow only commands
finding in the auditory shadowing task, there was such disassociations Between response systems
preceded by the phrase "Simon says."
little or no evidence from the subjects' verbal be- may occur. In the phenomenon of blindsight, a
Message B
havior that they had seen the "unshadowed" activ- in Right Ear: Speaking Networks and neuroscience. Before moving to person who has suffered damage to brain regions
"Yard" involved in complex vision may be able to point to
ity:40 the final section of the chapter, a few comments are
in order about the adaptive networks discussed objects in the visual field but not to talk about
Contextual instructions: here. The units in these networks are more func- them.42 In that case, a stimulus guides manual..
Shadow Message responses but not verbal responses.
discriminations, the "selective attention" they in Right Ear tional than structural; i.e, their characteristics are
produce, can be simulated by adaptive networks. determined primarily by experimental work at the The network interpretation of selective attend-
Consider the in which two sets of messages behavioral level. The units in the .networks dis- ing as a contextual discrimination also proposed
FIGURE 6.4 Simultaneous guidance of the behavior that the context selectively strengthens connec-
(A B) are presented simultaneously to different of two different response systems mediated, by the cussed in earlier chapters were more clearly neu-
inputs of a network, with a third input (C) for the same neural network ron-like; i.e., their characteristics were more leading from the shadowed stimulus input to
instructions to respond to only one of the messages, The network has three input units (A, B, and C), three closely tied to experimental work at the neural the designated response output. Work at the neural
e.g., message B. (See Figure 6.4.) Examples of the interior units, and two output units (X and Y). The widths level. For example, the command "Raise" your level is consistent with this proposal. Monkeys
A and B messages might be the simultaneous audi- of the lines indicate the strengths of connections between hand!" is' an extremely complex, time-vary ing were trained with a contextual discrimination in
the units. In the context of the shadowing instructions, acoustic stimulus that activates a large number of which the correct response to tones simultaneously
tory stimuli "tree" and "yard," Output unit Y rep-
only acoustic stimuli presented to the right ear guide receptors, and then neurons in the auditory system, presented to different ears depended on the context
resents the response system to which the speaking, but a galvanic skin response is guided by the
instructions apply, e.g., the speech system respon- Moreover, the response to such a command is an provided by a visual stirnulus. In the presence of
acoustic stimulus to the left ear since the two response
sible for echoing the auditory stimuli. As a result equally complex pattern of neuronal activity pro- one visual stimulus, the response appropriate to the
systems do not interfere with one another. (See discus-
of the selection history of the network, the connec- sion in the text.) >.ducing coordinated contractions of many muscle tone in.the left-ear was reinforced; in the presence
166 6 Attending 167
of the other visual stimulus, the at physiological between sensing the stimu- the previously selected response by the
ate to the in the right ear was reinforced. Thus, levels. Interference can occur at any point in the lus executing the response. sight of the color name. This conjecture
the animals were trained on a contextual discrimi- sequence that begins with sensing the discrimina- While interactions among biobehavioral proc- been supported: When subjects are required to
nation in which the visual stimulus provided the tive stimulus and ends with emitting the differen- esses may facilitate as well as interfere with envi- press a button designating the color, rather than
context that specified the tone that was to be "shad- tiated response. If the processes involved in one ronment-behavior relations, we focus here on speak the name of the color, interference de-
owed." When the activity of neurons in the audi- ongoing environment-behavior relation are needed interactions that produce interference in divided- clines.52 Finally, aBy change that increases the
tory association cortex was monitored, an by a second relation, then the second relation can- attention tasks. Our goals are to identify some of guidance of behavior by the instructional context
enhanced neural response to the auditory stimulus not occur. Laboratory procedures that produce in- •the conditions that produce interference, and to should also lessen interference. This follows be-
was found when the visual context indicated that consider whether and how experience with the task cause the processes initiated by the instructions
terfering interactions are commonly called
the auditory stimulus was correct.^ The observed may modulate interference effects.49 strengthen the color-naming relation relative to the
divided-attention tasks.
neural events are consistent with network interpre- word-naming relation. In keeping with this expec-
tations that some "attentiona!" phenomena are in- tation, extended practice reduces interference on
Interference in Divided-Attention Tasks. The
stances of contextual discriminations. Divided "Attention" the Stroop task.53
Stroop task may be used to study interference
To summarize, circumstances' that favor inter-
effects. In this task, you recall, subjects are in-
Interference in divided-attention tasks can arise in ference are as follows: Interference between, two
structed to name a color, but the color is presented
CONCURRENT GUIDANCE AND many ways.45 In the shadowing task, at least part environment-behavior relations is likely when (a)
in the form of a word that is the name of another
ATTENDING of the interference occurred in the emission of the the stimuli guiding the environment-behavior rela-
color. Under these conditions, the name of the
vocal response: The subject could not say two tions are in the same modality and' occur simulta-
The environment usually contains many concur- color is spoken witti hesitancy—perhaps 50%
things at once. In other divided-attention tasks, more slowly than would otherwise occur—and neously, (b) the responses guided by the stimuli
rently sensed discriminative stimuli (i.e., stimuli interference occurs when the stimuli are being involve the same effectors, (c) the contingencies of
capable of guiding responses because of the with more errors—perhaps 15% errors when the
sensed. When the discriminative stimuli are in the word is the name of a color different from that of selection that produced the two environment-be-
learner's selection history). Accordingly, there are same modality, e.g., both visual or both auditory havior relations are similar, and (d) as a result of
many possibilities for interference among the the ink in which the word- is printed.
stimuli, interference may occur at an early stage in selection, both of the relations are strong. In the
biobehavioral processes initiated by these stimuli. Performance in the Stroop may be Stroop task, the stimuli were both-visual (the color
the sequence. For example, if a visually presented
• We have already seen an illustration of such inter- • preted as .the result of interference between two of the ink and the letters of the word), the responses
letter of the alphabet is followed within 100 msec strong pre-existing environment-behavior rela-
ference-effects in the shadowing experiment. As were both vocal (naming the color and speaking
by a circle to the same portion of the retina, subjects tions: The letters of the word, guide speaking one
illustrated by the adaptive network in Figure 6.4, the word), the contingencies of selection were
do not report seeing the letter.46 In this case, the color name, and the color of the ink guides speak-
the words in either the shadowed or unshadowed similar (both relations were likely the product of
interfering biobehavioral processes occur periph- ing another color name. The contextual discrimi-
message are capable, under different conditions, of similar schedules of acquired reinforcers), and the
evoking echoic responses. However, the instruc- erally in the retina, and perhaps in other portions nation implemented by the experimenter's different vocal responses were strongly guided by
tions to echo only one of the messages causes of the visual system.47 instruction that speaking should be guided only by the color and the letters of the word, respectively.
shadowing to be guided by one message to the Interference effects may also involve biobe- the color of the ink sets the stage for interference
exclusion of the other. To the extent that some of havioral processes that occur between sensing the between these two relations. From this perspective, Network interpretations of interference, Inter-
the processes necessary for shadowing are devoted stimulus and emitting the response. For example, any change in conditions that weakens the relation ference effects in divided-attention may be
to shadowing one message, the other message can- if subjects are told to visually scan an array of between the letters of the word and speaking its interpreted using neural networks. A network de-
not be shadowed. That is, the processes required stimuli for the letter "O" and press a button when color name should reduce the amount of interfer- scription also suggests the means whereby experi-
for the two echoic responses interfere with one they see it, the "O" is detected more rapidly if it ence. ence may reduce interference effects. The upper
another. The most obvious source of interference appears among a group of numbers than if it ap- Several findings support the above interpreta- panel of Figure 6*,5 shows a neural network with
in the shadowing task is there is. only one set pears among a group of letters. Conversely, when tion. Children in first or second grade, who name three input units (A, B, and C), two output units (X
of articulators available for the emission of a vocal the experimenter describes the identical stimulus colors faster than they read color words, 'do not and Y), a number of interior units, and various
response, so only one echoic response may occur as the number zero rather than the letter "O,5" it is show interference effects on the Stroop task.50 connections between the units. Suppose that one
at a time.44 now more readily detected among a group of letters Similarly, children who are poor readers, no matter environment-behavior relation involves the Si
In general, shadowing other environment- a group of numbers.48 Since the visual what their grade, also show less interference.51 The stimulus (which stimulates both input units A
behavior relations involve many biobehavioral stimulus (O) and the response (pressing a button) interfering effects of the pre-existing environment- B) and the Ri response (output unit X). For exam-
processes. Some of these processes may be ob- are the same in both cases, this effect of context on behavior relation should also be reduced if a non- ple, S i might be a musical chord consisting of the
served at the behavioral level and others require search behavior clearly involves the interaction of vocal response is required: Speaking the word is simultaneous presentation of two notes—one
Attending
a button. In the of interference is that both Si and 82 stimu- ice drivers become more skilled, they are increas-
network performs "correctly" if stimulation of the late input unit B. When input unit B is stimulated, ingly able to accurately carry out arithmetical cal-
Musical Press inputs by Si alone activates only RI, stimulation pathways are activated that lead to both output, culations posed to them as they drive.56 (No
Chord Si Button 1 by 82 alone activates only R?, and stimulation by units X and Y—and, hence, to Ri and R2, respec- mention is made of whether arithmetical calcula-
Si and 82 simultaneously activates both RI andR2- tively. This source of. interference may be mini- tions interfere with driving, an effect of perhaps
Musical
Thus the network is able to carry out either task mized if a fading procedure is used when the S i-Ri greater interest to other drivers sharing the road!)
Chord S2 separately or both together. and S2-R2 relations are being selected. First, the Similar work has found that experienced secretar-
With the network whose strengths of connec- network is trained to activate output unit X when ies can type while shadowing a telephone message,
tions are shown in the upper panel of Figure 6.5, only input unit A is stimulated and output unit Y and experienced piano-bar musicians can sight
when Si and 82 stimulate the inputs of the net- when only Input unit C is stimulated. The success read while listening to patrons.57 In the laboratory,
work—either separately or simultaneously—the of this training depends on the presence of multiple subjects with prolonged experience in a dichotic
two input-output relations can interfere with one pathways leading from A to X and from C to Y, listening task can reliably detect stimuli appearing
Musical
Chord
Press
Button 1
another. When Si is presented alone, RI generally some of which do not lead to both output units. The in either the attended or unattended ear.58 Not
occurs because output unit X is more strongly pathways that meet this requirement are indicated surprisingly, an exception occurs when the same
activated than output unit Y. There are two mod- by the heavy lines between units, denoting the response system is used to report simultaneous
Musical R2 Press erately strong pathways from 81 units to the Ri unit existence of very strong connections along the detections. As the subject responds to one stimulus,
Chord S2 Button 2
and only one to the R2 unit. However, the "wrong" pathways leading from the input units to the appro- the other stimulus has no measurable effects on the
response, R2, can sometimes occur because Si priate output units. 6>nce pathways had been se- same response system.5^
FIGURE 6.5 Effect of fading on concurrent activates one moderately strong pathway leading lected for each of these components of Si and 82, Although the above findings are consistent
performance to R2. Contrary to what is desired, when Si is the network could be presented with the complete with the view that several environment-behavior
Different interference effects mediated by two neural presented, both responses may occur, depending stimuli that stimulate input, unit B in common. At relations can occur at the same time, some of the
networks having the same connectivity but different on which pathways are activated and the degree of this' point, the reinforcer is already fully "pre- concurrent tasks were relatively undemanding—
strengths of connections. The widths of the lines connect- incompatibility between the responses. Compara- simple addition problems and detecting single
ing the units indicate the strengths of connections be- dicted'5 by input units A and C; i.e., there is no
ble problems arise when 82 is presented alone. The words. These tasks coiald have been carried out in
tween units. The network in the upper panel shows much longer a discrepancy. Consequently, no increases
source of potential interference is that both S i and rapid succession rather than simultaneously. The
interference; the network in the lower panel shows less can occur in the strength of connections along the
82 potentially activate a common interior unit, and best indication of the ability of experienced learn-
interference. In the upper panel, because Si and 82 both pathways leading from input unit B to the output
stimulate input unit B—which is the origin of moderately that unit is the origin of pathways to both Ri and ers to perform complex tasks at the same time
units. That is, even though input unit B is stimu-
strong pathways to both output units X and Y—either RI R2.54 comes from a rejna^kable series of experiments
lated by both Si and 82, further learning is blocked,
or R 2 (or both) may be produced by either stimulus. In Is interference, or "divided attention," a neces- conducted by Ulrich-\Neisser and his colleagues,
After such training, the same network can mediate Hirst, Spelke, and Reaves.
the lower panel, a fading procedure was used in which sary result if the stimuli to be discriminated can
pre training with inputs A and C preceded training with the Si-Ri and S2-R2 relations either separately or
activate interior units giving rise to pathways that simultaneously without interference.55
Si and S2, thereby reducing interference effects by block- Simultaneous complex, behavior. The two com-
ing the ability of input unit B to acquire the ability to guide lead to different responses? When the implications
plex tasks to be- performed simultaneously were
either response. (See text for additional information.) of behavioral selection are fully considered, it is A bio- copying dictated words while reading, with the
that effects are possible but behavioral interpretation of "divided attention" in- subjects required to comprehend both sets of verbal
not inevitable in Since selection occurs dicates that, with appropriate training, fading material. In the copying task, the - stimuli were
only so long as there is a behavioral discrepancy, should permit the learner to perform two activities auditorily presented words and the behavioral re-
which stimulates input unit A the other input since fading may be used to facilitate discrimi- simultaneously that would otherwise be sponses were the hand movements required to
unit B. The RI response might consist of pressing nation formation, interference effects can be re- ible. What is the evidence? write the words. In the reading task, the stimuli
a button. Suppose that portions of the same net- duced or avoided altogether—even with highly Strong suggestive information from everyday were visually presented words and the behavioral
work mediate a second environment-behavior re- similar tasks involving many potentially common observation indicates that, with extended practice, responses were the eye movements required to read
lation involving 82 (input units B and C) and R2 pathways. a person may engage in several complex environ- the words. Because the stimuli were from different
(output unit Y). 82 might be a second musical To illustrate the effect of selection with a fading ment-behavior relations at the same time. Do you sensory modalities and the behavioral responses
chord consisting of the simultaneous presentation procedure, consider again the two environment-be- recall how, when you first learned to drive, you used different effector systems, the tasks avoided
of two notes, one which also stimulates input unit havior relations, Si-Ri and S2-R2, mediated by the were unable to "pay attention" to anything else?- peripheral interference from sensing the stimuli
B and the other input unit C. R2 might consist of network in the upper panel of Figure 6.5, The Indeed, research confirms this impression. As nov- and executing the responses. The remaining
170 6 Attending 171
of the me- the with selection a fading procedure—be compre-

diating the environment-behavior relations, in- speed accuracy while copying the dictated Arlene Mary Control hended and remembered, the authors of these stud-
cluding those required for comprehension. Since sentences at the same time. Comprehension was ies concluded: "Th£ limits of mental performance
both copying and reading involve verbal relations, measured in several ways with tests administered at any given time are determined by an individual' s
they are likely to partially common biobe- between training trials. As one test of comprehen- history rather than by fixed cognitive structures . . .
havioral resources, sion, subjects were given a list of sentences and o People can learn to do indefinitely many things
In an initial study, two college students were asked to judge which ones they had copied and how u indefinitely well."^ Indeed, this conclusion seems
asked to copy novel three-word and four-word confident they were in the accuracy of their judg- much closer to the truth than the conventional
sentences while reading prose material.60 As soon ments. Although it had not been pointed out to the wisdom that our ability to carry out multiple envi-
as they had copied one sentence, they were given subjects, some sets of three successive copied sen- ronment-behavior relations at the same time is
Type of Sentence
the next new sentence to copy. Reading speed was tences were related to one another; for example, limited to one or, at most, a few simple relations.
continuously measured, and tests for remembering "Cookbooks contain recipes," "Susan owns sev- FIGURE 6.6 Effect of extended practice and fading A major contributor to the conventional wisdom is
and comprehending both sets of materials were eral," and "Mary hates cooking." The list of sen- on. concurrent performance the verbal bias by \vhich we equate what we know
given intermittently. After over 100 hours of expe- tences presented in the memory tests included Shown are the confidence ratings that various sentences with what we can talk about. Because we can talk
rience on these two tasks, none of the subjects were some that were identical to copied sentences (e.g., had occurred during a prior task in which sentences were about only one thing at a time, we mistakenly
able to read at normal speed while understanding "Cookbooks contain recipes"), some that were im- copied. The rated sentences were of three types: (a) those believe we can do only one thing at a time.
and remembering both the sentences they had cop- that had actually been copied (Copy), (b) those that had As interpreted by adaptive networks, a history
plied by the copied sentences although they had not
not been presented but were implied by the copied sen-
ied and the sentences they had read. Note that in been copied (e.g., "Susan owns cookbooks"), and of selection with fading strengthens different path-
tences (Impl), and (c) those that had not been presented
this first study, practice had begun with both of the some that were unrelated to the meaning of the and were unrelated to the copied sentences (Unrl). Arlene
ways that mediate otherwise interfering environ-
complex tasks introduced at the beginning of the copied sentences (e.g., "Susan hates cooking"). and Mary were the experimental subjects who had copied ment-behavior relations. From this perspective, the
experiment. The investigators speculated that the Implied sentences were included because other the sentences while simultaneously reading other sen- subjects in the above studies were reading and
two tasks had been introduced too rapidly. research had shown that, under normal reading tences. The control subjects had copied the same sen- copying in, qualitatively different ways after train-
In a second experiment, a fading was conditions, subjects often judge implied tences but not while engaged in any other task. ing with the fading procedure than they were at the
Source: Hirst,.W., Spelke, E., Reaves, C. C., Caharack, G., &
used to more gradually train copying while read- to have actually been read.63 This result is taken as Neisser, U. (1980). Divided attention without alternation or
beginning of the study. The original environment-
ing.61 This experiment began with a simple copy- particularly strong evidence for comprehension of automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, behavior relations ^/ere not simply made stronger
ing task that was made progressively more the verbal material because it requires that infor- 109, 98-117. Copyright © 1980 by the American Psychological by prolonged selectioa; they were to some degree
demanding as the study went on. Subjects were mation be integrated across different sentences. Association. Reprinted by permission. replaced by other relations using new pathways.65
first trained to copy single unrelated words, and The results of the comprehension test are Note, however, that adaptive-network interpre-
then progressed gradually to three- and five-word shown in Figure 6.6 for the two trained subjects, tations do not necessarily indicate that any two
sentences. Longer copying tasks were introduced Arlene and Mary, and for a group of four control It is well to re-emphasize that Arlene and Mary tasks can be carried out simultaneously. There are
only after the subjects' reading speed and compre- subjects who had copied the sentences without comprehended and remembered the copied sen- limitations beyond our obvious physical inability
hension had reached levels comparable to those simultaneously reading. The trained and control tences while, at the same time, they read and com- to sense all stimuli or to execute all responses
achieved when they wereûst reading. During this subjects showed the same pattern of results: They prehended the prose passages at normal levels! simultaneously,' Sanie tasks, by their very nature,
phase, no tests were given for comprehension of most confidently judged the copied sentences as Moreover, they comprehended the copied material involve components that must be carried out se-
the copied sentences.62 To give some appreciation having been copied, followed by the implied sen- even though they were surprised to be told, at the quentially; "e.g., yott cannot say whether two stim-
of the length of training, normal reading speed and tences, and then the unrelated sentences. In short, end of the study, that any of the successive sen- uli are similar until, after you have sensed both of
comprehension—while copying three-word sen- experimental subjects correctly remembered tences were related to one another. Thus, as in the them.66 Other tasks, because of unavoidable inter-
tences—was reached after either 28 or 71 one-hour the copied sentences and drew correct implications shadowing task, stimuli of which the subjects were actions within regions of the- brain, cannot be per-
sessions for the two subjects in the study. Interest- about them. While Arlene and Mary were some- unaware were nevertheless able to influence verbal formed at the same time,67 The ability of selection
ingly, the subject who required less training had what less confident of their judgments than the behavior. to produce two simultaneous environment-behav-
been a secretary before becoming a college student, control subjects, the differences among the three ior relations depends on the prior existence of
she reported being able to type while talking types of test sentences were reliable for all subjects. alternative neural pathways between the relevant
Limits on Attending
on the telephone. Moreover, this pattern was obtained on the very receptors and effectors.
Comprehension of the copied material was as- first test, when the subjects were unaware that they Given the remarkable finding that two independent •. The extent to which alternative pathways are
sessed only after the subjects were reading and would be tested on the copied material. verbal messages can—with a prolonged history of found depends on many factors. Here, we empha-
172 Attending 173
the of the likely to vary in the of involvement of observing to STUDY AIDS

procedure. Another factor is the presence of stimuli overlapping areas in the nervous system confirm from and to be maintained by the same biobehav-
having a motivating function; i.e., stimuli whose the view: Tasks requiring different brain are Terms
ioral processes that select other environment-be-
presentation changes the strength of a range of less prone to interference effects.73 Until we have havior relations—notably those required for nominal fallacy
environment-behavior relations. The simplest ex- detailed knowledge of the potential connectivity selection by reinforcement discrimination for- observing responses
ample of a motivating function is the sensitization within and between brain areas, questions about mation.
limits on concurrent performance cannot be fully base-rate neglect
of reflexive relations by eliciting stimuli, but ac- Third, as with historical sciences generally, an
answered.74 transfer effect
quired environment-behavior relations can be en- interpretation of attentional phenomena requires
hanced as well. As applied to adaptive networks, dichotic listening procedure
an intimate knowledge of the full history of selec- shadowing
motivating stimuli increase the activation of many
CONCLUDING COMMENTS tion. The interpretation must be sensitive to the echoic responses
pathways within the network. The effect of this
effects of both the individual and ancestral envi- verbal bias
indiscriminate increase is to make it more likely
We have encountered a number of examples of ronments. Consider the question of an organism's divided-attention' tasks
that one or more alternative pathways between the
behavioral phenomena that—in everyday lan- ability to mediate simultaneous environment-be-
critical input and output units will be activated, and
guage—are taken as evidence of "attention." Se- havior relations. This ability depends on both the
thereby become eligible for selection by the diffuse
lective-attention and divided-attention procedures specifics of selection by reinforcement, e.g., dis- Text Questions
reinforcing system. In the "divided attention" lit-
provide examples of such phenomena. Several in- crimination through fading; and the specifics of
erature, the motivating function of stimuli is com- 1. In the introduction to the chapter, four general
terrelated themes emerged in our efforts to'inter- natural selection, e.g^ the potential connectivity of
monly referred to as "effort."68 The general finding pret "attention." First, "attention" is not a accounts of attending are described. Identify each
in studies of "attention" is that simultaneous tasks the nervous system. Furthermore, the interpreta- type of account and give an experimental and
theoretically coherent field of study; i.e., no single
require the greatest "effort" at the beginning of tion must take into account a number of the everyday example of each.
interpretation can be given for all such phenomena
training and then progressively less "effort" as because they involve different realizations of basic learner's response systems, and not—in the case of
2. Sensing a stimulus is necessary for it to guide
training goes on. For example, the subjects in the biobehavioral processes. For example, selective human learners—just the response systems medi-
behavior," What is the role of observing responses
experiment on simultaneous reading and copying attending can have several origins, including ating verbal behavior. On the issue of simultaneous in attending? How are they acquired and what
reported just such a result. blocking and the interference produced when sev- environment-behavior relations, we would have maintains these responses?
Since environment-behavior relations involv- eral stimuli compete for control of a single effector formed an inadequate appreciation of our abilities
ing similar stimuli, responses, and contingencies of if our conclusions had been based on verbal re- 3. Many attentional phenomena may be inter-
system. Of course, to conclude that "attention"
reinforcement are most apt to involve overlapping preted as the direct outcome of the subject's history
does not constitute a theoretically coherent field of sponses alone. The verbal bias leads us to underes-
pathways in an adaptive network, tasks having of discrimination learning. Indicate how some in-
study in no way detracts from the importance of timate the full complexity of selection.
these characteristics are most apt to interfere with stances of both selective attending and heightened
such phenomena in the interpretation of complex Last, the interpretation of attentional phenom-
one another. For example, when simultaneous attending can be produced by the biobehavioral
behavior. ena did not require the introduction of a uniquely processes responsible for blocking.
tasks involve different environment-behavior rela- Second, the behavior of the learner plays an attentional process or entity. Instead, attentional
tions, e.g., spelling vs. addition69 or speech vs. increasingly active role in determining the envi-
4. Describe the dichotic listening situation as an
phenomena seem to-arise as the emergent conse-
music,70 interference is less likely. However, when ronmental events that guide behavior. As a cumu-
example of a contextual • discrimination. Summa-
quences of an extended history of selection. Al- rize the major findings with this procedure with
the tasks are similar, e.g., multiple color discrimi- lative effect of past selection, the environment though we must remain open to the possibility that regard to both the shadowed and unshadowed mes-
nations71 or word detections,72 interference is evokes observing responses and these responses,
more likely. Whether extensive training with fad- other processes may ultimately be required, the sages. How may these results be interpreted?
in turn, affect the stimuli that are sensed.75 The
ing procedures would eliminate interference even various included under the heading of 5. Describe the divided-attention procedure as
experimental analysis of some observing re-
in such cases is unknown. "attention" appear to be within the. reach of basic an example of a concurrent discrimination. In gen-
sponses, such as the movement of the eyes from
Ultimately, of course, the limits on simultane- one fixation point to another, can be carried out on biobehavioral principles identified by experimen- eral, when should concurrent environment-behav-
ous performance are imposed by the availability of the behavioral level, The analysis of other observ- tal analysis and interpreted by adaptive networks. ior relations interfere and when should they occur
potential alternative pathways in the nervous sys- ing responses, such as attending to a message in If simple processes identified by experimental independently of one another? Indicate experimen-
tem. Without alternative, partially non-overlap- one ear ¥/hile simultaneously sensing a different analysis are sufficient to interpret complex phe--. tal evidence from tfoe Stroop task that is consistent
ping neural pathways between receptors and message in the other ear, requires supplementation nomena, then historical science tentatively accepts with your interpretations.
effectors, two simultaneous environment-behavior by measurements on the microbehavioral and those interpretations as explanations of the com- • . 6. Describing the work of Ulrich Neisser and his
relations cannot be mediated. Research employing physiological levels. At whatever level they are plex phenomena. associates, indicate the conditions under which
174 6
Attending
tasks may 16. e.g., 1958a; & Dinsmoor, 1984, ers, Neisser has put it well: "Information pickup is not 47. DiLollo, L0vye» & Scott, 1973, See also Sakitt,
affect interference between environment-behavior ' 1986. entirely under voluntary control; we would be too ab- 1975 and Turvey, 1978.
relations. Refer to fading in your answer. 17. Case, Fantino, & Wixted, 1985. See also Case, sentminded to survive if it were." (Neisser, 1976, p. 94.) 48. JonideS'&Gleitman, 1972.
Ploog, & Fantino, 1990, and Frazier & Bitetto, 1969. In the "attention" literature, the verbal bias is most 49. For alternati v e approaches to the analy sis of inter-
18. Kahneman & Tversky, 1973; Kahneman, Slovic, apparent when "attention" is equated with awareness, or fering interactions, see Allport, 1980; Deutsch &
& Tversky, 1982. consciousness. The treatment of awareness is postponed Deutsch, 1963; Kaftnerrian & Treisman, 1984b; and
19. Gluck& Bower, 1988. until a later chapter. Posner, 1978.
20. For a discussion of some of the difficulties in 32. Corteen & Wood, 1972; Corteen & Dunn, 1974; 50. Ehri, 1976. See also Geffen & Sexton, 1978.
7. Is the fact that different people behave in genuine diagnostic judgments, see Dawes, Faust, &
different ways in the same environment inconsis- von Wright, Anderson, & Stenman, 1975. 51. Gibson, 1971.
Meehl, 1989. 33. Moray, 1959. 52. Pritchatt, 1968.
tent with the idea that behavior is guided by the 21. cf. Staats, 1968, p. 394. 34. Triesman, 1960. 53. Stroop, 1935. for work that uses the Stroop task
environment? Explain. 22. Honig, 1969. 35. Lewis, 1970; see also MacKay, 1973 and Treis- to implement a visual analog of the auditory shadowing
23. For related work, see Reinhold & Perkins, 1955; man, Squire, & Green, 1974. experiment, see Kahneman & Henik, 1981 and Kahne-
Thomas, 1970; and Thomas, Miller, & Svinicki, 1971. 36. Triesman, 1960. man & Chajczyk, 1983. This research shows that when
ENDNOTES For reviews, see Lubow, Weiner, & Schnur, 1981 and 37. Stimuli from the unshadowed message may also two simultaneous Stroop problems are presented, in-
Thomas, 1985. affect the recall of the shadowed message; Lachner & structions to respond to only one of them do not entirely
1. cf. Posner, 1978; Kinchla, 1980. 24. For theoretical analyses of this and other atten- Garrett, 1972. For example, if the shadowed message eliminate the guidance of responding by stimuli in the
2. e.g., Kahneman & Triesman, 1984a, b; Posner, tional phenomena, see Mackintosh, 1977 and Rescorla contains a sentence with an ambiguous verb, e.g., "The other problem. Thus, as with auditory shadowing, re-
1984. & Wagner, 1972. spy put out the torch as pur signal to attack," when the sponding may be affected by the entire ensemble of
3. Hineline, 1980. SeeMayr, 1982 for a similar point 25. In order for heightened attention to occur in the unshadowed message simultaneously contains the sen- stimuli and is not restricted to those specified by the
about biology; cf. Neisser, 1976. manner just described, the contextual stimuli must re- tence "The spy extinguished the torch in the window,"
4. To say that an event is sensed, i.e., that it is a instructions that institute the contextual discrimination.
main similar during both phases of discrimination train- the shadowed sentence might be remembered as "The 54. This treatment of interference within an adaptive
stimulus, means that the event constitutes a change in the ing. If the context changes when the discrimination spy turned off the torch in; the window." (In Great network is overly simple, especially because the effects
physical energy falling on a receptor and that the change changes, then new contextual stimuli are not as effec- Britain, where this study was conducted, the word of inhibitory connections between units are not consid-
initiates neural activity that is propagated to the central tively blocked. In addition, the discriminative stimuli
nervous system. "torch" is used to designate a flashlight as well as a ered. The activity of gome neurons'exerts an excitatory
from the first training condition must not be present flaming object.) Here, the stimuli in the unshadowed effect on the neurons with which they synapse; i.e., the
5. Reason, 1984. during the later discrimination training, or the old dis-
6. Kamin, 1969. See also Mackintosh, 1975. message, although not themselves echoed or remem- postsynaptic neuron is more likely to be activated. The
criminative stimuli will block the guidance of respond- bered, have influenced remembering the shadowed mes- activity of other neurons has an inhibitory effect; i.e., the
7. Reason, 1984. This paper also contains a historical ing by the new stimuli. For representative work with
example of a similar lapse of "attention." Of the 17th sage. postsynaptic neuron is fesS likely to be activated by its
animals on the role of context in stimulus discrimination, 38. For reviews of research using the dichotic listen- excitatory inputs. Inhibitory interactions are very impor-
century Comte de Brancas it was said: "He plays at
see Balsam, 1984; Gibbon & Balsam, 1981; Grau & ing task and related methods for the study of attention, tant to the functioning oF\t!ie nervous system and to the
backgammon and asks for something to drink; it is his
Rescorla, 1984; Miller & Matzel, 1987; and Miller & see Broadbent, 1982; Hirst, 1986; Kahneman & Treis- adaptive networks that simulate its functioning. The
turn to play, and having the dice-box in one hand and the
glass in the other, being very thirsty, he gulps down the Schachtman, 1985. man, 1984a, b; and Posner, 1982. The contribution of contribution'of inhibitory neural interactions to the func-
26. The dichotic listening procedure was developed context to discriminative performance is by no means tioning of neural networks as considered in later chap-
dice, and almost the box as well, throwing the liquor on
the board and half drowning his antagonist." (Pritchard, by Cherry, 1953 and Broadbent, 1958. Dichotic listening restricted to humans; see Balsam & Tomie, 1985 for ters.
1953, pp. 363-366, cited i* Reason, 1984, p, 518.) is an ecologically valid procedure in that it simulates an representative examples of this work, 55. The foregoing discussion focuses on the contribu-
8. Friedhoff & Chase, 1982. environment in which the subject has an extensive selec- 39. Neisser & Becklen, 1975. tion of fading to the selection of non-interfering environ-
9. Sacks, 1987, pp. 122-123. tion history in the natural environment; cf. Neisser, 40. Littman & Becklen, 1976. See also Neisser, 1976; ment-behavior relations. Other factors contribute to this
10. Stroop, 1935. 1976. Stoffregen & Becklen, 1989= outcome as well. Wh^ji two environmental stimuli guide
11. Of course, stimuli not sensed at the moment indi- 27. Skinner, 1957, p. 55. 41. Skinner, 1931, 1938. different responses, and the stimuli are composed of
rectly affect behavior through the enduring effects of 28. e.g., Broadbent, 1952, 1958. 42. Weizkrantz, Warrington, Sanders, & partially common components, the cumulative effect of
earlier exposure to those stimuli. The effects of past 29. Moray and O'Brien, 1967. But see 1975. 1974. selection reduces the guidance of behavior by the com-
selections are retained and, thus, present stimuli act on 30. Norman, 1969. 43. Hocherman, Benson, Goldstein, Heffner, & mon components relative to the unique components
an organism that has been changed by earlier selections. 31. The idea that behavior may be guided by events Hienz, 1976. For related work of similar import, >see (e.g., Blough, 1975; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972)—al-
12. Banks & Saiapatek, 1983. that are not reflected in speech was, perhaps, Freud's Hubei, Henson, Rupert, & Galambos, 1959; Wurtz, though not so completely as with fading. As an example,
13. Clifton, Morrongiello, Kulig, & Dowd, 1981: great contribution to a science of human behavior. Al- Goldberg, & Robinson, 1980; Moran & Desimone, ' in a visual search task, an array of letters was scanned to
Wolff & White, 1965. though many readily accept the place of what Freud 1985; and Petersen, Robinson, & Keys, 1985. detect letters such as B, C, p, G, J, O, P, Q, R, S, and U
14. Wyckoff, 1952, 1969. See also Spence, 1936; called the "unconscious" in pathological behavior, 44. Marcel, 1983a;bs. (Gibson & Yonas, 1966). With extended practice, per-
Sutherland & Mackintosh, 1971. Freud argued for the much more general influence of 45. Norman & Bobrow, 1975. formance improved—-presumably because the target let-
15. Wyckoff, 1969. such events (Freud, 1904). Among contemporary work- 46. Averbach & Coriell, 1961. ters were distinguished from the others by the presence
of curved The of the 66. the
to affect behavior was reduced by selection, A second heading of attention involve sequential behavioral proc- CHAPTER 7
factor is that, since most discriminations are contextual and, for that reason, are not considered here. These
discriminations, the role of contextual stimuli should be include tasks in which there is no consistent relation
included in interpretations of "divided attention." The between the stimuli and responses appearing in the task;
context in which environment-behavior relations are e.g., Fisk & Schneider, 1983; Shiffrin & Grantham, PERCEIVING
separately selected is often different from that in which
they are jointly selected. This difference in contextual
1974; Schneider, Dumais, & Shiffrin, 1984; Shiffrin &
Schneider, 1977; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; as well as
ENVIRONMENT-ENVIRONMENT
stimuli can also facilitate the formation of non-interfer-
ing pathways in the network through the biobehavioral
those in which a stimulus may be responded to only after RELATIONS
a second stimulus has been detected; e.g., Reeves &
processes involved in discrimination formation. "Di- Sperling, 1986; Weichselgartner & Sperling, 1987. The
vided attention" refers to a theoretically incoherent set behavioral processes involved in these tasks require
of phenomena and is an expression of a number of additional interpretations of the sort described in a later
different realizations of a common set of processes. Although environmental and behavioral events are relations among similar stimuli from adjacent parts
chapter on problem solving, cf. Hunt & Lansman, 1986. forever changing, the changes often bear orderly
56. Brown & Poulton, 1961. of the environment would facilitate the discrimina-
67. Holtzman & Gazzaniga, 1982. relations to one another. The orderly relations that
57. Shaffer, 1975; Allport, Antonis, & Reynolds, tion of objects, which would clearly benefit repro-
68. Kahneman, 1973.
1972.
69. Hirst & Kalmar, 1987. we have so far considered are between environ- ductive fitness. Relations between environmental
58. Underwood, 1974; Kahneman, 1973; cf. Shiffrin, mental and behavioral events. For example, stimu-
70. Allport, Antonis, & Reynolds, 1972. events that are constant over evolutionary time—
1975. lation of receptors in the mouth by food elicits
71. Treisman & Davies, 1973. such as the relatively greater similarity of stimuli
59. Ostry, Moray, & Marks, 1976. salivation, the sound of VA tone evokes salivation if
72. Friedman, Poison, Dafoe, & Gaskill, 1982. from different parts of the same object—are known
60. Spelke, Reaves, Hirst, & Neisser, 1977.
73. Kinsbourne & Hicks, 1978. the tone has been followed by food, the sight of a as perceptual invariants. When one location in
61. Hirst, Spelke, Reaves, Caharack, & Neisser, 1980.
74. cf. Friedman, Poison, Dafoe, & Gaskill, 1982; lever evokes lever pressing if food has occurred
62. Previous work had shown that, when comprehen- the environment has a leafy green appearance, it is
Hirst & Kalmar, 1987; Navon, 1977; Neisser, 1976, p. after lever pressing, and the sight of a friend evokes
sion of the copied material was not required, reading more likely that an "adjacent location is also leafy
while copying was able to occur at normal rates with
99; Wickens, 1980, 1984. saying "hello55 if such greetings have been returned and trees—and all objects—
75. To aid experimental analysis, observing responses in the past. Each of these environment-behavior
extended training; Spelke, Hirst, & Neisser, 1976. are extended in space. Biobehavioral processes
63. Bransford & Franks, 1971. that are measurable on the behavioral level have been relations' is a product of selection processes—the
emphasized in this chapter. However, observing re- that are sensitive to perceptual invariants can be
64. Hirst, Spelke, Reaves, Caharack, & Neisser, 1980, first of natural selection, and the last three of selec-
pp. 99,114. sponses may occur at the microbehavioral and neural favored by natural selection.
tion by reinforcement. In this chapter, we consider
65. cf. Hirst, Spelke, Reaves, Caharack, & Neisser, levels as well—as when a stimulus falling on the periph- Other environment-environment relations
ery of the retina is "attended to" in the absence of overt
the significance of orderly relations between envi-
1980, p. 115. This interpretation is consistent with ani- change over evolutionary time but are relatively
eye movements that fixate the stimulus on the fovea; e.g., ronmental events alone—i.e., environment-envi-
mal research that has shown fading to be a very effective constant within the lifetime of an individual. For
procedure for producing discriminations. However, as Posner, 1978; Posner & Petersen, 1990. Research of this ronment relations. Are biobehavioral processes
example, consider the relation of the visual stimuli
noted elsewhere, behavior selected in this way differs in sort is considered in the chapter on perceiving. Whether sensitive to environment-environment relations? If
so, what are con- provided by a tree to the auditory stimuli of the
a number of respects from environment-behavior rela- the observing responses are overt or covert, the same spoken word "tree's or the visual stimuli of the
tions produced by procedures, e.g., Terrace, 1966. basic processes seem to permit their interpretation. ditions are they selected?
written word TREE. These1, relations are relatively '
constant within an English-speaking community, •
' . but vary over the evolutionary history of our spe-
cies and from one contemporary verbal community
The relation some environmental events to the next. Environment-environment relations
is relatively constant over long periods of time. that are relatively constant only within an individ-
Consider perceiving an object.1 One characteristic ual's lifetime are here known as perceptual regu-
that distinguishes one object from another is that larities. Biobehavioral processes that are sensitive
parts of the same object tend to look more alike to perceptual regularities can also be selected.2
parts of different objects. When we look at a'" However, the formation of perceptual
tree, we sense its leafy green appearance at many cannot be guided b;y natural selection alone be-
points, and this to distinguish it as a single cause they are not constant over evolutionary time.
object from the sky or house .behind it. The selec- Perceptual regularities also cannot be the products
tion of biobehavioral processes that are sensitive to of selection by reinfosfcement alone, since environ-
177
Perceiving Environrtjent-Environment Relations
178
to perceiving, and perceiving-must be se- increasingly larger portion of our visual field. Al-
do not a be- THE FAR SIDE
lected in' coordination with other biobehayioral though other concurrently available stimuli almost
havioral component on which the reinforcer is processes. , always allow us to discriminate these two situ-
contingent. If environment-environment relations The view that environmental stimuli specify the ations from one another, an increase in the area of
are to select perceptual regularities, natural selec- environment has been most fully developed by the visual field'occupied t>y an object is correlated
tion and reinforcement must be by James J. Gibson. This view is 'known as with the approach of an object independently of
other processes. perception,5 to distinguish it from the common whether we are moving. Other things being equal,
view that what is sensed specifies the environment the larger the portion of the visual field an object
only indirectly and incompletely. Indirect, or coe- occupies the nearer it is to the observer, and the
Perceiving as the Product of structioeist, views of perceiving postulate various smaller the portion tlie more distant it is.7
Selection Processes inferred processes—mental operations—that are The correlation between environmental stim- •
If perceptual invariants and regularities are the intended to compensate for the incomplete and uli—such as how much of the visual field an object
cumulative outcomes of a history of selection, then impoverished stimuli provided by the environ- occupies at successive rtiornents-—provides the ba-
understanding them presents the same difficulties ment. These mental operations are said to construct sis for the selection of perceptual invariants and
an accurate representation from the inadequate en- regularities. Biobehavioral processes sensitive to
as does all historical science. For one, knowledge
vironmental stimuli. For example, if an observer such correlations may be selected without neces-
of the full history of selection is likely to remain
views a circular form with a small gap in its cir- sarily having specific behavioral components. This
incomplete. For another, perceptual invariants and cumference, he sometimes reports seeing a com- is not to say that selections relevant' to perceiving
regularities will not be infallible guides in every plete circle. A constructionist view of perceiving are seldom evident in behavior, or that behavior
environment Like all products of selection, they might attribute the "completion" of the circle to a seldom participates crucially in the selections rele-
bear the marks of the environments that selected When imprinting studies go awry tendency to see "good form." How appropriate vant to perceiving. Unless perceiving ultimately
them, and are valid in other environments only to mental operations can be evoked unless the envi- affects behavior at some point, it can have no effect
the extent that the other environments are like those FIGURE 7.1 One effect of imprinting is that the ronment initiates them.—and therefore contains on fitness. Without an effect on fitness, there is no
in which -selection place, For example, a young animal follows whatever moving stimulus stimuli that specify, the environment—is unclear. basis for natural selection or, ultimately, selection
newly hatched duckling forms an attachment, happens to be sensed shortly after hatching Instead of postulating inferred mental operations, by the individual environment. Indeed, many of the
called imprinting, to members of its own kind. Source: The Far Side cartoon by Gary Larson is reprinted by
permission of Chronicle Features, San Francisco, CA. All rights
direct perception seeks to identify characteristics stimuli that specify the environment require behav-
The duckling forms this attachment by following of stimulus patterns that are competent to specify ior—such as observing responses—-for their very
reserved.
a moving object that is present shortly after hatch- the environment. Perceptual invariants and regu- occurrence. However, to the extent that there is any
ing. In the history of the species, the moving object larities are derived from such characteristics. The correlation between environmental events, biobe-
was most often the duckling's parents. However, direct-perception theorist counsels the construc- havioral processes itiediating environment-envi-
in other environments, such as the animal behavior survival. As Jerome Bruner has put it, "The senses tionist: "Ask not what's inside the head, but what ronment relations may be selected in addition to
laboratory, the object may be an electric tell us, on the whole, what we need to know,. . ."4 the is inside of."6 the processes mediating environment-behavior re-
train (or even a duck ha\^k), and still the duckling lations.
imprints to the environment-environment relations
provided by motion.3 Selection has taught duck- Perceiving and Its Relation to '
Perceiving
to recognize motion, their mothers. In the •
evolutionary history of ducklings, motion has been For selection to produce perceptual invariants and
(See 7.1.) regularities, the organism must be able to sense Uncovering the environment-environment rela- Because changes in environment-environment re-
A history of selection cannot guarantee we biologically relevant portions of the environment tions that select perceptual invariants and regulari- lations are not as completely or directly reflected
and to behave appropriately with respect to them. ties presents special problems when pursued" only at the behavioral lev-el as changes in environment-
will perceive the world with perfect accuracy. Nev-
Thus, the environment must contain patterns of at the behavioral level of analysis. Some of the behavior relations, the analysis of perceiving uses
ertheless, the relative constancy of the physical
physical energy that specify—i.e., are correlated stimulus patterns that specify the environment do' • more observations at the physiological level. Al~
environment, the long exposure of life to that en-
with—biologically important events, and this en- so relatively independently of the topography of ^ though the field of *'perception" is not a major
vironment, and the obvious benefits of accurately the behavior that allows us to sense those patterns.
ergy must be detected with sense organs that are focus of this book, we must consider some of its
perceiving the environment all argue for a close As an illustration, whether an, object moves toward aspects to appreciate the basic processes by which
relation between the world we perceive and those properly positioned by the behavior of the organ-
ism. In short, the environment must be rich enough •us or we move toward it, that object will occupy an environment-environment relations are selected.8
aspects of the world that are important for our
180 7
181
to —
the environmental constituents of environment-be- sensitive to visible electromagnetic energy.
havior relations. However, we will confine our Through the effect of light on photopigment mole- PVC
consideration of physiological processes to those cules, energy is transduced (literally, "carried
involved in one aspect of perceiving—discriminat- across") from the environment to the nervous sys-
ing variations in visual texture. Texture discrimi- tem. The visible portion of the electromagnetic
nations are crucial for perceiving objects, and for spectrum for humans, and most other species, falls Lens Retina
many other discriminations, such as distance. roughly in the range of wavelengths between 400
Confining our analysis to the perceptual invari- and 700 nm (i.e., between blue and red).12 How-
ants involved in discriminating visual texture is ever, the full spectrum of electromagnetic energy
enough to expose a number of general charac- is much wider, extending from shorter wave-
teristics of the selection of perceptual invariants. lengths—such as the ultraviolet—to longer wave-
For our species, light specifies the world more lengths—such as the infrared. Why are we
importantly than any other form of energy. ^ Visual sensitive to only a relatively small portion of the (a) Lateral (Side) Vie'
stimuli activate fully half of the total sensory neu- spectrum? Object
rons entering the central nervous system—some Light in the range of 400 to 700 nrn, unlike Fixated
two million axons. By contrast, the next most shorter and longer wavelengths, cannot pass PVC
important sense, hearing, involves "only" about through objects, but is absorbed by them. An or-
sixty thousand axons.10 Natural selection would
ganism that could see beyond the visible spectrum
not have made such a heavy investment in light if
would not be able to see objects because they block
the visual environment were not vitally important
the transmission of electromagnetic energy only
to survival.
within that range.13 In other words, objects cast
In this on perceptual invariants, we first
shadows only in the visible spectrum. Thus, an
describe the major structures in the visual system.
organism that is capable of appreciating variations
Without such knowledge, it is impossible to dis-
in the intensity of visible light can sense the pres-
cuss the biobehavioral processes involved in the
ence of objects. To an organism that must move PVC
selection of textural invariants, or of environrnent-
through the environment, the biological advantage
environment relations in general. As a part of the
of sensing objects is obvious. (b) Dorsal (Top) View
discussion, the concept of sensory channel is intro-
duced. Sensory systems contain a number of sen-
sory channels; in the visual system, one of these is Major visual pathways. The visual receptors
FIGURE 7.2 Schematic diagram of major neural pathways in the visual system
texture discrimination. We conclude the section the are in the (a) Lateral view showing the two ultimate destinations of activity from retinal ganglion cells—the
with a discussion of hpw perceptual invariants are retina, a network of complexly interconnected collicular pathway to the superior colliculus (SQ—and the geniculo-cortical pathway to the lateral
selected when they require integration of activity receptors and neurons that cover the back interior gemculate nucleus (LGN) and, thereafter, to the primary visual cortex (PVC). Also shown is the relation
from different sensory channels. Perceptual invari- surface of the eyeball. From ganglion cells in one of the PVC to the visual association cortex (VAC) and poiysensory association cortex (PAC). The PAC
layer of the retina, axons extend up the receives inputs from sensory channels in addition to those of the visual system.
ants that integrate the activity of different sensory
toward two major destinations in the brain—the (b) Dorsal view of the geniculo-cortical-pathways showing crossing of the ganglion-cell axons at the
channels are called poiysensory invariants.11 optic chiasm and the pathway interconnecting the association cortices of the two hemispheres via the
Throughout the presentation, the functional sig- the coipus callosum.
nificance of neuroanatomical structures and the nuclei. (See Figure 7.2a and b.) The superior
pervasive role of selection are emphasized. collicular nuclei are located in an evohrtionarily
ancient portion of the brain, the hindbrain, and
contain cells that respond differentially to move-
of the Visual and the orientation of objects/among other Although an analysis of the development of the,
characteristics.14 The destinations of other gan- depends on concurrent activity in pre- and postsy-
nervous system is beyond the scope of this book, naptic neurons. When multiple presynaptic neu-
Reception of visual energy. The visual recep- glion-cell axons are neurons in the lateral geaicu- one pervasive factor should be noted. The devel- "rons are activated, their combined activity is more
tors that react to light and initiate neural activity late nuclei of the thalamus. opment of synapses, or neural connections, often likely to activate ttie postsynaptic neurons next to
182 7 Perceiving Environment-Environment
The pre- of an e.g., the he is — the the

at the same time causes functional connec- visual texture, or grain, of the object. e.g., can no longer be guided by visual move up the optic tract to of the two
to develop between them. Texture'is not the only aspect of the visual stimuli—yet he is able to navigate through the lateral geniculate nuclei. Why might the ancestral
In general, activity-dependent environment to which natural selection has made environment without bumping into things. Blind- environment have selected this arrangement of
play the dominant role in the formation of connec- the geniculo-cortical system responsive. Cells in sight occurs when the geniculo-cortical subsystem pathways?
tions in the mammalian nervous system. You will the visual cortex are also sensitive to variations in is damaged, but the collicular subsystem, is left As with all questions about selection, the an-
recall that, in learning, coactivation of pre- and color, depth,18 and motion.19 Although the neural intact.22 Such damage prevents outputs from the swer may be traced to the environment. Consider
postsynaptic neurons was necessary for the diffuse circuits mediating sensitivity to these aspects of visual cortex from activating the motor systems an object shown to the left of the fixation point, in
reinforcing system to strengthen existing connec- visual stimuli are not entirely separate, their selec- that control speaking. However, since outputs from Figure 7.2b and,-it&ore particularly, where the light
tions. At the cellular level, the mechanisms of tion at different times in evolutionary history has the collicular subsystem are intact, they continue from that object falls on the two retinas. For the
learning and development would appear to have led them to be independent enough to constitute to activate nonverbal motor systems, such as those right eye, the stimulated receptors are located in the
much in common. different sensory channels. A sensory channel is controlling eye movements, reaching, and walk- outside (temporal) half-retina, their ganglion-cell
As one example of activity-dependent mecha- a neural circuit that is activated by one aspect of ing. To a very rough approximation, the person axons do not cross at the optic chiasm, and neurons
nisms in visual development, bursts of activity in environmental stimulation. Sensory channels can with blindsight is seeing in the evolutionarily more in the right visual cortex are ultimately activated.
neighboring ganglion cells play an important role be entirely within one modality, such as the various ancient manner of nonmamrnalian species that do For the left eye, the stimulated receptors are in the
in forming connections to lateral geniculate neu- channels involved in seeing, or in different modali- not have a geniculo-cortical subsystem.23 inside (nasal) herni-retina, the activated axons do
rons.15 Because neighboring ganglion cells are ties, such as seeing and hearing. Those of us who have not suffered the damage cross at the optic chiasm, and. neurons in the right
active, the connections in the lateral geniculate From neurons in the primary visual cortex, that produces blindsight can catch a glimmer of the visual cortex are activated. Because half of the
preserve the spatial relations between the ganglion axons project to visual association cortex and separability of the eolticular and geniculo-cortical ganglion-cell axons cross before they reach the
cells in the retina—and therefore the relations be- polymodal association cortex. (See Figure 7.2a subsystems. If you have ever ducked to avoid a ball lateral geniculate nucleus, the light originating
tween the receptors on which light falls and, most and b.) Cells in visual association cortex are acti- thrown rapidly and without warning, you have from the same half of the visual field ultimately
importantly, between the parts of the object from vated by neurons from different sensory channels likely done so before you had any verbal recogni- produces neural activity in the same visual cortex.
the In words, in the cortex. Cells in object. Similarly, if in the
geniculate cells that are next to one another are cortex are activated by inputs from different sen- your eyes to avoid an oncoming insect while ped- right visual .cortex; light from the, right visual field
connected to ganglion cells that are next to one sory channels from multiple sensory modalities— aling a rapidly moving bike, you have probably activates cells in the left visual cortex. This ar-
another, which are connected to visual receptors e.g., auditory and tactile stimuli in addition to blinked without any verbal awareness of the object. rangement insures that the light from an object is
that are next to one another, which receive stimu- visual stimuli. The area of the cerebral cortex that In both cases, the neural circuitry of the collicular brought together in tie same region of the primary
lation from parts of the environment that are next can be activated by visual stimuli is very large, subsystem has guided nonverbal responses (duck- visual cortex, no matter where the object lies in the
to one another. extending well beyond those regions commonly ing or blinking) before the geniculo-cortical sub- visual field. \
The neurons in the lateral geniculate nuclei labeled as "visual."20 The cortical regions that system could guide the verbal responses needed for The crossing of half of the ganglion-cell axons
give rise to axons that project to the forebrain, the respond to visual stimuli include neurons that re- you to recognize the object as a "ball" or a "bug." at the optic chiasm has a second consequence:
evolutionarily more modern region of the brain. spond differentially to the fine visual re- Receptors lying near the vertical midline of the
The forebrain region tcfcwhich these axons project quired for texture discriminations, to colors, to to the cortex. We retina directly activate cells in different visual cor-
is the visual cortex. Once again, activity-dependent movement, to a wide variety of complex com- shall describe one final aspect. of the neural path- tices. This produces a complication since, when we
mechanisms make it more likely that coactive lat- binations of inputs from visual and other sensory
ways mediating seeing before we.consider the se- fix our eyes on an object, the light from, the -object
eral-geniculate neurons will form connections with channels.21 lection of the perceptual invariants responsible for falls on a retinal area called' the fovea, which is
the same or neighboring cortical neurons, 16 texture discrimination. This information will also crossed by the vertical midline. Therefore, light
Longer-range lateral connections also develop be- Blindsight and visual subsystems. Ordinari 1 y,
prove useful in the interpretation of consciousness from a fixated object stimulates receptors that are
tween neurons in the primary visual cortex, and the collicular and geniculo-cortical visual subsys-
in a later chapter. As shown in Figure 7."2b, the ultimately connected to cells in both the right and
these also tend to interconnect cells that are simul- tems function together to guide seeing. However,
ganglion cells from half of each retina send axons left visual cortices.
taneously active.17 Since light originating from when one of them is damaged, their separable
functions become apparent. We have encountered to different lateral geniculate nuclei, and then''to In spite-of this complication, light falling on the
adjacent portions of the retina is apt to stimulate
an example of just such damage in the phenomenon visual cortices. The from ret-- fovea is most acutely seen; i.e., gradations in tex-
cells located close together in the visual cortex,
coactivity occurs when the are responding to of blindsight (see Chapter 1). In Hindsight, a per- ina move together up the optic nerve and then half ture are most readily discriminated.24 This is pos-
of them cross to the other side of the brain in a sible because the activity from the two visual
184 7 Perceiving Envôrurient-Environment Relations
is by the in the
right and left hemispheres. The cortical cells aqti- of
vated by receptors the vertical midline of the
two retinas are interconnected by axons that make As a result of environmental selection, living or-
up a very large bundle of fibers called the corpus ganisms are constant explorers of their environ-
callosum. (See Figure 7.2b.) In animals with fron- ments.28 Beginning with the guidance of behavior
tally placed eyes, such as humans, these connec- arising from selection by the ancestral environ-
tions are very extensive.25 ment, and increasingly through observing • re-
sponses selected by the individual environment,
we sense stimuli that specify the environment in
which we (and our offspring) must survive.
Selection of a Sensory Invariant
Perceptual invariants are selected when there are Observing the structure of light. In seeing, ob-
correlations between environmental events over serving responses take the form of coordinated
time. Some of these correlations do not depend on head and eye movements that position our visual
any particular response topography, but move- receptors so that we can observe variations in the
ment of some kind—either by the perceiver or by light. In short, seeing allows us to appreciate the
the object—is often required for the correlations to structure of the light.29 Different observing re-
appear. For example, suppose that a human face sponses cause us to sense the "same" environment
passes across your visual field. Under such condi- in different ways; this is strikingly demonstrated
tions, there are relatively invariant relations among when the same picture is looked at under different
viewing instructions.3^ The picture is in the upper FIGURE 73 Eye movements as observing responses
the facial features—the two eyes are symmetrically
The painting was viewed by subjects under different instructions. The lines shown iri the other portions of the figure
placed above the nose, the nose is above the mouth, left panel of 73, the of
trace the course of e}ê movements when a subject was instructed: (1) simply to looJc at the painting, (2) to determine
and so on. However, if you never saw these facial movements produced by different viewing instruc- the financial circumstances of the people depicted in the painting, and (3) to determine the ages of people,
features except in one stationary context, e.g., a tions are shown in the other panels. Different in- Source: From Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision. New York: Plenum.
striped background, then the relations among the structions guide different patterns of eye
features of the face would be no more stable than movements and, consequently, the sensing of dif-
the relations between the features and the back- ferent visual stimuli. For example, when subjects accurately fixate light from an object in one step.
were asked to determine the financial circum- dark variations iii objects to be specified. How is
ground stripes. It is only because the facial features Fixation requires a series of movements that in-
stances of the people in the picture, light from this accomplished? \
move together through different background envi- creasingly approximate foveal placement of the
ronments that the features "go with" each other, furniture and clothing was fixated (see Figure
light,32 The rapid eye movements that fixate ob- Texture: Spatial frequency analysis. Objects.
rather than with the stripes. The correlation among 7.3c); when they were asked to determine the peo-
jects detected in the periphery of the visual field and the backgrounds across which they move, are
facial features depends on the features moving ple's ages, the light from faces was fixated (see
are called eye or characterized by distinctive invariants in light
together. As remarked'by Ulrich Neisser, echoing 73d).
James J. Gibson, "Each of our perceptual systems These eye movements—which ultimately play an dark. An object moving nearby, such as a face,
In infants, eye movements are not precisely
has evolved to advantage of the special important role in such complex behavior as read- produces relatively slow variations in lightness
guided by visual stimuli, let alone by instructions.
of information that motion makes available."26 Eye movements themselves are the products of an ing33—are controlled by neural circuits that were darkness corresponding to the considerable spac-
We shall trace some of the processes by which extensive selection history. As a result of selection naturally selected long before humans evolved. ing between facial features, A background against
perceptual invariants are selected. The analysis by the ancestral environment, the infant's collicu- The selection of sensory invariants begins with which the face might be seen would likely have
focuses on the selection of neural connections in lar visual subsystem controls eye movements that the movement of light across the receptors of the different variations in the spacing of light and
sensory cortex by visual stimuli. Because of the cause light from objects that moves across the retina. We shall consider only one of the relations dark—slower variations for a uniformly illumi-
importance of activity-dependent mechanisms in retina to be fixated on the fovea. Selection by the selected by the structure of light—the variations in nated wall, more rapid variations for an intricate
the formation of connections between neurons, the individual environment soon comes into play as light and dark that produce visual texture. For us wallpaper pattern. If variations in the pattern of
selection of sensory invariants is affected by the well; the eye movements of infants as young as to see texture, the structure in the light must differ- light and dark were about the same for both face
individual environment as well as the ancestral four months begin to follow the gaze of their entially strengthen connections between neurons and wall, then the face would be more difficult to
environment.'27 mothers.31 However, unlike adults, do not in the primary visual cortex that permit the light- detect—until it tfioved, which would cause the
186 7
Perceiving Environment-Environment Relations 1ST
features to move together across the background.34 To VAC sponds has been found, the orientation of the grat-
If the environment could select connections in the ing is varied. When the orientation of a grating is
visual cortex that specified invariants in the pat- changed, individual cortical cells are most respon-
terning of light, then the sensory invariants imple- sive to one orientation of stripes and become pro-
mented by those connections would benefit gressively less responsive as the stripes move away
reproductive fitness. How might such connections from that orientation. Thus different orientations
be selected? of patterns of light on the retina produce differen-
Inhibitory
Cells tial responding of individual cortical neurons.
Interconnections among cells in primary visual
cortex. Each axon coming from a cell in the Individual cortical neurons are also sensitive to
the spatial frequency of the grating. Figure 7.6
lateral geniculate nucleus makes connections with
hundreds of cortical neurons. Located between shows a series of gratings that have the same ori-
(a)
these cortical neurons are intermediate neurons entation of stripes, but differ in their spatial fre-
that receive inputs from nearby cortical neurons quency. As with orientation, a given cortical cell
Cortical Neurons
responds most strongly to a particular spatial fre-
and have outputs to other cortical neurons.35 These in PVC
quency and becomes less responsive as the stripes
intermediate neurons reduce the activity of the From LGN depart from that frequency. Moreover, when the
neurons to which they have outputs. (For a simpli-
fied diagram of this arrangement, see Figure 7.4.) activity of neighboring cortical cejls is monitored,
FIGURE 7.4 Excitatoiy-inhibitory interactions
they are found to respond maximally to the same
The intermediate neurons are Inhibitory neurons, between cortical neurons
and the neurotransmitter that they release is called Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus make excita- spatial frequency, but to slightly different orienta-
an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibitory trans- tory synapses (open triangles) on cells in the primary tions. The primary visual cortex consists of clusters
mitters make it less likely that a postsynaptic neu- visual cortex (PVC). Axons from these cortical cells of cells within which individual cells respond
ron can be activated by its excitatory inputs. The
make excitatory synapses on cells in the visual associa- maximally to the same spatial frequency, but to
tion cortex (VAC). In addition, axons from cells in the different orientations. As shown schematically in
inputs to cortical cells from geniculate cells release PVC synapse on intermediate neurons whose axons then Figure 7.7, the cells in different clusters, which
into the synapse, make inhibitory synapses (filled triangles) on other cells
Excitatory neurotransmitters tend to activate the sample light in partially overlapping receptive
in the PVC. (See text for a description of the functional
cortical neurons on which they synapse. Thus, fields, respond maximally to different spatial fre-
significance of these interactions.)
whether a given cortical neuron is activated de- quencies, The outcome of this arrangement is that
the spatial frequency and orientation of light pat-
pends on the balance between the excitatory input
terns are specified at raany points in the observer's
from the geniculate cells and the inhibitory input
visual field.3^
from the intermediate inhibitory cells. Can interac- the receptive field of the cell. As long as the
tions between the inhibitory and excitatory inputs grating moves within the receptive field, the cell
Selection of spatial-frequency clusters. We can
to the cells produce differential sensitivity remains active.37
get some sense of how the structure of the light
to the of light? Once the receptive field of a cortical neuron has
selects clusters of cortical cells if we consider the
identified, the characteristics of the grating
arrangement of inhibitory connections. Suppose
Receptive fields of cortical cells. To study how are varied. Here, we shall consider only two char-
a given cortical cell receives an input from a
cortical cells respond to patterns of light and dark, acteristics—the orientation of the grating and its
geniculate cell that was, in turn, activated by a
visual stimuli are presented to an anesthetized ani- spatial frequency. 7.5a shows a grating (c) ganglion cell in a particular place on the retina.
mal, such as a monkey, while the activity of a a vertical orientation—light "fuzzy stripes"
Given that objects are extended in space, and
cortical cell is monitored with a recording elec- run up and down on a dark background. Figures FIGURE 7.5 Spatial frequencies of different
adjacent parts of the same object tend .to have
trode.36 A visual stimulus commonly used in these 7«5b and c show gratings with the same number of orientations
similar textures, neighboring cortical cells will—
studies is a made up of parallel bands of fuzzy stripes, but oriented 45° and horizontally, Stimuli provided by spatial-frequency gratings are com-
monly used to determine the receptive fields of cells in on the average—have similar geniculate inputs.39
light dark. The grating is moved across the respectively. These gradients differ in orientation
the visual cortex. The gratings shown here have the same However, because neighboring cortical cells have
animal's visual field until the cortical cell is acti- but not in spatial frequency—i.e., they do not inhibitory connections between them, the stimula-
spatial frequency—i.e., the same number of "fuzzy"
vated. The region of the visual field in which light differ in the number of stripes per grating. Once a stripes per degree of visual angle. However, they differ tion of one cell should somewhat decrease the
the grating activates the cortical cell is called spatial frequency to which the cortical cell rein their orientation—(a) 90°, (b) 45°, and (c) 0°. response of its neighbors. Because of these inhibi-
188 7
Perceiving Envkonment-Environment Relations
of light. The outcome of this competitive process

is that neighboring cells within the same cluster ^ \ \
\ X
come to respond-maximally to different orienta-
tions of the same spatial frequency and neighbor- * \ x
ing clusters to different spatial frequencies.40
x \ x. _
In this interpretation, the differential respon- / f x
siveness to orientation within a spatial-frequency
cluster, and to spatial frequency between clusters,
arises as a by-product of the selection of inhibitory
connections among cortical cells. The inhibitory
neurons whose outputs are strengthened are those / »
that synapse with simultaneously active cortical
neurons. Since neighboring cortical neurons are
activated by stimuli from neighboring parts of the \
visual field, and sinpe neighboring parts of the
visual field tend to be stimulated at the same time
by light from the same object, and since neighbor-
ing parts of the same Object tend to have similar FIGURE 7,8 Computer simulation of the formation
patterns of light and dark, strong reciprocal inhibi- of orientation clusters
FIGURE 7.7 Arrangement of cells within tory connections are formed between cortical cells
spatial-frequency columns As the emergent outcome of interactions among units in
The surface of the primary visual cortex contains clusters that are activated by similar visual stimuli. In this ' an adaptive network that simulates interactions among
of cells, with all a cluster responding to the way, the structure' of light from, the neurons in the primary visual cortex, clusters form in
same spatial frequency but at different orientations. environment—acting on the neural substrate se- which adjacent units respond to different, but similar,
Within a cluster, different cells in the same column lected by the ancestral environment—produces orientations of lines. The orientation to which a unit
respond to the same orientation of that spatial frequency. responded most strongly is indicated by lines whose
clusters of cortical cells that respond maximally to midpoints are the locations of the units on the surface of
Cells in different clusters respond to different spatial different orientations of the same spatial fre-
frequencies. Indicated here is the arrangement within a the cortex. Units without lines did not develop orienta-
quency. This complex process, which is difficult to tion specificity by the end. of training.
cluster of the orientations to which the cells maximally
respond. Several thousand such clusters exist in the hu-
describe verbally because so many selections are Source: From von der Malsbiirg, C. (1973). Self -organizing of
going on at the same time, has been simulated with orietation sensitive cells in thfe striate cortex. Kybernetik, 14,
man primary visual cortex, each specifying the spatial 85-100. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer- Verlag.
frequency and orientation of light within a region of the computers. Figure 7.8 shows the result of one such
visual field. simulation,41 which illustrates the clustering of
orientation-sensitive units as an emergent
of a selection process.42
two factors—the degree to which B is activated by
The end products are of the selection process
lory interactions, the cortical cells with momentar- the adjacent stripe in the grating, and the strength
are clusters of cells that respond to different spatial
ily stronger genicnlate inputs will become most of the inhibitory synapses from B to A. If both of
frequencies. Consider a cortical cell (cell A) that
active and the activity of neighboring cells will be values are high, then the stripe next to the one
receives a geniculate input activated by light from
suppressed. Thus, if one cortical cell is activated activating cell A will strongly inhibit cell A. As a
a fuzzy stripe in a grating. Under these circum- result, cell A would respond only to widely spaced
strongly by a stripe of a given orientation, and a stances, cell A tends to become active. However,
neighboring cell is less strongly activated, the first stripes, or low spatial frequencies. Conversely, if
FIGURE 7.6 Different spatial frequencies—i.e, if an adjacent stripe in the grating simultaneously the strength of the inhibitory synapses from B to A
number of "fuzzy" stripes per degree of visual angle cell will inhibit the activation of the second. stimulates a neighboring cortical cell (cell B), then
Through activity-dependent mechanisms, the is low, or the adjacent -stripe does not activate cell
The spatial-frequency gratings shown here have the same B will also tend to become active and its activity • B strongly, then the activation of A by its stripe will
orientation—90°. Such gratings stimulate cells in differ- of the inhibitory connections are selected will, in turn, reduce the activation of A because of
in keeping with the competition between cortical not be inhibited. In this case, cell A will respond
ent spatial-frequency columns in the primary visual cor- an. inhibitory connection from B to A. How much
tex. neurons for responding to variations in the texture even when the stripes are closely spaced, i.e., to a
the response of cell A is reduced will depend on higher spatial frequency. In short, through differ-
190 7
in the mutually inhibitory interactions between two squares. Yet most of us see
Response of Target Cell
among cortical cells, different clusters of cells are area as darker than the latter. How can such illu-
able to respond selectively to different spatial fre- sions occur if perceiving is the outcome of selec-
quencies.43 See Figure 7,9 for a graphic repre- tion processes that enable us to see the world as it
sentation of the processes by which different Time is—i.e., a world of objects? The answer comes
cortical cells respond to different spatial frequen- when we recall that the ancestral environment se-
cies.AA (a)
lects biobehavioral processes that, on the average
over the long run* benefit reproductive fitness. The
Perceiving and awareness. The functioning of
same processes that occasionally produce illusions
individual cortical cells to analyze portions of the
more often benefit perceiving the natural environ-
visual field into their component spatial frequen-
ment. The inhibitory processes producing the illu-
cies—i.e., into local patterns of light and dark—oc-
(b) sion in Figure 7.10 enhance the discrimination of
curs without our being aware of it. Spatial
frequencies help to specify objects and are impor- the boundaries between light and dark, and bound-
tant for that reason, not in themselves. Although ary detection facilitates the discrimination of ob-
we "see" them, we do not "know" that we do. jects. Light reflected from the brighter side of a
Because individual spatial frequencies do not di- boundary activates neurons that inhibit the neurons
rectly guide our verbal behavior, spatial-frequency stimulated by light from the darker side of the
analysis is inconsistent with the verbal bias that we (c) FIGURE 7.10 Illusdfy brightness contours produced boundary. The typical effect of these lateral inhibi-
bring to most situations. However, there is direct by excitatory-inhibitory interactions tory processes is, therefore, to increase our ability
Most viewers see faint gray squares in the white spaces to detect variations in brightness between
evidence at the physiological level,45 and indirect FIGURE 7.9 The effects of different visual stimuli at the intersections between the large black squares. within objects.50
evidence at the behavioral level,46 that a local on the activation of target cells in primary visual
spatial-frequency analysis of the environment is cortex
being carried out. The inner circle indicates the portion of the receptive Contributions of the ancestral en-
field of the target cell from which a visual stimulus has vironments. The sensory invariant that specifies
It is apparently not important that we be able to an excitatory (E) effect on the target cell. The outer circle the net inhibitory effects exerted by cells respond-
discriminate the individual spatial frequencies that the spatial frequency of light is selected by the
represents the portion of the receptive field from which ing to light from the sides of the white spaces. In
allow us to discriminate objects from one an- combined actions of the ancestral and individual
a stimulus has an inhibitory (I) effect on the target cell. the first case, the white space has white on only two
other.47 The analysis of local parts of the visual Stimuli in this latter portion of the visual field activate environments. A combination of genetically con-
sides. Light reflected from the two white sides
field into their constituent spatial frequencies adjacent cells in the primary visual cortex that exert somewhat inhibits activation of the cells stimu- trolled and 'activity-dependent mechanisms deter-
specifies the environment well enough to permit lateral inhibitory effects on the response of the target lated by light from the central white space. Less mine the connectivity of the visual system. A
environment-behavior relations to be selected. cell, (a) A target cell that responds weakly to low spatial inhibition is produced by light reflected from the particularly striking demonstration of the ability of
What we perceive are the objects specified by the frequencies. A wide "stripe" activates both the target cell the individual environment to organize connec-
two black sides. (A surface is seen as black if it
spatial frequencies, not the individual frequencies and adjacent cells whose lateral inhibitory connections tions in the brain comes from an experiment with
suppress the response of the target cell, (b) A target cell reflects relatively little of the ambient light.) How-
themselves.48 that responds most strongly to intermediate spatial fre- ever, the white spaces at the intersections are sur- young weasels. In this work, a surgical procedure
quencies. One "stripe" activates the cell but the adjacent rounded by white space on all four sides. The total caused retinal ganglion cells to synapse on cells in
Illusions, Although the specific neural proc- stripes, because they are widely spaced, do not activate inhibition exerted by light from all four the medial geniculate nucleus-instead-of the lateral
esses that allow us to appreciate the texture of light adjacent cells that have lateral inhibitory connections causes the white space in the intersection to appear geniculate nucleus. Cells in the medial geniculate
are not available to our awareness, the results of with the target cell, (c) A target cell that responds weakly less bright. Because the inhibitory effects are pro- nucleus normally receive inputs from the auditory
those processes nevertheless affect the way we see. to high spatial frequencies. The many "stripes" that fall duced by the stimulation of cells to the side of the system, and their aôns then project to the auditory
Examine the light and dark grid pattern shown in within the receptive field activate both the target cell and intersection, the phenomenon is known as cortex. After surgery, the structure of light was able
adjacent cells that laterally inhibit the response of the
Figure 7.10. Compare the brightness of the white
target cell. 'The above illustrates the operation of a so- inhibition.49 to select connections in the auditory cortex using
space between any two black squares with the called "center-on" cell, since a stimulus falling in the The bright appearance of .the white area-at activity-dependent mechanisms. When the re-
brightness of the white space at any intersection of center of the receptive field activates the target cell. the intersections is an Illusion. That is, physical-- sponses of cells in the auditory cortex were moni-
four black squares. For most people, the first white Other arrangements of excitatory and inhibitory connec- measurements show that the amount of light re- tored, the "auditory" cells displayed differential
space appears brighter than the white space at the tions can produce "center-off cells and more complex flected from the area at the intersection of four "sensitivity to the orientation of visual stimuli.51
intersections. Why is this so? The answer lies in responses, such as to the end of a "stripe." squares is identical to the amount from the area Thus cells in the primary auditory cortex are capa-
ble of of the at the spatial-frequency as by children the

their spatial-frequency components Cat Human Falcon the observing to the old alphabet or by adults shown letters for very brief
1.0
upon by the structure in the light. The indi- has habituated.55 time intervals.62 Similarly, procedures known to
vidual visual environment exerts its effect through affect other types of discriminations also affect
Experimental analysis. The sensitivity of corti- discriminations between letters of the alphabet.
selecting the inhibitory connections that intercon-
cal cells to orientation and spatial frequency can be
nect the cortical cells.52 OJ
When a fading procedure is used to train letter
£ 0.1 altered experimentally as well as by the natural discriminations in children, the discrimination is
In the individual environment of all species, the
environment. Rearing kittens with goggles that facilitated. For example, if the portion of a letter
action of gravity causes most variations in light and
permit only vertical lines to be presented to one eye that distinguishes it from similar letters is printed
dark to be oriented either vertically or horizontally. .03
0.3 1.0 3.0 10 30 100 and only horizontal lines to the other changes the in red ink (e.g., the "leg" that distinguishes R from
Objects, such as trees and houses, stand vertically responses of cells in the visual cortex.56 When
Spatial Frequency (cycles/degree) P), and then is gradually changed to the black ink
because gravity would otherwise pull them down various orientations of stripes are later presented to
and cause them to lie horizontally. The proportion in which the rest of the letter is printed, children
such animals, the part of the cortex that received with reading difficulties come to discriminate the
of cortical cells sensitive to various orientations is FIGURE 7.11 Differing relative sensitivity to
geniculate inputs activated by vertical lines con- letters more easily.6^
consistent with this feature of the environment. spatial frequencies in different species
(Maximum sensitivity is defined as a sensitivity of 1.0.) tains a greater number of cells that respond only to
More cortical cells are activated by lines of vertical vertical lines. Similarly, the part of the cortex that
Cats respond most to low, humans to intermediate, and
or horizontal orientation than by lines of oblique was activated by inputs from horizontal lines re-
falcons to high spatial frequencies. Selection of a Polysensory Invariant
orientation.53 Source: Adapted from De Valois & De Valois, 1988. Spatial sponds preferentially tojiorizontal lines. In another
The relative sensitivity to particular spatial fre- Vision. New York: Oxford University Pess. study, in which kittenst visual experience elimi- Environment-environment" relations are not re-
quencies also reveals the combined effects of the nated exposure to stripes altogether, cortical cells stricted to correlations between events within a
ancestral and individual environments. Organisms did not respond to stripes of any orientation, but single sensory channel, such as the spatial-fre-
that view the world from short distances—such as only to symmetrical spots-of light.57 For even the quency channel. Correlations between environ-
cats, which move close to the surface of the "lowly" fly, exposure to variations in light in different sensory are
ground—are most sensitive to low spatial frequen- is required for the, development of sensitivity to referred to as polysensory Here, we
cies.54 When an object is viewed from nearby, it patterns.58 • consider a po/ysensory invariant involving the re-
has fewer variations in light and dark per degree of Adult
Visual experience also plays a critical role in lation between auditory and visual stimuli.
visual angle (i.e., a lower spatial frequency) than selecting the cortical connections that mediate en- We have already encountered several cases that
when it is viewed from a greater distance. Humans, vironment-environment relations in our close rela- exemplify the/selection^ of polysensory invariants.
who tend to view objects from a greater distance tive, the monkey. Monkeys deprived of experience For one, when an object to the side of an infant
above the ground than cats, are sensitive to higher with high spatial frequencies as infants show defi- emits a sound, the infant's head turns toward the
spatial frequencies. Finally, birds of prey—such as cits in their responsiveness to those frequencies as sound, and increases the*, likelihood he will
falcons, which see distances—- adults,59 Further, human infants who suffer blurred observe light from the object.64 For another, an
are most sensitive to still higher spatial frequen- vision because of astigmatism have deficits in per- presented- with two1 television monitors—
cies. (See Figure 7.11 fof'the relative sensitivities ceiving high spatial frequencies when they become each displaying a talking face, but only one of
of several species to different spatial frequencies.) 0.3 1 3 10 30 100 adults.60 Since high spatial frequencies (i.e., - which is speaking in synchrony with the auditory
Differential sensitivity to different spatial fre- Spatial Frequency (cycles/degree) closely spaced alternations in light and dark) are stimulus—looks at the face whose movements are
quencies occurs within species as well as between required to discriminate printed letters, the failure synchronized with the sound. ^ In both cases, the
species. For example, human infants are maxi- FIGURE 7.12 Absolute sensitivity to spatial
to detect astigmatism and other visual problems invariant relation was between properties of sound
mally sensitive to lower spatial frequencies than frequencies in infant and adult humans early in life may adversely affect a person's later and light—the intensity and temporal pattern of
adults. (See Figure 7.12.) Sensitivity is typically Three-month-old infants are generally less sensitive to ability to read.61 sound with the intensity and temporal pattern of
assessed by allowing the infant to view one grating spatial frequencies than adults, and are especially insen- There are many experiments supporting the light.
for some time, and then later presenting the sitive to higher spatial frequencies. notion seeing in humans has much in common " The correlation these
at the same time as one with a different spatial Source: Adapted from Aslin, R. N., & Smith, L. B, 1988, with seeing in nonhuman organisms. When pi-
Perceptual development. In A. R. Rosenzweig & L. B, Smith
events is relatively constant over evolutionary
frequency. If the infant looks preferentially at one (Eds.), Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 435-^73. Adapted, geons are taught to discriminate between visually time; sound almost always arrives first at the ear
of the two gratings, then she has discriminated the with permission, from the Annual Review of Psychology, presented letters of the alphabet, the errors—such closest to the• sounding object, and turning toward
difference in spatial frequencies. When tested, in- Volume 395 © 1988 by Annual Reviews Inc. "as "confusing" O with Q or P with R—are the the ear that first hears the sound most often allows
194 7 Environment-Environment Relations
the object to be of constancy, The of neural is However, are e.g., a in yoar house— regularly
selection by the ancestral environment can contrib- further complicated by the fact that, when the owl relatively constant only within, the lifetime of an certain stimuli depending on your location. Be-
ute directly to the selection of apolysensory invari- is growing, the pattern of activity specifying loca- individual. Thus the sound and sight of ^particular tween different environments, however, there are
ant involving sound and sight. Indeed, evidence of tion must change to compensate for the changes barking dog may be reliably related to one another no specific stimuli that reliably specify your loca-
such a poly sensory invariant appears in very young produced by growth. As the owl's head grows and, if their conjunction is experienced often tion. Consider an animal, or a young child, that is
organisms without benefit of extensive individual larger, the distance between its ears increases; this enough, consitutes an environment-environment learning its way afound a new environment. In
experience.^ However, just as with sensory in- changes the relation between the prey's location relation. Relations of that sort select polysensory such a situation, the learner has no "map" to con-
variants, the selection of polysensory invariants is and the sound's intensity and time of arrival at the regularities. sult. Maps, when they exist at all, are the outcomes
the joint expression of the selecting effects of the owl's two ears. The growth of the owl's head also Polysensory'regularities are especially impor- •of selection processes and are not available to
ancestral and individual environments. Natural se- increases the distance between its eyes and, there- tant for complex behavior. They are selected as a guide the learner's behavior when he is first ex-
lection produces the proximity between neurons fore, the places on the retina stimulated by light result of arbitrary but nevertheless reliable rela- • posed to an unfamiliar environment. Organism's
from the prey. tions among environmental events that are specific have no absolute frame of reference—no "organ"
that permits individual selection to strengthen neu-
ral connections through activity-dependent mecha- Auditory changes similar to those produced by to an individual's experience. These environment- that indicates latitude and longitude, and directly
nisms. growth can be simulated in the laboratory by plug- environment relations are relatively constant specifies location, or place.70
ging one ear of a young owl, reducing the intensity within a local portion of the environment, but may
To analyze the joint contribution of the ances-
of sound in that ear. Owls with one plugged ear vary from one environment to the next. That is, Place learning. Each location in a navigable en-
tral and individual environments to the selection of
develop an altered pattern of activity in their polysensory relations may be conditional on the vironment is specified by a unique/ combination of
polysensory invariants, nonhuman animals are value of other environmental events. An important
polysensory cells, but one that accurately specifies stimuli. From any given position in the environ-
used for greater experimental rigor. The owl, an the location of sound.68 When the earplug is re- human example of such relations is the relation
animal that hunts its prey under the low-light con- ment, our senses arc distinctively stimulated—our
moved, the pattern of activity specifies location between the sight of an object and the sound of its eyes by particular combinations of spatial frequen-
ditions that exist at night, must integrate visual and incorrectly at first, but then adjusts to respecify "name." There is no necessary relation between the
auditory stimuli if it is to accurately localize its cies and wavelengths, our ears by particular com-
location if the owl is less than 40 weeks old. After sight of a dog and the sounds produced when the binations >of auditory stimuli, and so on. As our
quarry. Even without substantial experience, the 40 weeks, the time at which growth normally stops, following words are spoken—"dog/' "perro," position changes, <$o do these combinations of
young owl—like the human infant—tends to turn readjustment no longer occurs. The effect of - the "chien," or "hund." The relation of one of these
stimuli. The environment uniquely specifies our
its head toward the source of sound in its environ- individual environment on the selection of sensory sounds to the sight, of a dog is quite reliable within
location to the extent that available stimuli give rise
ment; i.e., to localize sound.67 and polysensory invariants is commonly restricted a given verbal environment, but varies from one
to unique patterns of neural activity, and: that we
The owl confronts a more formidable localiza- to circumscribed time periods called sensitive or verbal community to the next. Saying "dog" is
are sensitive to these*patterns. In mammals, inte-
tion problem than the infant, however. The owl critical periods. The specific genetic, neural, and reinforced in the United States; saying "perro" is
gration of the activity Initiated by combinations of
moves in a three-dimensional world (i.e., it flies), behavioral processes that determine sensitive peri- reinforced in Venezuela (or Miami for that matter);
and so forth. stimuli occurs in the sensory and polysensory as-
the light levels are low, and its prey is usually ods are beyond the scope of this book, but they are
sociation areas of the cortex, and is critically influ-
moving when it makes a sound. For the owl to often related to factors that affect growth,69 and
probably reflect the time periods during which enced by environment-initiated activity in another
localize its prey accurately under these demanding brain structure, the hippocampus.71 See
conditions, neural activity arising from its visual inhibitory connections can be modified by activ-
ity-dependent mechanisms. 7.13 for an overview of the neural circuitry relating
auditory systems must be integrated in the the hippocampus and association cortex,
As an example of a polysensory regularity, con-
brain. This integration takes place in polysensory Several pieces of- evidence indicate that the
an organism localizing itself in an environ-
cells that are found in the inferior collicular nuclei, hippocampus plays a crucial role in the integration
ment. At first glance, this resembles the earlier
located in the hindbrain. When the auditory and of neural activity in sensory association cortex. If
situation in which an object was localized in rela-
visual to a polysensory neuron are both The correlation between some properties of audi- tion to the organism, but on further .consideration, a rat is placed in a tank of water and allowed to
active—making it more likely that the polysensory tory and visual stimuli permits the selection of it differs fundamentally. The laws of physics insure swim about until it finds a slightly submerged
neuron is activated—the connections between the those environment-environment relations known a constant relation between the properties of the platform on which it can rest, it rapidly learns the
polysensory neuron and its inputs are strengthened. as polysensory invariants. The relation between the sound and light reaching our senses from an object location of the platform-72 No matter where the rat
Different combinations of visual and auditory time that a sound arrives at the two the as a function of the object's location. However, is placed into the tank, it swims rather directly
stimuli activate different combinations of polysen- location at which the sounding object can be seen there are no comparable invariances between the toward the location of the submerged platform.
sory cells, which then specify the location of the is relatively constant over evolutionary time be- stimuli from the environment and the location of The rat cannot see the submerged platform because
prey. cause of the constancy of the physics of sound and an individual. Within any single environment— the water has been made opaque by the addition of
196 7 Perceiving Environment-Environment Relations
SAC Fur- the in the

and work indicates the back to the very same regions of association cortex tory cortices and the tone-light polysensory cells in
PAC ^ of polysensory regularities other those in- that gave rise to the inputs to the hippocampus. sensory cortex.81 The ef-
T0 Motor volved in place learning is dependent on a func- Because- of this neuroanatomical arrangement, in- fect of this process is to strengthen the connections
From
P C
System ttrX 1 .- Environment hippocampus. Consider a rat confronted cells are in a posi- auditory visual cells converge on
with the following task: When a light and tone tion to modulate the functioning of cells in the polysensory cells. These polysensory cells then
I*S \
occur together (a simultaneous compound stimu- sensory association cortex. (Refer to Figure 7.13 become more strongly polysensory; i.e., they be-
lus), lever pressing is reinforced with food. How- for a summary of these neuroanatomical rela- come reliably activated by the co-occurrence of
ever, when the light or tone component occurs tions.77) stimuli from different sensory channels.
CA1 alone, lever pressing has no consequences. Under The interactions within the hippocampus that For example, in the configural conditioning
these circumstances, rats acquire the response affect the activity of CA1 cells are not fully under- experiment during which reinforcers occurred af-
^— Hippocampus when the compound stimulus is presented, but stood; additional experimental analysis is required. ter the tone-light compound stimulus, some cells
lever pressing is ultimately extinguished when the However, the nature of the neural circuitry is such in polysensory cortex to which connections are
light or tone component is presented alone. This that several types of integration are neurally plau-
type of discrimination task, which is known as strengthened become, functionally,, "tone-light"
FIGURE 7.13 Schematic diagram of the relation of sible.78 For example, the activity of CA1 cells cells. The result of this selection process is to
sensory and poly sensory association cortex (SAC and configural conditioning, is not acquired without could reflect changes in the activity level of the
PAC) to the hippocampus a functioning hippocampus.74 Since the light-tone change the connectivity to cells in sensory associa-
polysensory inputs to the hippocampus, co-occur- tion cortex so that their activity reflects the struc-
Stimuli from various sensory modalities initiate activity combination guides behavior differently from rences of multiple polysensory inputs to the hippo-
in primary sensory cortex (PSC), such as the primary either the light or tone alone, some set of neural ture of the environment-—here, the correlation
visual cortex. Axons from cells in the PSC communicate
campus, or novel patterns, of polysensory input to between tone and light. In short, diffuse feedback
events must differentiate the joint occurrence of the the hippocampus.79 The important point is that,
that activity to motor systems of the brain and to cells in light and tone from their separate occurrences.75 In from the hippocampus to the sensory association
SAC and PAC. These cells, in turn, send axons to motor whatever the nature of the interactions in the hip-
summary, a functioning hippocampus appears to cortex selects connections that, reflect the regulari-
systems and to pathways that lead after several synapses pocampus, they are in a position to affect synaptic
be to in ties in the environment of the
to the hippocampus. Within the hippocampus, after in- efficacies in the sensory association cortex by
teractions among cells within that structure, CA1 hippo- mammals, whether the stimuli activate sensory As the correlations between environmental events
of the pathways originating from the CA1
campal cells give rise to axons that diffusely project to channels within the same sensory modality, as in change, the connectivity of the sensory association
neurons: Because the diffuse output from the hip-
cells in SAC and PAC after several synapses. Thus the place learning, or channels in different sensory cortex is altered to reflect those changes. That is,
pocampus to the polysensory association areas is
multi-channel sensory input into the hippocampus is modalities, as in configural discriminations.7^ new polysensory regularities are selected. As one
diffusely projected back on the association cortex from initiated by neural activity in those same associa-
tion areas, the feedback from the hippocampus investigator put it: ". , , what a [neuron] does is
which those inputs arose. The diffuse feedback from the
hippocampus is postulated to strengthen connections to necessarily occurs in close temporal contiguity temporary and . . . , in fact, its role in the network
recently active SAC and PAC neurons. Interpretation of Polysensory with neural activity in the sensory association ar- depends on its Mstory in iliat network."82
eas,
What we propose here is that the diffuse feed- Stimulus-selection network. The relation be-
What biobehavioral processes implement the se-
back from the hippocampus has an effect on synap- cells* in polysensory association cortex
lection of polysensory regularities?. How does the
tic efficacies in sensory association cortex that is the hippocampus may be simulated with a
hippocampus contribute to the selection of this
class of environment-environment relations? functionally equivalent to the effect of the diffuse lus-selection network:, which selects connections
a substance, but it can see landmarks in the room that mediate environment-environment relations.
containing the tank. Since behavior is guided by Neuroanatomical studies indicate that neurons reinforcing system on the motor association cor-
tex.80 That is, diffuse hippocampal feedback To distinguish a stimulus-selection network from
stimuli that immediately precede the reinforced in the sensory association cortex send axons that
ultimately initiate activity in the hippocampus, strengthens the synaptic efficacies between coac- the previously described network that selects con-
response, the rat's performance tells us that the
Once these axons enter the hippocampus, interactive cells.. If this is the case, then the most reliably nections mediating environment-behavior rela-
combinations of stimuli that specify its location
tions occur among the hippocampal neurons; these affected synapses are those whose activity is cor- tions (see Chapter 2). the earlier network is
and that of the submerged platform have come to
guide the appropriate swimming movements. If, interactions are also- affected by inhibitory neurons related with the output of the CA1 cells. For exam-' • designated a response-selection network. The
however, the hippocampus is nonfunctional due to within the hippocampus. The final neurons in this pie, suppose that a tone and light occur together, outputs of units in the stimulus-selection network
surgical damage or chemical treatment, the rat can chain of activity are the so-called CA1 neurons, and that their co-occurrence causes a hippocampal serve as the inputs to the response-selection net-
no longer learn to navigate efficiently about the whose axons constitute the major output of the output. The change in the diffusely projected out- work. The relations between these two networks
Normal is prevented.73 hippocampus. The CA1 axons initiate activity in put of the hippocampus would increase synaptic^ wiir-be described in greater detail shortly.
198 7 Perceiving Environment-Environment Relations
7.14a a Stimulus Selection Network are i.e., menters introduced a small of

lection network. This network consists of two input •when the stimulus inputs occur together. In the into the input synapses of that cell. After several
units, which represent neurons in primary sensory response-selection network, response-reinforcer pairings between a higher-than-average activity
cortex for different sensory channels, and one in- O relations select connections between the input level and dopamine, the activity level of the CA1
cell increased still further. That is, the cells that
terior unit, which represents polysensory neurons units to the network and the response units that are
in sensory association cortex. An output of the T o Motor ( / active when the reinforcer is presented. The net synapsed on the CA1 cell showed an enhanced
polysensory unit goes to a change-detection circuit System -— effect of the stimulus-selection and response-selec- ability to' activate the CA1 cell. The study was
that simulates the action of the hippocampus. tion networks: is to change the connectivity of the carried out with an isolated slice of hippocampal
When a change occurs in the input to the hippo- O overall selection network to mirror the correlations tissue—an in vitro preparation. If dopamine was
campal circuit, the diffusely projecting output of between environment-environment and environ- not presented immediately after the heightened
the circuit is fed back to the polysensory units. Just ment-behavior events, respectively.86 CA1 activity, no increase was observed. In short,
as in the response-selection network, the feedback In the living organism, the selection processes the activity level of CA1 cells was reinforced by
Change Detection the immediate presentation of dopamine. What-
acts as aneuromodulator to increase the connection (a) in Hippocampus simulated by the stimulus- and response-selection
weights between all recently active units.83 networks—and postulated to occur in the sensory ever interactions in the hippocampus normally af-
Figure 7.14b indicates the simulated increase and motor association cortices, respectively— fect the activity of CA1 cells, the effects are
in activation of the polysensory unit by the simul- must function as a coordinated whole. What is the modulated by the introduction of dopamine from
taneous stimulation of the two input units repre- relationship between the two neural systems, and the VTA reinforcing system into the synapse. Se-
senting different sensory channels. If the two what does it imply for the relationship between the lection in both the sensory and rnotor association
stimulus- and response-selection networks that are cortices appears to be coordinated by a common
channels represent visual and auditory stimuli,
intended to simulate them? reinforcing system.
then the polysensory unit functions as a tone-light
unit. The increased connection strengths to the The effect of a coordinated reinforcing system
tone-light unit mirror the environment-environ- Physiological analysis. Physiological and on the selection of connections in sensory associa-
to the net- neuroanatomical evidence indicates that the relation cortqx may be summarized as follows. When
work was exposed, and exemplify the selection of tionship is intimate. The CA1 hippocampal cells— the level of dopaihine in the CA1 synapses is at the
whose 'activity ;determines the output of the resting or baseline level, a relatively weak signal is
a polysensory regularity. Once these connections
hippocampus to ihe sensory association cortex— diffusely projected to the sensory association cor-
have .been strengthened, the inputs to the response-
are activated by the excitatory neurotransmitter tex, and polysensory connections are therefore
selection network indicate not only the presence of 0 20 40 60 80 100 glutamate released by other hippocampal neu- only weakly selected. In contrast, when a reinforc-
a tone or a light, but also the presence of a tone- (b) Number of Stimulus Co-occurrences rons.87 Next to these glutaminergic synapses are ing stimulus occurs-r-i.e., when the VTA system is
light compound stimulus. The polysensory unit
axons from other neurons that release dopamine, activated—the diffusely projected feedback from
thus provides^ basis for the acquisition of configu- FIGURE 7.14 Network architecture and simulation and these dopaminergic axons arise from cells in the CA1 cells is amplified, and polysensory con-
ral conditioning.84 results illustrating the functioning of a the ventral tegmental area, (VTA)—the source of nections are now selected more strongly. Thus if
stimulus-selection network for the selection of there are regularities in the relation between envi-
polysensojy regularities the reinforcement system for the motor association
of the response-selection ronmental events, synaptic efficacies between si-
(a) An adaptive network whose architecture contains two cortex^ The reinforcement system that is thought
networks. The parallel between the functioning multaneously active neurons in sensory associa-
primary sensory units (Si and 82) converging on a to select connections in the motor association cor-
of the stimulus-selection and response-selection tex is also in a position to modulate the selection tion cortex are somewhat strengthened.' But, if
polysensory unit that, in turn, is connected with the
networks is clear. In both cases, a diffusely project- hippocampus, (b) Simulation results show increases in of connections in sensory association cortex! these regularities are followed by reinforcing stim-
ing signal acts to strengthen all connections be- the levels of activation of the polysensory unit with uli, then the synaptic efficacies are much more
Recording electrodes monitoring the activity of
tween recently active units.85 The cumulative repeated simultaneous presentations of Si and 82. The intensely strengthened.90
the CA1 hippocampal cells indicate that dopamine
effect of this process differentially strengthens cer- change in the activation of the polysensory unit is shown
for two different amounts of dopamiiie (DA) at CA1 does indeed modulate the response of CA1 cells to
tain connections—those that reflect the relations
synapses. The source of DA is the ventral tegmental area, their inputs from other cells in the hippocampus.89 of stimulus selection. According
between environmental events, and between envi-
the origin of the'reinforcing signal for the response-se- Under the conditions of the experiment, the activ- to the above interpretation, mere exposure to the
ronmental and behavioral events, in the experience
lection network. If Si were activated by light and 82 by ity level of CA1 cells was found to vary somewhat co-occurrence of environmental events selects
of the individual organism. In the stimulus-selec- tone, then the polysensory unit would function as a polysensory regularities to some degree. However,
from moment to moment. After an atypically high
tion network, the relations between environmental light-tone unit and become reliably active only when both -, exposure supplemented by reinforcing conse-
level of activity occurred in a CA1 cell, the experi-
events select connections between stimulus units stimuli occurred together.
for in are In a visually of in no case did he get the scene-as~a~whole. He failed

poly sensory regularities more strongly. naive kitten was permitted to walk around the that integrate the sight of an object with the sound to see the whole, seeing only details, which he spot-
periphery of a small circular arena whose walls and sight of the word'for-the object is crucial for ted like blips on a radar screen. . . . [At the end of
Latent learning. Consistent with this account, the examination] He . . . started to look around for
were painted with stripes, A second visually naive verbal behavior.96
rats that were allowed simply to roam about a maze his hat He reached out his hand and took hold of his
was restrained in a sling passively For invariants, the
later learned the more rapidly when food was wife's head, tried to lift it off, to put it on. He had
moved through the same environment in a manner processes that implement selection involve rela- apparently mistaken his wife for a hat! His wife
given as a reinforcer, compared to animals not identical to that of the first. Thus both kittens
given earlier exposure to the maze.^1 However,
tively local interactions among cells in primary looked as if she was used to such things. ,,99
sensed the same sequence of environmental stim- sensory cortex. For perceptual regularities, the
this facilitating effect—which is known as latent uli, but for the second kitten the stimuli were not Perhaps some similarity between the color of
biobehavioral processes that implement selection
learning—is neither large nor robust.92 The effi- coordinated with its own movements. When the his wife's hair and the color of his hat had
arise from more widely distributed interactions
cient selection of environment-environment as two kittens were later tested, the second kitten prompted the man's bizarre behavior. In any case,_
among cells in sensory and polysensory associa-
well as environment-behavior relations requires showed many deficiencies in perceiving the rela- damage to his sensory association areas had left
tion cortex. In the latter case, the integration of
the occurrence of reinforcing stimuli. tion between itself and objects.94 Although mere intact his behavioral responses to individual sen-
activity appears to require feedback from the hip-
exposure to environmental regularities may select pocampus, and the intensity of this feedback is sory events, but prevented the integration of neural
Equivalence classes. The selection of polysen-
some environment-environment relations, expo- modulated by the same reinforcement system that responses into the patterns of activity that normally
sory regularities by the biobehavioral processes
sure is much more effective when the organism selects the connections in motor association cortex specify objects.100
that are simulated by a stimulus-selection network
also provides a basis for the formation of equiva- behaves and experiences the consequences of its that mediate environment-behavior relations.
lence classes. During a contextual discrimination behavior.95 Selectionism and constructionism.1 This chap-
when the sample and comparison stimuli are oc- ter began by exposing the differences between the
curring together, a polysensory regularity can be Perceptual approach of direct perception, which holds' that the
selected that mirrors the correlation between these OF ENVIRONMENT- Guide Behavior environment is sufficiently complex and stable to
environmental events. In the stimulus-selection ENVIRONMENT provide stimuli that specify the environment, and
The selection of neural connections that are sensi- constructionism, which the
network, the polysensory regularity is represented
Selection by the ancestral environment produces tive to environment-environment relations allows consists of an impoverished and chaotic array of
. by interior units that are activated by the joint
an organism that can appreciate the relation be- an extremely rich and varied combination of envi- stimuli that must be supplemented by inferred
occurrence of the sample and comparison stimuli,
tween environmental events after it has been acted ronmental events to Contribute to environment-be- processes if a meaningful and orderly world is to
and whose outputs are available to guide respond-
upon by the selecting effects of its individual envi- havior relations. A sense of the complexity of be perceived. The experimental analysis and inter-
ing. That is, these units are components of the
ronment. Some environment-environment rela- behavioral guidance is provided by studies of per- pretation of .perceiving encourages us to believe
selected environment-environment relation. Over
tions are constant over evolutionary time and sons who have suffered damage to sensory asso- that relations between environmental events select
time, depending on individual selection history,
involve only a single sensory channel. Such rela- ciation areas.97 For some of these persons, connections in the nervous system that are suffi-
patterns of unit activity corresponding to many
tions select sensory invariants; e.g., spatial-fre- behavior is guided by only simple features of the cient to specify the world in which we live. Of
polysensory regularities are selected and are then
quency clusters. Other relations are also constant environment, e.g., the color of an object. In other course, much remains to be done before that belief
available to serve as components of many environ-
over evolutionary time but involve multiple sen- cases, complex features guide behavior, but the may be comfortably accepted, but so far we have
ment-behavior relations. According to this view,
sory channels. These relations select polysensory person no longer appreciates relatively simple fea- encountered no difficulties that demonstrate that
equivalence classes do not depend on verbal be-
invariants; e.g., localization of sights and sounds. tures; e.g., he can identify an object as a chair, but perceiving is beyond- the reach of basic biobehav-
havior; instead, equivalence classes and verbal be-
Finally, many environment-environment rela- cannot describe its color. Still others may recog- ioral processes of selection.
havior both depend on a neuroanatomy that
tions are stable only within the lifetime of an nize parts of an object, but not the object as a
permits the selection of complex polysensory regu-
individual. Such relations select sensory whole.98
larities.93 Construction as a product of selection. There is
polysensory regularities. Polysensory regularities Consider the following description of a neuro- no doubt that the outcome of perceiving appears
Perceptual learning. The contribution that the integrate environmental events that produce activ- psychological patient shown a picture in a;'maga- as if it involved construction. We catch a brief
consequences of responding make to the selection ity in different sensory channels and that, in com- zine. glimpse of part of a friend's face and recognize the
of polysensory regularities is demonstrated by bination, specify objects and "tie together*' the friend; we see only of an object and recognize
His responses here were very curious. His eyes ,
other experimental findings. Animals that are pas- diverse stimuli correlated with their occurrence. the entire object. From a selectionist perspective,
would dart from one thing to another, picking up tiny
sively carried through the environment—rather These stimuli include both the discriminative stim- features, individual features, as they had done with any "construction" is a projwcr of the biobehavio-
than allowed to move "under their own power"— uli provided by objects and the contextual stimuli my face, A striking brightness, a colour, a shape ral processes involved in perceiving, and not the
show deficits in the polysensory regularities that provided by the environments in which the objects would arrest his attention and elicit comment—but cause of perceiving. From an earlier discussion of
2§2 7 Perceiving Environment-Environment Relations
concept formation in adaptive networks, we know faces, with views— com-

that only a subset of the stimuli with which a plete side views—their performance would be very
network was trained is required for the network to poor. Indeed, they would not "recognize" the faces
generate the appropriate response. No single at all. For the networks to "recognize" side views,
stimulus must be present, and many combinations they would have to be trained with side views,
of stimuli are adequate to specify its output. After such training, they would then "recognize"
In addition to behavioral responses, adaptive even partial side views.
networks "construct" environment-environment ;
Studies using neuropsychological subjects
relations—i.e., "percepts"—when their guiding with damage to their sensory and polysensory as-
stimuli are not complete. For example, in another sociation areas provide insights into the recon-
computer simulation a network that had undergone structive functions of these areas. In one study,
selection with an input pattern was then presented subjects with damage to one hemisphere were pre-
with only portions of the trained pattern. The ques- sented with sequences of 4 to 6 letters, with their
tion of interest was: Will a partial input pattern eyes fixated at the middle of the visual display.103
produce a complete "perceptual response" from the The display was presented so briefly (100 ms) that
network? The input pattern used in training corre- their eyes were unable to move before it vanished.
sponded to the pattern of light and dark in a picture Because of the relation between the two hemi-reti-
of a person's face. The output pattern that the nas and the visual cortex, one half of each sequence
network was trained to produce was the same pat- initiated activity in the undamaged hemisphere and WMWMl'Av^MmJH * «" •«"_ KW * ••>•.<«,«««* (t^^gg«*" j j
tern of light and dark that occurred in the input the other half in the damaged hemisphere. If the "* "
pattern. Speaking nontechnically, the network was letter sequence made up a familiar word, then the
trained to "recognize" the face.101 subjects reported seeing the entire word. However,
The in the left column of 7.15 if the letter sequence did not make up a word, the
illustrate the incomplete or degraded input patterns subjects reported seeing only the letters that initi-
that were presented to the adaptive network after it ated activity in the undamaged hemisphere. In
had been trained with complete input patterns for short, a pattern of neural activity that specified the
each of the two faces. The right column contains remaining letters in the sequence was recon-
the corresponding output patterns that were "constructed only when the sequence had been a part of
structed" by the adaptive network from the de- the learner's selection history.104
graded input patterns. Whether it was presented As another example, recordings were made
with an unclear picture or a picture with a portion from cells in the sensory association cortex of
missing, the adaptive network "reconstructed" out- while pictures of the faces of various other FIGURE 7.15 Simulation of the ability of a neural network to "construct" an
pots that closely resembled the complete input sheep were presented.105 Certain cells responded output pattern from an incomplete input pattern after the connection strengths
pattern with which it had been trained. "Recon- reliably to pictures of sheep faces—particularly between, units within the network are changed by selection
Input patterns corresponding to clear and complete pictures of these two faces
struction" is an emergent property of the function- familiar or salient (e.g., large-homed) sheep. How- were presented to the input units of the network during training. Connections
ing of an adaptive neural network after selection; ever, when the pictures were inverted so that the within the network were selected so that the network produced the same pattern
it is a by-product of lower-level selection proc- faces were upside down, the cells no longer on its output units; i.e., the network "recognized" the faces, (a) In the top pair of
esses, and an effect rather than a cause of perceiv- responded. The sheep had not had a selection his- pictures, the much degraded pattern on the left was applied to the input units of
ing.™ 2 tory that included experience with upside-down the trained network. The network "constructed" the more complete pattern
The production by trained neural networks of faces. In monkeys, however, functionally similar shown on the right. This simulates recognizing a familiar person's face in dim
relatively complete perceptual regularities from cells in the sensory association cortex do respond light, (b) In the bottom pair of pictures, the input pattern on the left contains only
a portion of the trained pattern. Nevertheless, the network'"constructed'' the more
only partial inputs should not be overinterpreted. It to upside-down faces. Monkeys, in contrast to complete pattern shown on the right. This simulates recognizing a familiar
does not mean that they have somehow tran- sheep, are likely to have a selection history that person's face from only a partial view of the face,
scended their selection histories. If these networks, includes upside-down faces—monkeys hang from Source: Adapted from Kohonen, T. (1977). Associative memory—a system-theoretical
which were trained with only frontal views of tree branches.106 The perceptual invariants and approach. New York: Springer-Verlag.
2D4 7 Perceiving Environment-Environment Relations 2tS
by be- to to
tween environmental stimuli guide behavior in stimulus-selection network ' frequencies as an example, 1. We prefer to speak of "perceiving" rather
wondrous ways, such as by reconstructing response-selection network 7. Using the example of specifying the location "perception" to\ emphasize the processes involved in
patterns that were originally selected by complete latent learning responding to complex arrays of stimuli. We resist using
of prey in the owl, describe evidence which illus-
arrays of stimuli. However, the guidance they pro- nouns such as "perception" or "percept" for the same
trates that both natural selection and selection by
vide reflects the history of selection. reasons that we avoided the use of nouns to designate
the individual environment produce this polysen-
processes in the earlier discussion of "attention." The
Text Questions sory invariant. emphasis on process is especially important because
STUDY AIDS - 8. The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the perceiving—by its very definition-—involves complex
1. The chapter is concerned with two major
classes of environment-environment relations—- selection of polysensory regularities, (a) Describe stimuli. And, as with all complexity, selectionism holds
Technical Terms
that perceiving can only be understood by reference to .
perceptual invariants and perceptual regularities, evidence that supports this view, using localization the history of interaction of individual organisms and
environment-environment relation of which polysensory invariants and polysensory of oneself in space and configural conditioning as species with their environments; cf. Goldiamond, 1962.
perceptual invariant regularities are important subclasses. What is examples, (b) Indicate the process whereby con- Without an extended history of selection by the ancestral
perceptual regularity meant by an environment-environment relation? In nections to cells in sensory association cortex are and individual environments, perceiving cannot occur:
imprinting general, what is the difference between the selec- strengthened to produce sensitivity to polysensory Complex relations are selected when there are complex
direct perception tion histories of perceptual invariants and regulari- regularities. selection histories.
constructionism ties? Give examples that illustrate each of these Some have been especially critical of efforts to study
classes of environment-environment relations. 9. Describe the major-features and interrelations perceiving using simple stimuli. Regarding the briefly
photopigments presented, relatively simple stimuli displayed on com-
between the stimulus-selection and response-se-
retina 2. What is direct perception, and how does it puter monitors in much laboratory research on perceiv-
faffox £rom {kg constructionist view of perceiving? lection components of the selection network that
optic tract ing, Ulrich Neisser (1976) has wryly observed: "Such
Discuss some perceptual phenomenon from the simulates the acquisition of environment-environ- displays come very close to not existing at all. ... Most
superior collicular nuclei
perspectives of both direct perception and con- ment and environment-behavior relations, respec- psychologists' do not believe in ghosts, but they often
lateral geniculate
structionism. What are the implications of the com- tively. Does selection occur'independently in the experiment with stimuli that appear just as mysteri-
activity-dependent two components? ously," pp. 35, 41. Commenting on,a survey of 59
puter simulations at the end of the chapter for this
sensory channels distinction? laboratory tasks intended to study complex behavior, he
visual association continued in the same vein: "... the only [tasks] with any
polymodal association cortex 3. Describe the major heuroanatomical struc- shred of ecological validity are playing chess and look-
tures of the visual system in the order in which they Discussion Questions ing at the moon. ... A satisfactory theory of human
optic nerve
are activated by visual stimuli. 10. Comment on the following: If the environ- cognition can hardly be established by experiments that
optic chiasm provide inexperienced subjects with brief opportunities
fovea 4. Regarding perceiving visual texture: (a) De- ment contains enough information to tell the to perform novel and meaningless tasks," pp. 7—8. We
corpus callosum scribe the procedures used to determine the stimuli "mind" when to construct a "percept" would note, however, that, whereas the establishment of
to which individual cortical cells are most respon- from incomplete sensory information, then the en- complex stimuli as guides to\ behavior does require an
saccadic (or saccades)
sive. Include the terms receptive field, grating, • vironment contains enough information to con- extensive selection history with respect to those stimuli,
inhibitory electrode, and spatial frequency in your answer, (b) less complex stimuli—assuming that appropriate pre-
inhibitory neurotransmitter struct a complete "percept" in the first instance.
Cortical cells are grouped in clusters. What do cells cautions are • observed—may be employed with great
within a cluster have in common, and how do they 11. Comment on the relative contribution of profit to identify the products of that selection history,
grating differ from cells in other clusters? Referring to experimental analyses at the behavioral and 2. cf. Campbell, 1966, 1.974.
receptive field lateral inhibitory interactions, indicate the process physiological levels to the of envi- 3. Peterson, 1960, For a review, see Hoffman &
Ratner, 1973.
spatial frequency by which spatial-frequency clusters form. ronment-environment relations and environment- 4. Bruner, 1988.
lateral inhibition 5. How can the occurrence of illusions be recon- behavior relations. 5. See Gibson, J. J., 1950, 1966, 1979. See also
illusion ciled with the view that selection processes gener- 12. What does this statement in the text meant Brunswik, 1956; Campbell, 1966; Costall, 1984; and
• polysensory invariant ally produce adaptation to the demands of the "What we perceive are the objects specified by Turvey & Shaw, 1979.
environment? 6. Mace, 1977.
sensitive (or critical) spatial frequencies, not the individual frequencies 7. The correlation i s not perfect, of course: A balloon
polysensory regularity 6. Describe evidence that illustrates the contri- themselves." Refer to the verbal bias in your an- that is being inflated also occupies an increasingly larger
place learning butions of both natural selection and individual "swer. • • portion of the visual field but without an appreciable
206 ? Perceiving Environifient-Bnvironrnent Relations
change In its distance from the eye. It is pertinent to note, such as inputs to the lateral geniculate nucleus from the in the environment—variations in wavelength, 39. Cortical-cells are innervated by fibers arising from
however, that under restricted viewing conditions that neural circuits controlling eye movements; e.g., Lai & intensity, and spatial distribution. Again, it was James adjacent portions of the retina; Tootell, Silverman, S wit-
eliminate other sources of stimulation, an expanding Friedlander, 1989. (See Spillman & Werner, 1990 for a Gibson (1979) who. -most fully appreciated the need to Ices, & De Valois, 1982. See also Guthrie, 1989.
balloon is perceived as coming nearer rather than as presentation of the various neural processes involved in explore the competence of variations in the light to 40. The general principle that the connectivity of the
expanding; Ittelson, 1952. This result likely reflects the seeing.) The existence of inputs from other systems was specify the environment. nervous system1 is importantly influenced by competi-
greater frequency of rigid as opposed to deformable briefly acknowledged in describing poly modal associa- 30. Yarbus, 1967. tion among potential inputs to a cell has been extensively
objects in the selection history of the observer. tion cortex. In addition, there are substantial outputs 31. Scaife & Bruner, 1975. For reviews, see Gibson, applied to the visual system—e.g., Blakemore & Tobin,
8. cf. Hall, 1991. from the visual system to other systems, such as from 1988, and Banks & Salapatek, 1983. On this point, the 1972; von der Malsburg, 1973; Sillito, 1975; Miller,
9. Julesz, 1980. the superior colliculus to the motor neurons controlling pygmy chimpanzee, whom many believe to be the spe- Keller, & Stryker, 1989-—and to the connections in
10. De Valois & De Valois, 1988. eye movements. In short, although one sensory channel cies most closely related to man, is unique in having the adaptive networks generally—-e.g., Rumelhart & Zipser,
11. Gibson, E. J., 1982, 1988; Gibson, E. J. & Spelke, may function in relative isolation from others, the vari- "whites" of its eyes (i.e., a white schlera) readily visible 1986.
1983; Spelke, 1976; and Aslin & Smith, 1988. ous channels are by no means independent of one an- 41. von der Malsburg, 1973.
to an observer. An uiipigmented schlera provides a sali-
12. Fish, insects, and birds show sensitivity into the other. Each channel influences—to some degree-—the 42. For other computer simulations of this process in
ent discriminative stimulus to guide the eye movements
ultraviolet range, due to differences in the accessory functioning of the others and each is, in turn, influenced sensory cortex, see Ambros-Ingerson, Granger, &
of an observer. Lynch, 1990; Edelman, 1987.
organs of vision as well as in photopigments; cf. Harasi by them. 32. Aslin & Smith, 1988. 43. For work of similar import concerning the organi-
& Hashimoto, 1983; Wright, 1972. 22. Stein & Gordon, 1981; Tranel & Damasio, 1985; 33. Saccadic movements are to be contrasted with.
13. Campbell, 1974. Weiskrantz, 1986. zation of motor cortex, see Jacobs & Donoghue, 1991.
pursuit movements that smoothly maintain fixation on 44. For example, the cortical cells with the smallest
14. Stein & Gordon, 1981. 23. Outputs of the geniculo-cortical system that do not
15. Mesiter, Wong, Baylor, & Shatz, 1991. light from moving objects, Pursuit movements do not excitatory areas in their receptive fields-j—and, therefore,
activate the motor systems of speech may also remain
16. Miller, Keller, & Stryker, 1989. appear in infants until after about 8 weeks of visual those capable of responding to the highest spatial fre-
intact in cases of blindsight.
17. Jagadeesh, Gray, & Ferster, 1992; Lowel & 24. Among other reasons, seeing in the foveal region experience, and then only When the objects are moving quencies—receive their inputs frorn the fovea where the
Singer, 1992. is acute because the receptors are smaller and more slowly. Both saccadic and pursuit movements require receptors are most closely packed. Because the receptive
18. Depth or binocular cells are activated by simulta- closely packed than in the periphery. In addition, each selection by the individual environment to shape their fields of cells in the primary visual cortex are often
neous inputs from corresponding portions of the two foveal receptor activates a single ganglion cell, while speed and accuracy. For reviews and recent behavioral excitatory in their centers and inhibitory in the surround-
retinas, and their connections are also formed as the several peripherally located receptors may "share" a and physiological work on the development of eye ing area, these cells are called center-on cells..'The ex-
result of activity-dependent mechanisms, e.g., Hubel & common ganglion cell. movements, see Aslin & Smith,' 1988; Berthoz & Jones, ploration of the ability of these cells to carry out a
' Wiesel, 1962; Wiesel, 1982. See also Bear & Cooper, 25. cf. van Hof & van der Mark, 1976. Frontal eye 1985; Lisberger & Pavleko,',1988; and Colombo, spatial-frequency analysis of local regions of the envi-
1989; Bienstock, Cooper, & Munro, 1982; Blakemore placement is common in predators, animals that catch Mitchell, Coldren, & Atwater, 1990. ronment is primarily due to the work of Campbell and
& Cooper, 1970; and Pettigrew, 1974. and eat other animals, and in primates, for whom seeing 34. A coherently moving pattern stands out against a the De Valoises1; e.g., Canipbell &Robson, 1968 and De
19. Hubel & Livingstone, 1987. the hands is important. Frontal eye placement facilitates stationary background, even when the moving and sta- Valois & De Valois, I9gg. This work is to be distin-
20. Macko, Jarvis, Kennedy, Miyako, Shinohara, nearby distance discrimination, an ability important to tionary patterns of light and dark are identical; e.g., Dick, guished from that which ijses a global spatial-frequency
Sokoloff, & Mishkin, 1982. both predators and primates. The corpus callosum also Oilman, & Sagi, 1987; Frost & Nakayama, 1983. analysis of the entire visual field; e.g., Weisstein &
21. We have concluded our brief overview of the contains many axons that are activated by nonvisual 35. Colonnier, 1968. See also Ramoa, Campbell. & Harris, 1980. For related theoretical analyses of the
neural system for seeing. The overview has been neces- stimuli. Neural activity stimulated by these environ- Shatz, 1987. visual system, see LaBerge''& Brown, 1989. The issues
sarily incomplete, but two major omissions may be noted mental events is also communicated between the left and 36. This method was originally developed, by David are further complicated by recent work suggesting that
here. First, we have emphasized those neural pathways right cortices, but is not of concern here. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel in their pioneering research the time intervals between 'successive activations of
leading from the environment into the brain; e.g., from 26. Neisser, 1976; cf. Gibson, J. J., 1966, 1979, See cortical cells are appreciated by the visual system, see
on the visual system, for which they received a Nobel
the retina to the lateral geniculate and then the primary also Michaels & Carello, 1981. Optican & Richmond, 1987; Richmond & Optican,
Prize; e.g., Hubel & Wiesel, 1959, 1962, 1968, 1972.
visual cortex. We have not mentioned the extensive 27. The theme that selection reflects the coordinated 1987.
37. If the grating ceases to move, the activity soon
pathways leading in the reverse direction: e.g., from the action of both the ancestral and individual environments 45. De Valois, De Valois, & Yund, 1979; Maffei,
declines to the baseline level; e.g., Albrecht & De Valois,
cortex to the lateral geniculate nucleus. The neural sys- should be quite familiar by this time. Both environments Morrone, Pirchio, & Sarsdini, 1979; Pollen & Ronner,
1981. If the position of a visual stimulus with respect to 1982; De Valois & De Valois, 1988.
tems mediating seeing and, indeed, the systems mediat- contribute to even the most basic structures and proc-
ing all behavior, are highly integrated networks with the retina is held constant (a so-called stabilized,retinal 46. Campbell & Rob son, 1968; Graham & Nachmias,
esses. For example, in some animals the very shape of
many reciprocal connections; e.g., Merzenich & Kaas, the eyeball, and therefore the occurrence of visual ab- image), the stimulus pattern fades in and out of view*— 1971.
1980. normalities such as nearsightedness (myopia), may be portions becoming invisible within only a few seconds. 47. For a discussion of the similarities and differences
Second, the presentation has stressed those inputs and affected by visual experience early in life; Wallman, Ditchburn & Ginsberg, 1952; Riggs, Ratliff, Cornsweet,- between the visual and auditory systems in this regard,
outputs that are most directly related to seeing. However, Gottlieb, Rajaram, & Fugate-Wentzek, 1987. & Cornsweet, 1953. Movement is critical to seeing. see Julesz, 1980.
no perceptual system operates in complete isolation 28. Gibson, E. J., 1988. 38. It is estimated that there are perhaps 2,000 spatial- 48. The inability of verbal responses to be directly
from other systems. There are substantial inputs from 29. By "structure" is meant the variation in the physi- frequency clusters in the monkey primary visual cortex; guided by all biobehavjoral processes is anticipated both
other systems to the neural system mediating seeing, cal properties of light reflected from or emitted by De Valois & De Valois, 1988. on evolutionary grounds—e.g., the verbal system was
7 Perceiving Environment-Environment
after the objects, not on a page. When 76. cf, Olton, 1983: Rasmussen, Barn.es, & 82. 1984,. quoted in Fox, 1984;^p. 821.
been selected; cf. Skinner, 1974—and on neuroanatomi- the individual environment selects for the biobehavioral McNaughton, 1989; Rawlins, 1985. For recent reviews 83. cf. Gray, Konig, Engel, & Singer, 1989.
cal grounds—e.g., direct connections do, not exist be- processes involved1" in reading, these selections exert of the literature on the effects of the hippocampus on 84. Donahoe, Burgos, & Palmer, 1993; Krieckhaus,
tween all units in a network of neurons; cf. Minsky & their effects upon an already rich legacy from the ances- • "memory," see Eichenbaum & Otto, 1-992; Squire, 1992; Donahoe, & Morgan, 1992. In the technical language of
Papert, 1988, pp. 270, 280. tral environment. Reading is not an expression of only Sutherland & Rudy, 1989. adaptive-network interpretations, a stimulus-selection
49. Hartline & Ratliffe, 1957. " - . these more ancient processes, of course, but reading does 77. Amaral, 1987; Krieckhaus, Donahoe, & Morgan, network implements a type of unsupervised learning; cf.
50. For discussions of possible relations -between illu- not occur independently of them either. 1992, Rumelhart & Zipser, 1986. Unsupervised learning oc-
sions and the detection of spatial frequencies, see 62. Blough, 1985,1989,1991; cf. Neisser, 1964; Gib^ 78. Sharp, 1991, curs independently of feedback from the environment.
Ginsburg, 1971 and De Valois & De Valois, 1988. For son, Schapiro, & Yonas, 1968; Townsend, 1971b. 79. cf. Krieckhaus, Donahoe, & Morgan, 1992; Am- •Alternatively, the hippocampal feedback to poly sensory
a comprehensive treatment of illusions, see Gregory & 63. Egeland, 1975, bros-Ingerson, Granger, & Lynch, 1990; Squire, Shima- association cortex may be viewed as implementing self-
Gombrich, 1973. For some demonstration of illusions in 64. Wolff & White, 1965. mura, & Amaral, 1989; Trehub, 1977,1987,1991. Since supervision based upon environmental input to the net-
animals other than humans, see Fujita, Blough, & 65. Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1982. For other studies and the origins of inputs to hippocampus appear to be re- work. The stimulus-selection network selects, on-line,
Blough, 1991; Rilling & LaClaire, 1989. reviews, see Starkey, Spelke, & Gelman, 1983; Gibson stricted to cells in poly sensory association cortex in higher-order units that permit "difficult" (e.g., non-
51. Sur, Garraghty, & Roe, 1988. & Spelke, 1983; Shepard, 1984. primates (Amaral, 1987), the inputs to hippocampus linear) discriminations to be acquired; cf. Maxwell,
52. For other examples, see Roe, Pallas, Harm, & Sur, 66. See Gibson & Spelke, 1983 and Rose & Ruff, already reflect the conjunction of activity in multiple Giles, & Lee, 1986. A response-selection network im-
1990 and Schlaggar & O'Leary, 1991. 1987 for reviews of this literature. sensory channels. Thus interactions within the hippo-
plements supervised learning, although the supervision
53. Campbell, Kulikowski, & Levison, 1966. 67. Knudsen, 1984; Knudsen & Knudsen, 1985; see campus involve higher-order conjunctions of-neural ac-
is not necessarily identical to that implemented by algo-
54. If the distance of a grating from an observer is held also Knudsen & Brainard, 1991. For work of similar tivity arising from multiple environmental events (see
rithms such as the delta rule; cf. Rumelhart, Hinton, &
constant, as has so far been assumed, the spatial fre- import with mammals, see King, Huthings, Moore, & also Deadwyler, West, &. Robinson, 1981). ;
Williams, 1986.
quency of the grating is simply a function of the number Blakemore, 1988; Meridith & Stein, 1986; Stein, Hori- 80. Donahoe, Burgos,,fe Palmer, 1993; Krieckhaus,
85. The use of diffuse projection systems to modulate
of fuzzy stripes in the grating. However, if the distance eycutt, & Meridith, 1988. Donahoe, & Morgan,* 1991.
81. In the motor association cortex, the diffusely pro- the synaptic efficacies between recently activated neu-
is allowed to vary, then the spatial frequency of the 68. Knudsen, 1983,
jecting neural system of reinforcement uses dopamine rons appears to be a general evolutionary "strategy." For
grating must be expressed as the number of stripes per 69. Mitchell, 1980; see also Munro, 1986.
70. This characterization of localizing oneself applies as the neuromodulator (see Chapter 2). If the diffusely example, diffusely projecting systems, in addition to
degree of visual angle for the observer. The spatial
when there is no selection history within or highly projecting neural system originating from the hippocam- those postulated here, rnodulate the selection of/connec-
frequency of a grating increases-—i.e., are
similar environments and when there are no technical pus provides a similarly functioning neuromodulator of tions in other'cortical areas; Fallon & Laughlin, 1997;
stripes per degree of visual angle—as the distance of the
aids by which the senses are augmented; e.g., a device synaptic efficacies in sensory association cortex, it has Kety, 1970; Miller, Keller, & Stryker,4989; Pettigrew,
observer from the grating increases. As an illustration,
that uses satellite information to determine absolute not been specifically identified—-although it is probably 1985; Singer, 1985; Singer & Rauschecker, 1982.
when held at arm's length a typical ruled pad of paper
latitude and longitude. When an organism is experienced a monoamine other than dopamine, such as nor- 86. cf. Stone, 1986.
has about one line per degree. At a distance of ten feet,
in an environment, then other processes—such as those epinephrine; cf. Fallon & Laughlin, 1987. The view that 87. e.g., Lyfbrd & Jariad, 1991.
the same pad has about 4 lines per degree of visual angle. 88. e.g., Swanson, 198^,
55. Aslin & Smith, 1988; Aslin, Alberts, & Peterson, considered in later chapters on problem-solving and changes in the synaptic efficacies of cells in sensory
cortex require a neuromodulator is not without prece- 89. Stein & Belluzzi, 1988, 1989; cf. Kitai, Sugimori,
1981. remembering—become relevant; cf. Kosslyn, Pick, &
dent. Changes in the synaptic efficacies of neurons in & Kocsis, 1976. \
56. Hirsch & SpineUi, 1970; Stryker, Sherk, Leven- Fariello, 1974; Acredolo, 1979.
primary visual cortex have been shown to be dependent 90. One of the most important consequences of a
thal, & Hirsch, 1978; cf. Blakemore & Cooper, 1970; 71. e.g., Nadel, Willner, & Kurz, 1985.
72. Morris, 1983. on rnonoaniinergic neuromodulators that are present mechanism that coordinates the selection of connections
Blakemore & Mitchell, 1973. See Banks & Salapatek,
73. O'Keefe& Nadel, 1978. when the animal is alert; Singer & Rauschecker, 1982. throughout the cerebral cortex is that it addresses what
1983 for a review. &
74. Sunderland & Rudy, 1989. Configural discrimi- Thus, the neuromodulatory system for primary sensory has been called the 'binding problem (Hinton, McClel-
57. Pettigrew, 1974.
58. Mimura, 1986. nations may be studied with either classical (Kehoe, cortex is tonic, i.e., continuously active in a normal land, & Rumelhart, 1986; Smolensky, 1987). A coordi-
59. Boothe, 1981. 1986; Kehoe & Gormezano, 1980) or operant (e.g., animal. What we propose here is that a phasic neuro- nated reinforcing signal, "binds together" all .those
60. Mitchell, 1980, 1981. Woodbury, 1943) procedures. Configural discrimina- modulatory system controlled by the hippocampus connections that were reliably active before the occur-
61. Hem, & Gower, 1970; Held, 1981; Mitchell tions can involve either positive patterning, in which serves sensory association cortex. rence of a reinforcer. The potential power of a mecha-
& Ware, 1974; Movshon, Chambers, & Blakemore, reinforcers occur only during the compound stimulus, or In both the sensory and motor association cortices, the nism that simultaneously modifies synapses between
1972; and Hein, 1980. Although the visual stimuli re- negative patterning, in which reinforcers occur only primary neurotransmitter is the excitatory amino acid synchronously active neurons was apparently first rec-
quired for reading and writing figure prominently in during the components. For other theoretical treatments glutamate. Long-term changes in the synaptic efficacies ognized by von der Malsburg, 1981, 1987; and sub-
complex human behavior, these stimuli were absent of configural discriminations, see Hull, 1943; Kehoe, of glutamate receptors require activation of a subset of sequently and apparently independently by a number of
from the ancestral environment of humans—the envi- and Rescorla, 1973, 1985a. " receptors, the NMD A (N-methyl-D-aspartate) re-'" . other investigators (e.g., Crick, 1984; Donahoe, Burgos,
ronment in which seeing was selected. For instance, 75. In the technical language of adaptive-network the- ceptor complex. The neuromodulator is postulated to act & Palmer, 1993; Strong & Whitehead, 1989). Mecha-
changing visual fixation from one point in the environ- ory, or linear algebra, such discriminations are instances through its effects on this receptor complex. The cellular nisms of this general type are currently being applied to
ment to another—which occurs in reading—was se- of nonlinearly separable problems; cf. Rumelhart, mechanisms through which these effects may act are complex problems in perceiving (e.g., Hummel & Bied-
lected by an environment populated with moving McClelland, & the PDP Group, 1986. 'beyond the scope of this book. errnan, 1990) as are conditioning mechanisms generally,
98. Luria, 1976; Teuber, 1963., For a review, see
such as involved in blocking (e.g., Siegel, Allan,
Brown, 1988.
CHAPTER 8
&Eisenberg, 1992).
91. Tolman'&Honzik, 1930. 99. Sacks, 1987, pp. 10-11.
92. Latent learning, like all complex behavior, is in- 100. For physiological work related to the integration
fluenced by many variables; cf. Osgood, 1953. of activity from different sensory channels, see Hubel &
Livingstone, 1987; Livingstone & Hubel, 1987; and
MEMORY:
93. In the primate brain, more so than in the of
other mammals such as the rat, inputs to the hippocam- Ungerleider & Mishkin, 1982. For further comments on
such work see Blake, 1989; Logothetis, Schiller, Char-
REMINDING
pus and outputs from the hippocampus arise from sen-
sory association rather than primary sensory cortex; les, & Hurlburt, 1990; and De Valois & De Valois, 1988,
p. 238; cf. Mignard & Malpeli, 1991.
Amaral, 1989.
101. Kohonen, 1977; Kohonen, Lehtio, & Oja, 1981;
94. Hein & Held, 1962: Hem, 1980; Held, 1980; Throughout most of the earlier chapters, the focus uniquely "memorial" principles are needed to sum-
Kohonen, Oja, & Lehtio, 1985.
Harris, 1980; Hein & Jeannerod, 1983; Held & Hein, has been on the selecting role of the environment. marize the action of uniquely "memorial" proc-
102. cf. Ambros-Ingerson, Granger, & Lynch, 1990.
1958. 103. Sieroff, Pollatsek, & Posner, 1988. When stimuli are sensed and responses occur in esses. Furthermore, '.as with other nontechnical
95. The important relation between perceiving and 104. For related work, see Sieroff & Michael, 1987; their presence followed by reinforcing stimuli, en- terms, "memory" is unlikely to, denote -a single
responding has been emphasized by Gibson in his con- Sieroff & Posner, 1988. vironment-behavior relations are selected. When combination of basic biobehavioral processes act-
cept ofaffordance. Environments are said to afford, i.e., 105. Kendrick & Baldwin, 1987. stimuli are sensed Concurrently, especially when ing in a specific fashion. Instead, the field of
to permit, actions. Thus a floor affords walking, a chair 106. Bruce, Desimone, & Gross, 1981; see also Bruyer, they are followed by reinforcing stimuli, environ- "memory"—like the field of "attention"—consists
affords sitting, and so forth; Gibson, 1979; Johansson, 1986 and Whitely & Warrington, 1977. It would be a ment-environment relations are selected. To- of a diverse set of phenomena having certain fea-
von Hofsten, & Jansson, 1980; Turvey, Yosel Solomon, mistake to conclude from such studies that a complex gether, the coordinate^ selection of environment- tures in common. In the case of "memory," these
& Burton, 1989; Yonas & Granrud, 1984; Yonas & stimulus, such as a face, is recognized by a single "face"
cell. Instead, complex stimuli activate small subnet-
behavior and environment-environment relations features are that the behavior of interest is impor-
Owsley, 1987.
96. cf. Sussman, 1989. works of cells whose extent is determined by the selec- enables our actions to become exquisitely guided tantly influenced :by selections that have occurred
97. Damage that changes the sensory input to the tion history with respect to the stimulus and constrained by the environment. This guidance is based exclu- in previous environments and, often, considerable
cortex also profoundly affects its connectivity, even in by lateral inhibitory interactions that limit the excitatory sively on brief sequences\of events. However, the time has elapsed between these earlier selections
the adult organism; e.g., Pons, Garraghty, Ommaya, cells in the network to those are of of in the present environment.
Kaas, Taub, & Mishkin, 1991. activated by the stimulus; Young & Yamane, 1992. responses, and reihforcers produces environment- cause "memory" depends on the -history of selec-
behavior relations that, in general, accurately re- tion, and the relevant ^history usually varies from
flect the overall structure of our world and the one person to the next, considerable individual
consequences of our behavior in that world. differences are to be expected.l
. We begin our efforts to understand "memory"
by exploring some implications of the principles
INTRODUCTION that have emerged froiri'pur study of behavior. This
framework enables us to provide interpretations
In this chapter, and throughout the remainder of the for such puzzling questions as: How can a person
book, our focus shifts from, the selection of envi- answer questions on any of a wide range of topics
ronment-behavior and environment-environment in a fraction of a second, while even a powerful
relations to the effects of selection—how the computer 'may take many seconds to search -its
learner functions after selection has taken place. memory for the answer? How can we recall the
The nontechnical term "memory9' is convention- name of an acquaintance in one situation and then
ally when the focus is on the effects of past forget it in another, and where did the "memory"
selections on present behavior. We treat "memory" go when it was not recalled? Why are some
as we did "attention" and "perception" before it. "memories" very detailed even after a single expe-
That is, we view "memory" as ao emergent product rience, while others require many repetitions? Why
of past selections, not as an independent field re- do some "memories" endure indefinitely while
quiring a different set of basic principles. No others are quickly forgotten?
211
212 8
Memory: 213
AS the "same" Variabil- are red, are salivary they
ity in the specific circumstances at the moment of blue." ' and pigeons retrieving responses when
the specific a Appreciating selection changes the they see colors on a disk. We can avoid the prob-
Memory as a given environment-behavior relation to vary strength of environment-behavior relations and the lems implicit in the use of retrieval if we do not
of moment to moment. Selection does not forge a neural connections mediating has a "memories" as a different kind of behavior,
single chain of invariable links between the recep- benefit: It provides a way to conceptualize the but simply as a cumulative product of previously
Experimental analyses of the biobehavioral proc- tor and the effector; it creates a functional network status of "memories" when .-we are'not recalling selected environment-behavior relations.
esses involved in variation, selection, and retention whose constituent units vary somewhat with the
indicate that the "appropriate" response occurs them. If a "memory" is .a pattern of activation in a When viewed as environment-behavior rela-
environmental and organismic conditions of the network of neurons, then the "memory" does not tions, much of what falls under the conventional
when the environment contains stimuli that have
moment. Even when we engage in such relatively exist when the pattern is not present. And, the heading of "memory" becomes part of the more
acquired the ability to guide the response. At the
simple behavior as flexing an index finger to pattern is not present unless some event activates general field of the. environmental guidance of
behavioral level, if such stimuli are present, the
scratch an itchy nose, the flexion response likely it. Technically speaking, what is retained as a result
response occurs.2 At the neural level, if these stim- behavior (see Chapter 3). Accordingly, the vari-
involves the contraction of different muscle fibers of selection is not a "memory" or a set of active
uli activate networks of pathways in the nervous ables that experimental analysis has identified as
on different occasions.3 And, when we flex our pathways, but changes in connection strengths be-
system that contract the appropriate muscles, ob- bringing behavior under the control of the environ-
index finger under the control of different stim- tween neurons that allow the network to be acti-
servable behavior occurs. ment should prove useful in interpreting "mem-
uli—to scratch an itchy nose, to press a key on a vated under certain conditions. In short, when we ory." For example, we expect a response to recur
typewriter, or to keep time to music—the "same" are not having them, "memories" do not exist. at a later time to the extent that the stimuli that
What is selected? The cumulative effects of se-
movement of our finger results from the contrac- "Memories" are not stbred away in a metaphorical
lection by reinforcement are environment-behav- guide the response are present at that later time.8
tion of different individual muscle fibers. Selection filing cabinet; what are stored—if the storage
ior relations whose environmental components Let us briefly review some of-the variables that
. leads to reliable environment-behavior relations, metaphor is to be used at all—are the connection
have been enriched by concurrently selected envi- determine whether the environment guides behav-
but the specific neural elements that mediate those strengths needed to create1 the appropriate pattern ior.
ronment-environment relations. At the neural
relations are likely to be quite variable. of activity when the appropriate environmental and
level, enough synapses have been strengthened To begin with, behavior is most strongly
throughout the networks to permit reliable media- By is is a organismic events occur. 6 "• i guided by the particular stimuli that were present
tion of the relation between the environment and set of connections, we can avoid a
when selection occurred. These stimuli include not
behavior. The number of selected pathways and the dilemma that often arises when we mistakenly Under what conditions do'"mem®ries" occur? only the nominal discriminative stimuli—or cues,
synaptic efficacies mediating the relation depend equate the occurrence of a response with the exist- If "memories" are interpreted as environment-be- as such stimuli are often called in memory re-
on the initial connectivity of the nervous system ence of a "memory." Consider the following oth- havior relations mediated by the activation of a search—but also the Contextual stimuli in whose
and the co-occurrence of activity between con- erwise problematic example. When asked to state network of pathways in the nervous system, then presence the'discriminative stimuli occur. As1 se-
nected units during selection. In a neural network the word for a sweet-tasting substance that begins "memories" occur only when the network is acti- lection proceeds, those\ stimuli that most reliably
with the number of units and rich connectivity of with "s," a patient who had suffered brain damage vated. And, the network is activated only when precede the reinforced response guide the response
the the of pathways mediat- was unable to answer. However, when she was conditions reproduce the conditions under ever more strongly, and'^stimuli that are less reli-
ing a given environment-behavior relation -is, in asked to complete the rhyme "Roses are red, violets which selection took place. That is, stimuli .guide ably present lose their ability to guide the response.
general, very large. Wltat do the behavioral are blue . . ,, ". she immediately replied "sugar is "memories" just as they do other responses.7 The more reliable increasingly block the
neural accounts of the effects of selection suggest sweet so are you."4 Did the patient have a The stimuli that guide "memories" are some- ability of the less reliable stimuli to guide behavior.
about the nature of "memory"? "memory" for sugar or not? When we appreciate said, metaphorically, to retrieve This To that, the guidance .of behavior is restricted
First, note that what is selected is not properly that the product of selection is an environment-be- is misleading. The use of the retrieval metaphor to to a given set of stimuli, differential training is
described as a response but as a relation between havior relation and not a response alone, such describe the processes by which "memories" occur usually required. That is, the response must be
the environment and behavior or, on the neural observations are not troublesome. The vocal re- implicitly assumes that "memories" exist when reinforced when a particular subset of stimuli is
level, a set of connections between receptors and sponse "sugar" was no longer guided by the audi- they are not occurring—as a written record' exists present, and not reinforced (or differently rein-
muscles. In general, the same response, or pattern tory stimulus provided by the question, but was both when it is being read and when it is. in a file forced) when other stimuli are present, For exam-
of muscular contractions, can be produced in many still guided by the auditory stimulus of the first part drawer waiting to be read. Retrieval also implies ple, if a tone- is present in an experimental chamber
different ways. There are different pathways by of the rhyme,5 This result undoubtedly reflects the that the "memory" is being retrieved by someone, ' when a response is reinforced, but not when the
which activity in one brain region may affect ac- conditions under which the vocal response "sugar rather than resulting from the environment acting response is unreiefarced, then the contextual stim-
tivity in another brain region, and different patterns is sweet and so are you" was originally selected; on the organism. If we speak of people retrieving uli provided by the chamber gradually lose their
of contraction of individual muscle fibers may most children acquire this verbal behavior inime- ": "memories," then we must of dogs ability' to guide the response. The response be-
214 8
by the the con- the Challenger, or of the has that the

by the tone, as the tone acts on a nervous system the "memory" includes responses guided death of a friend or parent, may qualify as such connection strengths in a single adaptive network
that is affected by the context in which it occurs. by many of the stimuli in whose presence selection events, Many claim to -recall the precise circum- can be modified in such a way the same net-
That is, the same tone presented in two different occurred, such a relation is sometimes said to be an stances under which they learned of such dramatic work mediates both episodic and semantic memo-
contexts is likely to activate somewhat different instance of episodic memory.10 Although some events. Because the specifics are sometimes so ries.16 Thus the same stimulus may produce
of units in the neural network. Thus, although of memory believe that different proc- well recalled, these particularly rich episodic a very specific output pattern in one context and a
contextual stimuli lose their ability to guide behav- esses are required to understand episodic as op- memories are ,known as memories.12 categorical output pattern in another context. The
ior by themselves, the nominal discriminative posed to other memories, we—among others—do They are so called because it is as if a flashbulb had context may be simulated by the state of input units
stimulus—acting on a nervous system that is af- not.11 If we apply the information we have gained gone off, illuminating the entire situation at the other than those activated by the discriminative
fected by the context—determines which specific from the experimental analysis of discrimination moment of the event. As interpreted through a stimulus. To illustrate, if a given input pattern
connections are strengthened by the reinforcer.9 formation, we can account for the observed vari- selection network, such "memories" are the result represented the features of a particular person, then
ation in the stimuli and responses that make up in one context that pattern could produce an output
of selection by very potent elicitors that strongly
What determines the constituents of "memo- those environment-behavior relations known as pattern representing some person-specific charac-
activate the diffuse reinforcing system, greatly
ries'9? What we know about discrimination for- episodic memories.
strengthening connections along all pathways that teristic—e.g., the person" s name—-while in another
mation leads us to expect that different "memories" Differences in the specificity and number of context it could produce an output pattern of a
happen to be active,at that moment.13
will vary greatly in the number and type of stimuli stimuli that guide a response are primarily the categorical response~-~e.g., the person's gender.
Finally, there are those "memories"—probably
that guide them, and in the number and type of result of two variables. First, if behavior has oc- As with many environment-behavior relations,
the majority—in which a narrower range of stimuli
responses that are guided. For example, suppose curred and been reinforced on only a few occa- semantic "memories" have multiple origins. Much
and responses make \ip the selected relation. In
that you pressed a button on a vending machine and sions, then many specific stimuli and responses are adult human behavior does not result only from
inferred-process approaches to "memory," the
got a bar of candy without putting any money in candidates for inclusion in the selected relation: shaping by the contingencies of reinforcement.
Differential reinforcement has not had an opportu- term semantic memory comes closest to encom-
the machine. Under these circumstances, you are Particularly since the beginning of verbal behavior,
nity to narrow the range of stimuli and responses passing such relations—especially when the be-
likely to -recall the details of the situation—the many responses result partly from guidance by
to reliably the reinforcer. havior includes ' verbal responses.14 (The term
the particular provided by the behavior of others—in-
Second, if the reinforcer that selects the environ- . semantic refers to, meaning—a concept that is in-
chine you used, the building where the machine structions and the like. (Of course, the ability of
was located, and so forth. Similarly, if a knowl- ment-behavior relation is a potent elicitor, then terpreted in a later chapter on verbal behavior.) A
verbal stimuli to guide behavior is ultimately trace-
edgeable friend told you a surprising fact, e.g., that many of the particular stimuli that happen to be semantic memory might be exemplified by re-
able to the contingencies of reinforcement with
scientists had made a mouse as big as a dog through sensed at the moment of selection—even if they sponding to the question "What color is the'sky?"
respect to verbal behavior.) Verbal stimuli can take
genetic engineering, you would likely recall both are present on only a single occasion—may acquire with the answer "The sky is blue." Answering
many forms:—vocal 'Speech, written speech/dia-
that fact and the person who told it to you. When the capacity to guide many of the responses. As "blue" in response to this and similar inquiries has
grams, etc.. Many semantic memories originate
events are surprising and occur in only one context, interpreted by selection networks, a potent reinfor- been reinforced on many specific occasions. Yet,
from behavior whose initial occurrence is the result
a "memory" that includes the specifics of the con- cer may substantially strengthen connections be- it is a rare person who recalls even one of those
of verbal stimuli. For example, you the
text is likely to be formed. Based on your earlier tween all active units even on a single occurrence. occasions. Semantic "memories" 'are commonly Pythagorean theorem about the relation between
history of selection in situations, you are If the connections along many pathways are suffi- the product -of a prolonged history of selection. In the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle and
apt to engage in behavior that causes your respond- ciently strengthened, then many stimuli can poten- the "blue sky" case, the response "blue" has been the lengths of the other two sides, but it, is unlikely
ing to be guided by many aspects of the situation. tially guide the response. However, if differential reinforced on many different occasions in which that you recall the specific occasion on. which you
Speaking nontechnically, when your experience training occurs, some of these stimuli—those least the only common stimulus has been the dominant first acquired this behavior. As noted in an earlier
the likelihood a response will be reliably preceding the reinforced response—would wavelength of light coming from the sky— chapter, such behavior is best understood on its
in future environments on the not be components of the environment-be- which we call "blue." The response "blue" has first occurrence as rule-governed rather than con-
particular features of the current environment, you havior relation. been reinforced whether the person asking the tingency-shaped.
behave in ways that bring the response under the Recalling the detailed circumstances surround- question was a parent or a stranger, whether there To summarize, ''memory" refers to the endur-
control of many features of the selecting environ- ing some dramatic event provides the most striking were mountains on the horizon or trees, whether ing effects of the selection of environment-behav-
Thus, at the of the unusual event's of episodic memory. For of the the sky or flecked with clouds, so on. , ior relations. In experienced learners, acquired
occurrence you might note the location of the authors* generation, the assassinations of President The net effect of differential training is to restrict reinforcers play an increasing role in the selection
vending machine, or the origin of the statement Kennedy and Martin Luther King are unfortunate the guiding stimulus to a narrower range of wave- process. Selected responses occur to the extent that
about giant mice. examples. For others, witnessing the explosion of lengths.15 the stimuli—or cues—guiding them are present.
216 8 Memory: Reminding,
And, finally, consti- A 1 Year 7 Years 48 Years — in

tute the "memory" depend on the specific contin- tion on the relation between the strength of the be experimentally analyzed on the
gencies of selection. We turn now to a response evoked by a stimulus—i.e., its familiar- 100 - level. To evaluate the effect of the of time
consideration of factors that determine how long ity—and the topography of the response,19 Sub- alone, time must he allowed to between selec-
"memories" last. jects were shown pictures of persons who had been c
o tion and the without the occurrence
Q_ 80
well known to the public in past years. The subjects of either environmental or behavioral events in the
were then asked to indicate how strongly they I • Name Recognition
O Picture Recognition
interim. Since some environment is always stimu-
believed that they had seen the person before—-i.e., fc 60 - lating the organism and some behavior is always
o •A Name Matching
The Durability of Memory how familiar the face was—and, if possible, the U occurring,, the required state of "suspended anima-
A Picture Matching
person's name. The pictures that seemed most tion" is impossible to attain. However, these con-
As interpreted by biobehaviorally informed adap- familiar were correctly named with over 80% ac- ditions may be approximated. In a classic
tive networks, a "memory" endures as long as the curacy; those that seemed least familiar were cor- 10 100 1000 experiment,21 subjects who had learned a list of
stimuli present during original selection can be rectly named with somewhat less than 50%
re-presented to the network's input units, and the nonsense syllables immediately before falling
accuracy. Two aspects of these findings merit par- Time (months)
connection strengths along the pathways that me- asleep recalled more of the syllables when awak-
ticular attention. First, the more familiar the pic- ened than they did when, tested . after a waking
diate the input-output relations remain relatively ture, the more likely the subjects were to correctly FIGURE 8.1 Changes in the accuracy of period of equal length.-. (See Figure 8.2.) The high
unchanged. What is the evidence regarding the name the person depicted. This suggests that, as a autobiographical "memory" over time
durability of the environment-behavior relations retention level, together with evidence of accurate
result of our selection history, we may come to Measures were the recognition of names and pictures of
that adaptive networks are intended to simulate? former high-school classriiates when interspersed among
discriminate the strength of the response evoked by
the names and pictures of strangers, the matching of
a stimulus as one indication that the response is
Autobiographical "memories." Anecdotal evi- pictures of classmates with their correct names, and the
correct. Second, the relation between the strength recall of their names when shown their pictures.
dence abounds that memories may endure for a of a response and its accuracy was by no means o— —o Subject 1
Source: Adapted from Bahricjk, H. P., Bahrick, P. C., &
very long time. Systematic naturalistic observa- perfect. Under the conditions of this experiment, Whittlinger, R. P. (1975), Fifty years of memories for names and Subject 2
tions of what are called autobiographical memo- even though the subjects did not believe they knew faces: A cross-sectional approach. Journal of Experimental
confirm this impression. In one of a series of Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 35-47.
the names of some of the persons pictured, they still
studies conducted by Harry Bahrick and his col- Copyright © 1975 by thjb American Psychological Association.
named these persons correctly almost half the time.
leagues, subjects were shown either the names or
Thus the strength of the response evoked by a Sleeping
pictures of former high-school classmates inter-
stimulus, while correlated with the correctness of
mingled with those of other persons.17 Subjects when some units are lost, which occurs as neurons
the response, is almost certainly influenced by die during the aging process, the network continues
who had left high school 14 years earlier could pick
out the names of their classmates with 90% accu- additional variables.20 to function quite well.
racy, a performance as good as that of newly gradu- As interpreted by adaptive networks, the find-
ated subjects. Subjects \|fho were shown pictures ings with autobiographical "memory" suggest that Do "memories" weaken over time? Although
picked out those of former classmates with 90% the connection strengths along pathways mediat- research on autobiographical "memory" clearly Waking
accuracy as much as 34 years after graduation! ing environment-behavior relations—and the sy- indicates that selections of environment-behavior
Thus, the subjects discriminated familiar from un- naptic efficacies that the connections are intended relations have enduring effects, it also indicates
1 2
familiar stimuli—whether printed words or pic- to simulate—may endure for a very long time. We that the effects can change over time. After a period
tures—for a very substantial period. Further, when should not be'surprised that the effects of selection of years, the subjects were less accurate in picking Time (hours)
'subjects were given pictures of their former class- on neural networks are robust. As noted earlier, one out their former classmates' names or pictures. The
mates and asked to recall their names, naming characteristic of selection networks is that the ef- most obvious possibility for the weakening of en- FIGURE 8.2 Effects of intervening activity on
responses were about 70% accurate immediately fects of selection are often distributed over many vironment-behavior relations is that they simply re tent ion
after leaving high school, and only declined to pathways. As a result, the input-output relations decay over time. Can the mere passage of Recall of nonsense sj/llables by two subjects after com-
about 30% after 34 years. Thus almost a third of that the pathways mediate are resistant to damage change "memories"? parable periods of sleeping and of waking.
to parts of the network. On any one occasion, the The possibility that changes in environment- Source: From Jenkins, J. G., & Dallenbach, K. H. (1924),
the naming responses were still guided by the
Oblivescence during sleep and waking. American Journal of
pictorial stimuli after a lapse of 34 years—an im- stimulus need not activate all of the modified path- behavior relations are produced by internal factors Psychology, 35, 605-612, © University of Illinois Press,
pressive performance. (See Figure 8.1.)18 ways for the output pattern to be produced. Even •alone—what is called in the memory Champaign, IL.
218 8 Memory:
to the rectly classify the photograph as familiar. These new environment-behavior

a of relations,23 other findings suggest that many apparent years spent outside the experimental chambers.
factors—i.e., an In study, materials of "memory" result, from failures to What however, when selections
to of "memory" loss. It is the in the were the precise stimuli that were present when the in environments similar to those in which
environmental events occur as passes, down, so the stimuli during selec- environment-behavior relation was selected. earlier selections occurred?
tion were unlikely to be encountered in other situ-
relations.22 ations. Subjects were presented with 200 pages of Retroactive interference and facilitation. In hu-
this inverted text and asked to practice reading it. Effects of Later Learning on mans, the effect of later learning on the retention
Needless to say, they read very slowly at first. With Retroaction of earlier environment-behavior relations has been
Change and continued practice, however, they came to read the most extensively studied using a procedure called
inverted text about as rapidly as normal text. More- Selection is an ongoing process in the natural en- paired-associate learning. In paired-associate'
Given that deterioration of the physical substrate over, when tested a year later, they continued to vironment, and newly selected environment-be- learning, pairs of words are sequentially presented
of "memory" is unlikely to be a major cause of the read inverted text readily, thus showing good evi- havior relations may affect the retention of earlier to the subject. When the first word of a pair is
weakening of environment-behavior relations, we dence of retention. However, the inverted selections. With autobiographical "memory," for presented, the subject attempts to speak the second
turn now to a second factor that contributes to text was changed so that the letters were printed in instance, a subject might have contact with a for- word before it too is presented. For example, the
retention losses—the absence of the stimuli that a slightly different typeface, the reading rate mer classmate after graduation, and this contact
stimulus word might be-a nonsense syllable and the
were present during selection from the environ- dropped considerably.24 A relatively minor change could alter the "memory.9' Suppose that a female
response word a meaningful word, /e.g., P EM-big.
ment in which retention is assessed. in the stimulus in whose presence reading had been former classmate married, and thereafter went by
Word pairs are presented in random order until the
selected was sufficient to reduce the rate of read- her married rather thaii her maiden name. Under
Returning to studies of autobiographical subject can go through the entire list responding to
ing. The subjects had not learned to read upside- such circumstances, knowledge of her married
"memory," the stimuli present during the retention each stimulus word with the correct response-
name might interfere with recalling her maiden
tests were almost certainly somewhat different down letters in general, but upside-down letters in word.28
name. Two naming responses would have been
from those present when the environment-behav- a particular typeface. To investigate the effect of later learning on
selected in the presence of similar stimuli—e.g.,
ior originally The In investigation of similar sub- of the responses the first list, sub-
the appearance of the woman during and after high
did not the names of jects shown a of still photographs jects learned -a second list of word pairs in which
school.
looking at black-and-white photographs of of a person engaged in a of movements, e.g., the similarity of the stimulus and response words
going from one place to another in a cluttered It is difficult to study the interfering effects of
faces. We may speculate that the subjects' naming to those on the first list was varied. For'example,
room.25 When they were later shown a number of new selections on old selections in the natural
responses would have been even more accurate if, the second list might contain among its word pairs
environment because the experimenter cannot con-
for example, they had been shown color motion photographs of this action and asked whether they PEM-bright. In this case, the stimulus word is the
trol the learner's environment. Such control can be
pictures of their former classmates taken in the had seen them before, the subjects readily distin- same on the two lists, hxit the response words are
achieved in laboratory situations, especially with
contexts in which they had seen their classmates in guished the ones they had seen from photographs different. This arrangement impairs retention of
noiihumans, because the original training can oc-
the past. of the same action taken from a. different vantage the first word pair because the stimulus PEM now
cur in a distinctive test the animal
the of on point in the room. The two responses, big and bright. When reten-
then be excluded from, the chamber throughout the
in the "environment is difficult by the action, not the general "sense" of the retention interval. When such, methods are used to tion of the first set of word pairs is by the
the is in the of the photographs. In- prevent new selections from occurring in train- acquisition of the second set, the is
of many different Thus, we terestingly, the environment, we have that known as retroactive later
a person's whether we vantage not environment-behavior relations appear to last in- learning has interfered with the retention of earlier
the side or the front, or with others, or discriminated the that the sub- definitely. For example, a classically conditioned learning. When later learning benefits the retention
in setting or another. Indeed, variation is jects had previously. This latter phenomenon leg flexion response in sheep remained intact after of earlier learning, it is known as fa-
critical to the formation of stimulus and response is related to the ability of adaptive networks to years grazing in the field,26 and an operantly con- For example, if the second list contained
classes (see Chapter 5). Although naturalistic ob- produce a trained output pattern in response to an ditioned keypecking discrimination in pigeons the word pair PEM-large, then retention of the
servations reveal the cumulative products of selec- input pattern similar to the one in whose presence endured after years spent in the loft,27 Environ- response word big might be enhanced by its mean-
tion in their full richness and complexity, they are occurred. Thus, when the stimuli pro- ment-behavior relations do not decay as a function ingful similarity to large?-9
often ill-suited to isolating the variables that provided by the photograph were similar to those of a of time, and they need not be affected when new Interpreting the various findings obtained with
duce the emergent complex products of selection. previously presented they evoked a relations are selected in different environments. paired-associate procedure formerly received a
For reason, we to the laboratory to for the to incor- The sheep and pigeons almost certainly acquired deal of experimental attention in the field of
8 Memory: Reminding
the relations.33 The FIGURE 83 Retroactive interference of subsequent

100
conclusion from that may be as techniques for modifying connections in learning on the recall of prior learning
follows: The similarity between the stimuli and adaptive networks suggested that large interfer- The upper panel shows performance on the present task
responses appearing in the first and second tasks effects—much larger than those observed in (A-C) and the task (A-B) as the present task was
greatly retention of the environment-behav- learners—were inevitable.34 Later work acquired. (From Barnes, J. M., & Underwood, B. J.
[1959]= "Fate" of first-trial' associations in transfer the*
ior relations selected in the first task. This conclu- has demonstrated interference effects on a
ory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 97-105.
sion is of general significance, applying to human-like scale can be reproduced in adaptive Copyright © 1959 by the American Psychological As-
selections in the natural environment as well as in networks.35 For example, the upper panel of Fig- sociation. Reprinted by permission.) The tasks were
the laboratory. On the behavioral level, the effects ure 8.3 shows the amount of retroactive interfer- paired-associate learning in which the first letter repre-
of similarity are interpreted by the use of stimulus ence found in the retention of one experimental sents the set of stimuli (A) and the second letter repre-
generalization response differentiation, and task as a function of the number of intervening sents the set of responses (either B or C). Thus, the
the biobehavioral processes responsible for these tasks that were acquired.36 The lower panel shows stimuli in the two tasks were identical but the responses
phenomena.31 From the perspective of adaptive the amount of retroactive interference found when were different, a condition producing substantial inter-
ference. The lower panel shows the result of a computer
networks, similarity relations can be simulated by this experiment was simulated with an adaptive simulation by an adaptive network of performance on
overlapping activation patterns of input, interior, network. Clearly, adaptive networks are capable of these tasks, (From Lewandowsky, S. [1991]. Gradual
and output units. The greater the overlap in the simulating interference effects, but much more unlearning and catastrophic interference: A comparison
patterns, the greater the possibility for interfering remains to be done on this problem. In future work, of distributed architectures. Cognitive Processes Labo-
or facilitating effects, depending on the specific one of the central concerns should be the role of ratory Technical Report. Norman, OK: University of
nature of the overlap. inhibitory connections in interference effects. As Oklahoma.) Both the experimental data and the com-
Although the study of paired-associate learning we found in the study of perceiving, inhibitory puter simulations show gradual deterioration of recall of
the past task (A-B) as the present task (A-C) was ac-
made important contributions to our understanding connections act to restrict the number of active quired.
of retention, a number of the variables affecting pathways to those that are most strongly activated.
performance in such tasks were specific to the Such lateral inhibitory interactions would tend to
of the task and the type of materials used. reduce interference when multiple pathways medi-
For example, if "memory" is an emergent product ating different environment-behavior relations
of a prolonged history of behavioral selection, were activated by similar stimuli.
then, to the extent that nonsense syllables success-
fully eliminate the effects of that history, they Context and retroaction. In the natural envi-
prevent some "memorial" phenomena from occur- ronment, retroaction effects produced by similari-
ring. In short, if nonsense syllables are truly non- ties between the stimuli guiding different
sense, then precludes studying of are greatly by' contextual dis-
10 20
very we to understand.32 criminations. Even the discriminative stim-
Number of Trials on A-C Task
In addition, many variables important to retention uli are similar, if the responses are selected in
in the natural environment cannot be studied with otherwise different environments, and those differ-
word pairs, e.g., the organizational char- ent environments have discriminated from
acteristics of natural language. For reasons, one another, then the contextual stimuli differen- the in the set were the stimulus words evoked re-
we not the of tiate the environment-behavior rela- as those in the first set, the -words sponses to the in which
learning in detail. tions.37 paired with them were different. This arrangement were tested. For example, if the first session oc-
One area that is of great current interest, how- The differentiating effects of contextual dis- would ordinarily produce strong retroactive inter- curred in the cramped office and the retention test
ever, is the interpretation of interference effects by criminations can be demonstrated experimentally. ference for the responses selected in the first ses- also occurred in the cramped office, then the stimu-
adaptive networks. If adaptive networks are to In one such study,38 subjects first learned a set of sion. Finally, in a the were lus words evoked the response acquired in the first
simulate the cumulative effects of selection, then 45 paired associates in a distinctive context, e.g., a given stimulus words from the first session and ••session about 50% of the time. However, if the
questions arise about their capacity to mediate office. In a second session, the same asked to produce a response for each. Half of the retention test occurred in the outside patio, then the
multiple environment-behavior relations, and the subjects learned another set of paired associates in subjects were given the retention test in the first same stimuli evoked responses learned in the first
conditions that affect the degree of interference different context, e.g., an outside patio. Some of context in the context. The find- only about 35% of the time. Thus, retroac-
221) 8
Memory:
learning.30 For purposes, the relations,33 The FIGURE 83 Retroactive interference of subsequent
100
conclusion be as techniques for modifying connections in learning on the recall of prior learning
follows: The similarity between the stimuli adaptive networks suggested that large interfer- The upper panel shows performance on the present task
responses appearing in the first and second tasks ence effects—much larger than those observed in (A-C) and the past task (A-B) as the present task was
greatly affects of the environment-behav- learners—were inevitable,34 Later work acquired. (From Barnes, J. M., & Underwood, B. J.
ior relations selected in the first task. This conclu- has demonstrated that interference effects on a [1959]. "Fate" of first-trial associations in transfer the-
ory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 97-105,
sion is of general significance, applying to human-like scale can be reproduced in adaptive
Copyright © 1959 by the American Psychological As-
selections in the natural environment as well as in networks.35 For example, the upper panel of Fig- sociation. Reprinted by permission.) The tasks were
the laboratory. On the behavioral level, the effects ure 83 shows the amount of retroactive interfer- paired-associate learning in which the first letter repre-
of similarity are interpreted by the use of stimulus ence found in the retention of one experimental sents the set of stimuli (A) and the second letter repre-
generalization and response differentiation, and task as a function of the number of intervening sents the set of responses (either B or C). Thus, the
the biobehavioral processes responsible for these tasks that were acquired.36 The lower panel shows stimuli in the two tasks were identical but the responses
phenomena.31 From the perspective of adaptive the amount of retroactive interference found when were different, a condition producing substantial inter-
networks, similarity relations can be simulated by this experiment was simulated with an adaptive ference. The lower panel shows the result of a computer
simulation by an adaptive network of performance on
overlapping activation patterns of input, interior, network. Clearly, adaptive networks are capable of these tasks.. (From Lewandowsky, S. [1991]. Gradual
and output units. The greater the overlap in the simulating interference effects, but much more o unlearning and catastrophic interference: A comparison
patterns, the greater the possibility for interfering remains to be done on this problem. In future work. u
100 of distributed architectures. Cognitive Processes Labo-
or facilitating effects, depending on the specific one of the central concerns should be the role of ratory Technical Report. Norman, OK: University of
nature of the overlap. inhibitory connections in interference effects. As Oklahoma.) Both the experimental data and the com-
Although the study of paired-associate learning we found in the study of perceiving, inhibitory puter simulations show gradual deterioration of recall of
made important contributions to our understanding connections act to restrict the number of active the past task (A-B) as the present task (A-C) was ac-
quired.
of retention, a number of the variables affecting pathways to those that are most strongly activated.
in such were specific to the Such inhibitory interactions would tend to
of the the type of materials used. interference when multiple pathways medi-
For example, if "memory" is an emergent product ating different environment-behavior relations
of a prolonged history of behavioral selection, were activated by similar stimuli.
then, to the extent that nonsense syllables success-
fully eliminate the effects of that history, they Context and retroaction. In the natural envi-
prevent some "memorial" phenomena from occur- ronment, retroaction effects produced by similari-
ring. In short, if nonsense syllables are tnuy non- ties between the stimuli guiding different
sense, precludes studying of are greatly by dis-
0 10 20
very phenomena that we seek to understand.32 criminations. Even when the discriminative stim-
In addition, variable's important to uli are similar, if the responses are selected in Number of Trials on A-C Task
in the environment cannot be with different environments, and those differ-
separate word pairs, e.g., the organizational char- ent environments have been discriminated from
acteristics of language. For reasons, one another^ the contextual stimuli differen- the stimulus words in the set the were the stimulus words evoked re-
we shall not the study of paired-associate the environment-behavior rela- as those in the first set, but the response words to the in which they
learning in detail. tions,37 with were This arrangement were tested. For example, if the first session oc-
One area that is of great current interest, how- The differentiating effects of contextual dis- would ordinarily produce strong retroactive inter- curred in the cramped office and the retention test
ever, is the interpretation of interference effects by criminations can be demonstrated experimentally. ference for the responses selected in the first ses- also occurred in the cramped office, then the stimu-
adaptive networks. If adaptive networks are to In one such study,38 subjects first learned a set of sion. Finally, in a the subjects were lus words evoked the response acquired in the first
simulate the cumulative effects of selection, then 45 paired associates in a distinctive context, e.g., a given stimulus words from the first session and ••session about 50% of the time. However, if the
questions arise about their capacity to mediate cramped office. In a second session, the same to produce a response for each. Half of the retention test occurred in the outside patio, then the
multiple environment-behavior relations, and the subjects learned another set of paired associates in were given the retention in the first same stimuli evoked responses learned in the first
conditions that affect the degree of interference different context, e.g., an outside patio. Some of context half in the context. The find- only 35% of the time. Thus, retroac-
218 8 ]Memory: Reminding
to the rectly classify the as These

a of relations,23 other findings suggest many years the experimental chambers.
factors—i.e., decay—making an In study, of "memory" result from failures to What, happens, however, when selections
to most of "memory" loss. It is the in the were the precise stimuli that were present when place in environments similar to those in which
environmental as down, so the stimuli during selec- was earlier occurred?
itself, that tion were unlikely to be encountered in other situ-
havior relations,22 ations. Subjects were presented with 200 pages of Retroactive interference and facilitation. In hu-
this inverted text and asked to practice reading it. Effects of Later Learning on Retention: mans, the effect of later learning on the retention
Needless to say, they read very slowly at first. With Retroaction Effects of earlier environment-behavior relations has been
Stimulus Change and Retention continued practice, however, they came to read the most extensively studied using a procedure called
inverted text about as rapidly as normal text. More- Selection is an ongoing process in the natural en- learning. In paired-associate
Given that deterioration of the physical substrate over, when tested a year later, they continued to vironment, and newly selected environment-be- learning, pairs of words are sequentially presented
of "memory" is unlikely to be a major cause of the inverted text readily, showing good evi- havior relations may affect the retention of earlier to the subject. When the first word of a., pair is
weakening of environment-behavior relations, we dence of retention. However, when the inverted selections. With autobiographical "memory," for presented, the subject attempts to speak the second
turn now to a second factor that contributes to text was changed so that the letters were printed in instance, a subject might have contact with a for- word before it too is presented. For example, the
retention losses—the absence of the stimuli that a slightly different typeface, the reading rate mer classmate after graduation, and this contact stimulus word might be-a nonsense syllable and the
were present during selection from the environ- dropped considerably.24 A relatively minor change could alter the "memory." Suppose that a female
response word a meaningful word, ,e.g., PEM-big.
ment in which retention is assessed. in the stimulus in whose presence reading had been former classmate married, and thereafter went by
Word pairs are presented in random order until the
selected was sufficient to reduce the rate of read- her married rather than her maiden name. Under
Returning to studies of autobiographical subject can go through the entire list responding to
ing. The subjects had not learned to read upside- such circumstances, knowledge of her married
"memory," the stimuli present during the retention each stimulus word with • the correct response
name might interfere with recalling her maiden 00
tests were almost certainly somewhat different down letters in general, but upside-down letters in word.28
name. Two naming responses would have been
from present when the environment-behav- a particular typeface. To investigate tlie effect of later learning oil
selected in the presence of similar stimuli—e.g.,
ior The In of of the first list, sub-
the appearance of the woman during and after high
did not the names' of classmates while shown a of still jects learned -a second list of word pairs in. which
school.
looking at black-and-white photographs of of a person engaged in a of movements, e.g., the similarity of the stimulus and response words
going from one place to another in a cluttered It is difficult to study the interfering effects of
faces. We may speculate the subjects' to those on the first list was varied. For •example,
room.25 When they were later shown a number of new selections on old selections in the natural
responses would have been even more accurate if, the second list might contain among its word pairs
environment because the experimenter cannot con-
for example, they had been shown color motion photographs of this action and asked whether they PEM-bright. In this case, the stimulus word is the
trol the learner's environment. Such control can be
pictures of their former classmates taken in the had seen them before, the subjects readily distin- same on the two lists, hut the response words are
achieved in laboratory situations, especially with
contexts in which they had seen their classmates in guished the ones they had seen from photographs different. This arrangement impairs retention of
nonhurnans, because the original training can oc-
the past. of the same action taken from a, different vantage the first word pair because the stimulus PEM now
cur in a distinctive chamber and the animal
the of stimulus on in the room. The particular stimuli produced be the chamber throughout guides two responses, big bright. When reten-
in the -environment is difficult by the action, not the "sense" of the interval. When such, methods are to tion of the first set of word is by
the is often in the of the photographs. In- prevent new selections occurring in the train- acquisition of the second set, the is
stimuli. Thus,-we terestingly, the same environment, we known as .since later
a person's we point, but before,, were environment-behavior relations to last in- learning has with the retention of earlier
the or the front, or with others, or discriminated.from the the sub- definitely. For example, a classically conditioned learning. When the retention
in or Indeed, is jects had previously. This leg flexion response in sheep remained intact of earlier learning, it is known as fa-
critical to the formation of stimulus and response is related to the ability of adaptive networks to years grazing in the field,26 and an operantly con- cilitation.. For example, if the second list contained
classes (see Chapter 5). Although naturalistic ob- produce a trained output pattern in response to an ditioned keypecking discrimination in pigeons the word pair PEM-large, then retention of the
servations reveal the cumulative products of selec- input pattern similar to the one in whose presence endured after years spent in the loft,27 Environ- response word big might be enhanced by its mean-
tion in their full richness and complexity, they are selection occurred. Thus, when the stimuli pro- ment-behavior relations do not decay as a function ingful similarity to large,29
often ill-suited to isolating the variables that provided by the photograph were similar to those of a of time, and they need not be affected when new Interpreting the various findings obtained with
duce the emergent complex products of selection. previously presented photograph, they evoked a relations are selected in different environments. the paired-associate procedure formerly received a
we to the to for the subject to incor- The sheep pigeons almost certainly acquired great deal of experimental attention in the field of
CHAPTER 8 Memory:
was by the rently for reinforcement.

discrimination. guide behavior because the response has pre-
70 Until point, we have treated the field of "mem- viously occurred, reinforced, in their
tinned to occur, of course. When stimuli were ory" as if all of its phenomena could be interpreted
presented that had appeared in only one session presence. In such situations, later occurrences of
as straightforward examples of the environmental behavior may be interpreted as the product of en-
retention test was carried out in that context, 60 guidance of behavior. Indeed, we have deliberately
the percentage of correct responses was over during environment-behavior relations. Such in-
restricted our discussion almost exclusively to stances of "memory" are the outcome of selection
60%.39 (See Figure 8.4 for a full presentation of 50 such examples. In studies of autobiographical resulting from the three-term contingency of
these results.) memory, naming responses may be thought of as
stimulus, response, and reinforcer. From now on,
In addition to the environmental context, the having been selected in the presence of visual
40 •• Tested in Context 1 we use the term reminding to refer to such in-
internal or intraorganismic context may also affect stimuli provided by the faces of classmates. And,
stances. The present environment reminds the
retention of environment-behavior relations. For •o Tested in Context 2 in paired-associate learning, response words may
learner of responses that were selected in past
example, if learning occurs in one hypnotically 30 be thought of as having been selected in the pres-
o environments. It should be clear that reminding is
induced mood-state (e.g., feelings of sadness) and D_ ence of stimulus words. Does "memory" involve
nothing more than the guidance of behavior by not the name of a special "memorial" process, but
is then tested in the same state, retention is better a procedural distinction that signifies similarity
than when it is tested in a different mood-state (e.g.,
tj
<D present stimuli that were part of the environment
70
in which the relations were originally selected? between the stimuli present during acquisition and
feelings of happiness).40 More robust examples of 6
U retention. ,
this effect come from animal research in which the Something more is.needed to interpret many
instances of "memory ,''\as the following example We reserve the term remembering for all other
internal context is more precisely controlled 60
illustrates. Suppose someone asked you "When instances of "memory;" i.e., those cases.in which
through drug injections (e.g., alcohol or morphine) present behavior is determined by previously se-
during acquisition or retention. Retention is uni- was the last time you went to the shopping mall?"
50 You might reply "Let's see'. . . Oh, yes, I went to lected environment-behavior relations, but for
formly better when testing occurs in the same which the present environment does not contain
the mall last Tuesday to buy a new pair of running
drug-induced was present during ac- A-D to the behavior now sched-
40 shoes. The last time I went to the mail was Tues-
quisition.4 J The contextual effect of drugs on re- day." Can example of "memory" be success- uled for reinforcement. The interpretation of re-
tention was exploited in The Moonstone, written in fully interpreted as a case in which a response (the membering must await discussions of awareness,
1868 by Wilkie Collins. In this story, which is 30
answer) previously occurred in the presence of a problem solving, and verbal behavior—subjects
regarded as the first full-length detective novel, a stimulus (the question) and was reinforced? for later chapters. The reminding-remembering
man who had been given laudanum (tincture of Context 1 Context 2 Clearly not. Not only is it unlikely that this re- distinction is, related, although not identical, 'to
opium) as a cure for insomnia takes his cousin's Context in which Responses Were Acquired sponse was ever reinforced before in reply to this several other proposals.^4 One of the differences
valuable diamond for safekeeping during the night. question, but—more fundamentally-—the same between the view offered here and alternative
In the morning, the diamond is nowhere to be question might be the occasion for an entirely views is that, very often, the latter base their dis-
found and the man is suspected of stealing it. It is different response at another time. The response to tinction on whether or not the subject is aware
only when his drugged is reinstated a 8.4 Effect of context on the recall of the question changes as our trips to the mall of—i.e., able to spealc about-—the retention proc-
he is able to what he did responses in a paired-associate task change. The stimulus is the occasion for ess. Where retention is accompanied by
the Moonstone! (It is of no small relevance that The upper panel shows the recall of responses when the different responses at different times, and the proc- behavior related to the retention process,it is com-
Collins was himself addicted to opium and had stimoli in the two tasks were different and the test context ess cannot be interpreted as a straightforward mon to speak of "memory" as explicit
personally experienced the effects of drugs on re-
was varied. Recall was generally good, but was of the environmental guidance of behavior.. implicit.45 Retention without awareness of the re-
when the test context was the same as the training con- In order to separate those cases of "memory" tention process is also sometimes described as
tention.)42 When performance is impaired because text. The lower panel shows the recall of responses when
of differences between the internal context during the stimuli in the two tasks were the same and the test
that can be understood as instances of the guidance passive memory^ Our interpretation recognizes
acquisition and retention, the phenomenon is re- context was varied. Recall was generally lower when the of behavior by the immediate environment from that "memories'" differ in these respects, but denies
ferred to as forgetting. Both in- stimuli were the same in the two tasks, demonstrating a those that cannot, we make a distinction between that these differences require postulating the exist-
traorganismic and environmental contextual retroactive interference effect. Once again, recall was two types of situations in which the nontechnical ence of different kinds of "memories." Instead, we
better when the test context was the same as the training term "memory" is used.43 In the first type, the interpret these differences as the outcome of differ-
stimuli enter into the selected environment-behav-
context. present environment does contain stimuli that, as a realizations of a common set of biobehavioral
ior relation, and interference effects on "memory" Source: Adapted from findings of Smith, Glenberg. & Bjork, result of selections, guide the behavior cur- processes.
are therefore affected by stimuli of both origins. 1978.
8 Memory: Reminding
Before we resume the analysis in of an the Tliis of is

tion of reminding, additional comments the responses guided by environments are specifically by the many for a variety of letter combi-
should be made about the reminding-remembering likely to be scheduled for reinforcement in the of increases the likelihood pre- nations, until a number of observations are ob-
distinction. First, it is well to repeat that the distinc- present environment. This is particularly true as the vious discriminative stimuli are present the tained at several different retention intervals.
tion is not between two different kinds of "mem- learner' s history of selection grows ever richer and, retention test. Although recalling a just-pronounced set of
ory." The terms are intended to distinguish to that extent, "memory" exemplifies the direct A second way to favor a "pure" reminding letters would normally be trivially easy, when a
between two different situations, in both of which environmental guidance of behavior characteristic procedure is to employ methods that prevent or distractor task such as counting backwards by 3 's
the interpretation of present behavior depends on of reminding. However, many environments do severely restrict the occurrence of remembering is introduced, performance typically falls to chance
an appreciation of the effects of past selections. In not contain stimuli sufficient to guide the behavior processes. Again, two methods are used with hu- levels in less than 20 seconds!4^
situations to which the term reminding is more scheduled for reinforcement. To that extent, man learners, often together, to approximate this The inability of visually presented letters to
appropriately applied, the present environment "memory" exemplifies remembering. For exam- goal: (a) The interval between the presentation of guide vocal responses only a few seconds after the
contains at least some stimuli in common with past ple, recalling the German word for dog might not the stimulus whose response is to be recalled letters were presented demonstrates retroactive in-
environments and it is reasonable to believe that, be an instance of reminding if the person recalled the occurrence of the retention test is made very terference by the distractor task. A.mong other fac-
as a result of selection in those past environments, the answer by going through something like the short—a few seconds at most, (b) The retention tors, the vocal responses of counting backwards by
these common stimuli are sufficient to guide the following process: "Now, what is that word? I used interval is occupied by activities that interfere with 3 's may compete with remembering by preventing
behavior in question. Thus when someone recalls to know it. Could it be houndl.. . No, hound is an any remembering processes. Shortening the reten- the subject from sub vocally rehearsing the names
the German word for dog, i.e., hund, 50 years after English word. . . But the word I'm looking for is tion interval and filling it with other activities are of the letters, which would otherwise occur during
taking a high-school German class in which dog something like hound... Oh, I know! It's hund'"4& both intended to prevent remembering processes the retention interval.50
was a vocabulary word,47 this may reasonably be Here, the response "hund," which is the one sched- from,,occurring. With some learners, an additional
regarded as a case of reminding and interpreted as uled for reinforcement, is not guided by the stimu- means is available: The opportunity for remember-
an instance of the environmental guidance of be- Proactive effects. Events that occur before the
lus of the question; rather, the question guides the ing may be controlled by using subjects—such as
havior. occurrence of other processes that lead eventually stimuli whose responses are measured in the reten-
young children or animals—who have not a
to the stimulus controlling "hund." tion test also affect performance in short-term
Second, behavior that occurs under conditions in which-.they re-
memory procedures. In the preceding experiment,
of reminding or remembering does not require new
each subject was given multiple trials in which a
principles for its understanding. The fundamental
letter combination was presented and recall was
principles of a selectionist approach to complexity Methodological Implications of the REMINDING required. Thus, except for the first trial, each letter
apply equally to the interpretation of reminding Reminding-Remembering Distinction
and remembering. However, the same principles combination, was preceded by the distractor task
Here, we consider findings from several proce- and the presentation of other letters. The result of
have different implications for the interpretation of Although an experimenter has no way of guaran- dures that approximate conditions that restrict
remembering, because the relation of the present this sequence of events is that the different letter
teeing that a given retention procedure is a "pure" "memory" to instances of reminding; i.e, cases in
environment to the one in which selection took combinations and the stimulus context in which
reminding procedure for all subjects, two circum- which the environment directly re-
place is more complex, In reminding, the responses they appear become increasingly similar as the
stances make this more likely. First, and most for reinforcement,.
scheduled for reinforcement are guided by contem- experiment goes on.
obviously, the stimuli present during the retention
poraneous environmental ''stimuli. In remembering, must include some of those that functioned as Consistent with the above interpretation,
responses scheduled for reinforcement are discriminative stimuli when the response in ques- subjects' retention performance on successive, tri-
Reminding la als progressively declined.^1 On the first trial, re-
by stimuli—sometimes covert—that tion was originally selected. This increases the Procedures tention was perfect in of the distractor task.
are:produced by the subject's own behavior. These likelihood that present stimuli are sufficient to
other and the stimuli that control guide the response whose retention is being as- In one typical short-term memory procedure, the However, as the number of previous trials in-
may be collectively referred to as remembering sessed. Two methods are used to insure that the experimenter presents a visual stimulus consisting creased, retention became progressively worse.
processes, but they are viewed as particular expres- stimuli used in the retention test are sufficient to of three familiar letters, e.g., RLQ, and after a.brief (See Figure 8.5,) When meaningful words were
sions of general biobehavioral processes. guide the response: (a) The stimuli are events from interval asks the subject to pronounce the name of used as stimuli, further evidence was obtained
Finally, it is rare that any situation—particu- the natural environment that are likely to have been each letter. During the interval, the subject is re- supporting the interfering effects of previous trials
larly in the natural environment—provides a encountered under similar circumstances by most quired to engage in some task, e.g., counting aloud on retention. If at some point during the experiment
"pure" instance of either reminding or remember- subjects; e.g., they are common meaningful words, backwards by 3's from a randomly determined the types of stimuli are changed, e.g., from the
ing. Almost all contain stimuli (b) The stimuli used in the retention test include number such as 541. At the of a names of fruits to the names of professions,52 or
brief retention the subject is to the circumstances of the retention test are
22i 8 .Memory: 227
multiple lists of paired-associates. Under- or not the stimulus was

100
wood gathered together the findings from many the set of sequentially stimuli, 100
experiments examined retention as a often called the In contrast to the
•G 75 function of the number of lists the subjects had matching-to-sample procedure, multiple sample 90 Human
o previously learned.54 The findings are summarized stimuli (the target stimuli) are presented and the
U
50 in Figure 8.6. Subjects who had learned only one subject's response indicates whether or not the
80
list recalled about 75% of the response words; probe stimulus "matches" the enduring effect of
25 -
those who had learned more than five lists (pity the one of them. Findings obtained with this procedure
poor subjects!) recalled less than 20%. illustrate both proactive and retroactive interfer- 70
o
ence effects, and suggest that the biobehavioral u
0 y
1 2 3 processes involved in reminding are the same in
60
Reminding in Serial-Recognition both humans and nonhumans.
Trial
Procedures In one of a sophisticated series of experiments
FIGURE 8.5 Changes in recall with a short-term conducted by Anthony Wright and his col- 50 -
memory procedure after 1, 2, or 3 trials of the A second type of task that approximates the defin- leagues,55 the responses of a human and a rhesus
procedure ing conditions of a reminding procedure is similar monkey were studied in the same serial-recogni-
The results are shown for three different retention inter- to the matching-to-sample procedure described in tion procedure. On each trial, a series of 20 pictures 1 5 10 ,15 20
vals—3 sec, 9 sec, and 18 sec. Note that recall declined an earlier chapter. In the serial-recognition proof a variety of items stch as flowers, people, and
as the number of preceding trials increased, demonstrat- cedure, a sequence of stimuli is rapidly presented Serial Position of Target Stimulus
ing a proactive interference effect. animals was flashed on "-a screen—each target pic-
and then, after a short retention interval, a probe
Source: From Keppel, G., & Underwood, B. J. (1962). Proactive ture for a duration of 1 .sec, with a .8-sec period FIGURE 8.7 Serial position curves obtained with a
stimulus is presented. The subject's task is to
inhibition in short-term retention of single items. Journal of between stimuli. Then, after an interval of 1 sec, serial-recognition procedure
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 153—161. the probe stimulus was presented. The subject Shown is the accuracy of recognition of a probe,, stimulus
moved a lever to the right if the probe stimulus was as a function ,6f the position of that stimulus in the set of
target stimuli. For both human and monke)'* subjects,
the "same" as one of the target stimuli and to the
recognition was high for the initial stimulus in the target
left if it was "different." As Figure 8.7 indicates, set (primacy effect), lower for middle stimuli, and in-
changed,53 retention markedly improves. Effects the overall percentage of correct "same" responses creased for later stimuli (recency effect),
on retention produced by events that occur before was very similar for the human and monkey sub- Source: Adapted.from Sands, S. R, & Wright, A. A. (1980).
jects. Moreover, the percentage of correct "same" Serial probe recognition performance by a Rhesus monkey and
the presentation of the stimuli to be recalled are a human with 10- and 20-itepi lists. Journal of Experimental
known as proactive effects. As with retroactive responses was similarly affected by the serial po-
Psychology, 6, 386-396, Copyright © 1980 by the American
effects, proactive effects can either interfere with sition of the target stimulus. As shown in Figure Psychological Association. Adapted by permission.
or facilitate retention, on the specifics 8«7, the percentage of correct "same" responses
of the situation. For instance, improved retention was about 90% when the stimulus appeared first in
following successive learning trials on the same the target set, somewhat for the middle from pigeons (top panels), monkeys (middle pan-
task—simple acquisition—exemplifies proactive 0 5 10 15 20 stimuli, to levels for the last few els), and humans (bottom panels) at different inter-
facilitation, Number of Previous Lists Learned stimuli. The function relating the- percentage of vals between the end of the target set and
The natural environment contains a massive correct responses to the serial position of the target presentation of the probe stimulus,, For all species,
FIGURE 8,6 Changes in recall of responses on a
potential for proactive effects. The longer we live, paired-associate task as a function of the number of stimuli is called a The the serial-position curves show only a recency
the greater is the opportunity for such effects to preceding paired-associate tasks higher retention of the earlier stimuli is known as effect at a 0-sec retention interval, both primacy
occur. Indeed, older persons sometimes find it Recall of the present task decreased as the number of a primacy for the it is and recency effects at intermediate retention inter-
difficult to "stick to" a story because events in the preceding tasks increased, demonstrating a proactive in- called a recency effect.56 vals, and only a primacy effect at the longest reten-
story keep reminding them of other stories. The terference effect. tion intervals.57 Note, however, that these changes
problem arises, not because their "memories" are Source: From Underwood, B. J. (1957). Interference and Serial-position curves* The similarities be-
forgetting. Psychological Review, 64, 48-60, in which the
in the serial-position curves occurred at shorter
bad, but because they are so good. Everything individual studies are cited that produced the various findings. tween the performances of humans and nonhu- retention, intervals for pigeons, somewhat longer
reminds them of something else. This situation can Copyright © 1957 by the American Psychological Association, mans on serial-recognition • tasks are even more intervals for monkeys, still longer intervals for
be simulated in the laboratory when subjects learn Reprinted by permission. striking. Figure 8.8 shows serial-position curves humans.
8 Memory: Reminding
Pigeons of the successive dures.59 Specifically, it has postulated

100 p serial-recognition is crucial. In. experi- subjects rehearse verbal stimuli when they
60
-.,/ v ments, the length of the intertrial interval ranged
from 4 to 10 sec in various "studies. The first stimu-
are presented and that, since there is more oppor-
tunity to rehearse the earlier stimuli, the primacy
lus in the target set appeared after the intertrial effect is the result of rehearsal. However, serial-
0s 10 s interval, and therefore—unlike all other stimuli—- recognition studies with humans in which the stim-
20
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
was not immediately preceded by other stimuli. uli were complex and unfamiliar kaleidoscope
Thus, when the retention interval was long, the pictures—and, therefore, unlikel}/ to be rehears-
Monkeys context in which the probe stimulus appeared and able—also showed a primacy effect. The occur™
100 r
v/ V
\ the context in which the first stimulus in the target
set appeared were most similar; i.e., neither stimu-
rence of primacy effects with kaleidoscopic stim-
uli, which are not rehears able, and with nonhuman
lus was immediately preceded by any other stimu- species, whose selection history does not produce
60
lus. If the context in which a stimulus appears rehearsal behavior, indicate that rehearsal is not
Os 2s 10s 30s partially determines the effect of that stimulus, necessary for the primacy effect. ^°
Q 20 L then primacy effects should occur when there are
1 2 3 4 l!T3~4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
longer retention intervals between the last stimulus Remembering in serial-recognition procedures.
Humans of the target set and. the probe stimulus. This is When the conditions that restrict remembering
1 00 r precisely what was found. (See the rightmost pan- processes are relaxed, the serial-recognition proce-
60 -
/ V
V
els of Figure 8.8.) - \
An examination of the context in which the
target and probe stimuli appeared also permits an
dure no longer approximates a "pure" reminding
procedure. And, if remembering processes can oc-
cur, then something other than a quantitative dif-
Os 10s 25 s 100s interpretation of the recency effect. The last stimu- ference emerges between retention in
20 L lus in the target set was presented immediately other species. For example, when the stimuli were
1234 1234 1234 1 2 3 4
stimuli. The probe stimulus was pre- color slides of everyday objects such as flowers,
sented in such a context only when it appeared trees, and cars, and the. time between presentations
Serial Position of Target Stimulus
immediately after the last stimulus of the target set. of stimuli indie target set was increased to 4 sec,
FIGURE 8.8 Serial position curves obtained with a serial-recognition That is. the contexts of the last target stimulus and the retention of humans improved while that of
procedure at different retention intervals between the last stimulus of a the probe stimulus were most similar at short re- monkeys did1 not. The\use of familiar stimuli.and
four-stimulus target set and the presentation of the probe stimulus tention intervals. And, as shown in the leftmost increased time betweerj stimuli permitted remem-
The top panel shows serial-position curves for pigeons at retention intervals panels of Figure 8.8, recency effects were con- bering processes to affect retention. The familiarity
of 0,1,2, and 10s. The middle panel shows serial-position curves for monkeys to the retention intervals. of the stimuli permitted them to evoke discrimi-
at retention intervals of 0, 2, 10, and 30 s. The bottom panel shows serial-po- In summary, primacy and recenc}7 effects ap- nated responses (e.g., the sight of a tree could
sition curves for humans at 0, 10, 25, and 100 s. pear to be instances of context effects, there- evoke the verbal response "tree"), the in-
Source: Adapted from Wright, A. A., Santiago, H. C, Sands, S. K, Kendrick, D, F., &
Cook, R. G.(1985). Memory processing of serial lists by pigeons, monkeys, people, fore interpretable by means of the basic biobehav- creased time permitted the subjects to rehearse
Science, 229, 287-289. Copyright 1985 by the A A AS, processes identified in responses.
of the guidance of behavior. Of course, it is logi- To evaluate the contribution of rehearsal to
cally possible—although unparsimonious—that retention, another serial-recognition experiment
What Is responsible for changes in the of effect. to stimuli toward the similar functional relationships between variables was conducted using kaleidoscope stimuli with
the serial-position curve as the retention interval middle of the target set be altered by effects of may result from dissimilar biobehavioral proc- human subjects. In this study, however, the sub-
increases? First, note that within each trial, the both origins,5^ esses. Thus, it is possible that the origins of pri- jects were first given a paired-associate task in
processes initiated by earlier-appearing stimuli macy and recency effects in humans may be differ- which they acquired a distinctive verbal response
have an opportunity to alter the reaction to later- Primacy and recency effects. Let us examine ent from their origins in other species. For' to each of the kaleidoscope pictures. For example,
appearing stimuli—a proaction effect. Similarly, the origins of primacy recency effects more example, inferred-process theories have postulated if a kaleidoscope picture looked a bit like an insect,
the processes initiated by later-appearing stimuli closely. To interpret effects, the relation be- alternative accounts of the primacy and recency the reinforced verbal response was "bug." Al-
can alter reactions to earlier-appearing stimuli—a tween the of the the effects with human subjects in related proce- though the primac)^ and recency effects continued
230 8 Memory: Reminding 231
to occur, overall retention performance improved only weakly, e.g., BOY-blue. In the the presence of the cues during the retention test study sessions. Thereafter, when the category
as the between presentations of the test folio wing the third list, cue words frequently improved retention. However, biobehavioral proc- were presented by the experimenter during
stimuli increased from 0.8 sec to 4.0 sec.61 In a evoked correct responses. Retention was about esses other than those directly initiated by the cues the retention -test, they could facilitate the occur-
control condition in which the subjects had not 80% correct when the cue word had guided the are almost certainly involved as well. The cues rence of the target words because category-name
acquired distinctive verbal responses to the kalei- response strongly before the experiment, and over were meaningful stimuli, i.e., they already guided stimuli strongly guided the target words. In short,
doscope stimuli, increasing the time between target 70% when the cue word had initially guided the many responses because of their extensive selec- unobserved biobehavioral processes are assumed
stimuli had no effect on retention. A closer analysis response only weakly. Thus, if the cue word ap- tion history before the experiment. Also, the pro- to provide covert stimuli that function in the same
of behavior during the retention test indicated that peared both when the lists were studied and when cedure did not severely restrict the opportunity for manner as the observed cue words in the earlier
subjects whose retention improved most rehearsed the retention test was conducted, retention was remembering processes during the study and reten- cued-recall procedures. According to sueh an ac-
the verbal responses in the intervals between pres- high. The beneficial effects of cue words on retention periods, allowing ample time for their occur- count, the occurrence of the target words during the
entation of the target stimuli, and matched the tion could not be attributed to pre~experimental rence. retention test is sirnply another instance of the
verbal response evoked by the probe stimulus to relations alone. Cue words that guided target words Complex human behavior—even in well-de- guidance of behavior—even though some of the
the set of rehearsed verbal responses. Thus, when equally strongly on the basis of pre-experimental signed laboratory studies—-can seldom be unambi- critical stimuli are unobserved. (See Figure 8«9a
stimuli are meaningful (i.e., are discriminative experience, but that had not been presented during guously interpreted as the result of only one for a summary of this interpretation.)
stimuli) and there is enough time to permit remem- the study session, evoked correct target words with biobehavioral process. Our selection histories are Other accounts of these same findings are
bering processes to occur, retention in the serial- a frequency of only 30% for strongly guiding cues so rich, and the experimental conditions are insuf- equally plausible, however. Perhaps covert stimuli
recognition procedure is no longer a "pure" and only 4% for weakly guiding cues. For a cue to ficiently controlled to eliminate all the effects of provided by the unobserved category-name re-
measure of the direct environmental guidance of that history. As an illustration, consider another
effectively facilitate retention, it had to be present sponses did not acquire an increased ability to
behavior; i.e., reminding.62 It is not yet known how
during both the study and retention periods. example of retention in a cued-recall procedure. evoke the target words during the study session.
retention in monkeys is affected when stimuli are
In a second cued-recall study,64 subjects stud- Subjects studied several lists, each consisting of Instead, the improvement in retention may be at-
used that have been discriminated before the serial-
ied a list of word pairs in which all of the cue words groups of words from various conceptual catego- tributed to unobserved processes occurring exclu-
recognition procedure, and when behavior analo-
weakly guided the target words, e.g., GLUE-chair. ries, e.g., apple, orange, pear, . . ., house, cottage, sively within the retention test. To be specific,
gous to rehearsal has been acquired—assuming
Then, the subjects were given two types of reten- hotel, etc. The names—fruits build- when the category names were presented during
were possible.
tion test in succession. In the first test, target words ings in the example—were not mentioned to the the retention test, they may have evoked unob-
were embedded in a set of new words that had not subjects during the-study periods. After studying served responses because of the subjects' pre-ex-
appeared in the study session, e.g., desk, top, chair, and then recalling each of a number of such lists, perimental selection history. For example, in the
Reminding In Cued-Recall table. Subjects were asked to recognize the target the subjects were given a final retention test for context of instructions* to recall as many words as
Procedures word among the new words. The second test was words from all the lists. Some subjects were asked possible, a category narne such as fruit may evoke
Cued-recall procedures provide the final experi- a standard cued-recall procedure in which the cues to recall the words with the aid of the category covert responses such \as apple, among others.
mental example in which "memory" can some- were those that had appeared in the study session, names; others were simply asked to recall as many Since apple was presented during the study ses-
times be interpreted as a. case of the direct guidance e.g., GLUE. The subjects recalled more target of the words as possible without the category sion, the subject might recognize apple as more
of behavior by the environment during the reten- words in the cued-recall test than they recognized names. The retention indicated - that the sub- "familiar" than sonie of the other fruit words
tion test. However, as witft phenomena de- in the test without the cues. Although a "common- jects given the category recalled many more evoked by the category name—e.g., grape—and
noted by the nontechnical term "memor}^," sense" view suggests that it would always be easier words who the lists therefore respond apple in the retention test. This
retention in cued-recall procedures is often the to merely recognize a word than to recall it, reten- to the but were given the category second interpretation is an instance of-remember-
expression of other biobehavioral processes as tion was once again better when the environment names. ^ ing rather than reminding, since the environment
well. In one cued-recall procedure^ subjects the test was similar to the study environ- How should findings be interpreted? One during the retention test did not contain stimuli
were given a series of lists of word pairs to study. in. the was strength- possible account is that—during the study ses- sufficient to guide the emission of the target words.
After each list of 24 word pairs, a retention test was ened. sions—the target words evoked the category (See Figure 8.9b for a summary of this account.)
given in which the first word of each pair—the names because of the subjects' selection histories Both interpretations are plausible: Both appeal
cue—was presented, and the subject was asked to Remembering in cued-recall procedures. before the experiment. The category-name re- to biobehavioral processes—behavioral selection,
recall the second word of the pair—the target. As Major aspects of findings obtained with cued-responses, which are unobserved on the behavioral discrimination, generalization—that are well un-
a result of the subjects' pre-experimental experi- call procedures allow them to be interpreted as level, could then provide distinctive stimuli that derstood from earlier experimental analyses.
ence, some of the cue words strongly guided the reminding procedures: The target response was acquired an increased ability to guide the target Moreover, both the study and retention sessions
words, e.g., SKY-blue, while others guided previously selected in the presence of the cues, and words because of selection taking place during the contain stimuli that may reasonably be thought
8 Memory: Reminding
Study Session Retention Test are long, be under- autobiographical memory

stood solely as instances of direct guidance by the decay theory
contemporary environment. paired-associate
Scategory
How can we evaluate the cogency of these and retroactive interference
i
other interpretations of complex behavior when retroactive facilitation
i
they appeal to events that are unobserved with
Rword 1 state-dependent forgetting
present technology? When appeals are made to
processes that cannot be directly observed, as with reminding
Rword 1 complex patterns of activity among neurons in the remembering
brain, we have left the domain of experimental distractor task
analysis and entered the realm of interpretation. proactive effect
I (Rwords ) Our efforts to understand ""memory" have reached serial-recognition procedure
(perhaps exceeded) the boundaries of our ability to probe stimulus
Sword 1 ZTZI RWord 1 Scategory (Rword 1) directly manipulate all of the variables that guide target stimulus
behavior, and to measure all of the biobehavioral serial-position curve
processes affected by those variables. The first is
primacy effect
(Sword 1) an uncircumventaMe characteristic of all historical
! science. In such circumstances, historical science recency effect ,
1 i\
provides interpretations that are sufficient to en-
(b) . R-word 1 compass the observations, but the observations
may not be necessary consequences of processes Text Questions
Pre-experimental Relation
_ _ Relation Strengthened in Experiment resulting from experimental analysis. The second 1. From a procedural perspective, in what cir-
is a problem is increasingly cumstances is the nontechnical term "memory'"'
Terms in ( ) are Covert Events as biobehavioral science develops ever more sen- used? Why is ^memory" likely to be a theoretically
FIGURE 8.9 Two interpretations of the results from cued-recall
sitive techniques for measuring microbehavioral incoherent term.?
procedures and physiological processes.
2. If the outcome-of behavioral selection is the
(a) During the study session a stimulus-word is assumed to evoke the In the next chapter, we explore adaptive neural selection of environment-behavior relations, then
category name as a covert response and the covert stimulus produced networks as means of interpreting complex behav- what must be present in order for a "memory" to
by the category name is assumed to acquire an increased ability to ioral phenomena that are expressions of unob- occur? When the sarn& "memory" occurs, must the
evoke the response-words that occurred in its presence. Then, during served subbehavioral processes and prolonged
the retention test when the stimulus of the category name is presented, stimulus be the same; must the neural pathways
histories of selection. As long as our inteipretations activated by the stimuli'.be the same? Explain your
response-words are evoked because the category name acquired con- are constrained by principles that, summarize find-
trol of these words within the study session, (b) During the study answer using information from both the behavioral
session the stimulus-word acquires an increased ability to evoke the
ings obtained through experimental analysis, we and neural levels.
response-word. Then during the retention test, the stimulus of the need not lose our way. Experimental analysis to-
gether with scientific interpretation provide a pow- 3. What are the similarities and differences be-
category name is assumed to evoke various words as a covert responses
and some of these responses are recognized as the overt responses that erful means for understanding complexity, as tween those environment-behavior relations that
occurred during the study session. In this interpretation.; enhanced historical sciences are referred to as episodic, semantic, and flashbulb
performance is interpreted as the result of events occurring within the "memories"? Do these terms refer to different
retention test. types of "memories" arising from different biobe-
havioral processes?
Technical Terms 4. Summarize the evidence from research on
autobiographical memory and on animal memory
sufficient to initiate the various processes. How- involves stimuli and responses that have been sub- cue concerning the retention of environment-behavior
ever, some of the events invoked in the interpreta- ject to a prolonged history of pre-experimental episodic memory relations. Comment on any advantages and disad-
tions were unobserved under the conditions of the selection, and the time intervals between the pres- flashbulb memory vantages of the methods used to study autobio-
experiment. What is clear is that, when retention entation of stimuli or study and retention semantic memory graphical memory. Comment on the relevance of
.234 8 Memory: Reminding 235
the for the of the control of responses by stimuli. However, 15. Note response topography is not a reliable
ings, responses may also reliably occur under other condi- indicator of whether a "memory" is best viewed as
1. As with other nontechnical terms, "memory" has tions; i.e., such conditions are not necessary for their toward the episodic or semantic end of a continuum of
5. Summarize findings concerning the effects of potentially undesirable effects other than simply group- occurrence. The general circumstances under which re- environment-behavjor relations. For a person reared in
intra-organismic context on ing together phenomena that are only superficially simi-
sponses may reliably occur when present conditions do a cave and first emerging into the daylight as an adult,
"memory." these results as complex in- lar. The noun "memory" confers a static thing-like
not contain stimuli that control them are considered in a the response "blue" would likely be one of the responses
of the environmental guidance of behavior. quality to what is a process, and encourages unhelpful
later chapter on problem solving., and are acknowledged making up an episodic memory. The specifics of the
practices such as ascribing individual differences in
6. What is the distinction between reminding later in this chapter as instances of remembering. individual's selection history determine which stimuli
behavior to differences in "memory capacity" rather
and remembering? Be able to give likely examples 3. e.g., Georgopolous, 1990; Georgopoulos, guide what responses; the topography of the response
than to differences in selection history. Thus people are
of each. Can you determine from the response Schwartz, & Ketner, 1986;Kalaska&Crammond, 1992. alone is insufficiently informative.
often said to have good or bad memories and their
4. Geschwind, Quadfasel, & Segarra, 1968. 16. cf. McClelland & Rumelhart, The PDF Group,
alone whether it. exemplifies reminding or remem- different histories of selection are not considered. The
5. This example will be recognized as yet another 1986.
bering? Explain. objection to "memory" is not a mere philosophical quib-
demonstration of the inadequacies of response topogra- 17. Bahrick, Bahrick, & Wittlinger, 1975.
ble since, when we attribute deficiencies in "memory"
7. Describe the methods and findings from re- phy as an index of selection, cf. Skinner, 1957. 18. For related findings, see Bahrick, 1979, 1983,
to deficient histories, we are encouraged to provide the
search using short-term memory procedures. Use 6. cf. Rumelhart, Smolensky, McClelland, & Hin- 1984: Pillemer, Goldsmith, Panter, & White, 1988;
missing history rather than to passively accept a differ-
the term proactive effect in your answer. ton, 1986, pp. 20-21; Skinner, 1977. Squire, 1989.
ence in capacity.
7. Consistent with this view, some working within 19. Bahrick &Phelps, 1988.
8. Using technical terms, describe the proce- Clearly, we do not regard the behavior studied under
the heading of "memory" as different in kind from other the inferred-process approach speak of "guided memo- 20. For more on this point, see Hart, 1965; Nelson,
dures and major findings obtained with the serial- ries;" e.g., Malpass & E>evine, 1981. Gerler, & Narens, 1984. '
environment-behavior relations. The arbitrariness of
recognition procedure. Include a presentation of distinguishing the study of "memory" from the study of 8. The inferred-process theory of encoding specific- 21. Jenkins & Dallenbach, 1924.
serial-position effects and interpret these findings selection is apparent when we consider that the selection ity (Tulving & Thomson, 1973; Tulving, 1974) is rec- 22. cf. McGeoch & Irion, 1952. Among the most
as instances of reminding and/or remembering. Do process necessarily involves "memory"; If the effect of ognized as closely related to this general view, and important events that occur as time passes are those that
these studies indicate that remembering occurs one trial of a learning experiment were not retained, studies motivated by that theory are discussed later in select environment-behavior relations relevant to the
only in humans? Explain. performance on the subsequent trial could not be af- this chapter. original selections, foi example, in studies of autobio-
fected; i.e.. acquisition could not occur without "mem- 9. The view that the connections that are strength- graphical "memory*', for high-school classmates, it is
9. Describe the major findings obtained with the ened within a network are a joint function of the units likely that some of the classmates were seen or thought
ory." The term "memory" is customarily reserved for the
cued-recall procedure. Interpret these findings in effects of other environment-behavior relations on the activated by the nominal discriminative stimulus and about during the interim. Adaptive-network simulations
view of the distinction between reminding and retention of prior relations. However, it is also clear that those activated by the stimulus context is closely related have shown that environment-behavior relations can be
remembering. Comment on the distinction be- other environment-behavior relations can affect the ac- to Clark Hull's principle of afferent neural interaction mediated by the network even with substantial losses of
tween recognition and recall measures in the light quisition as well as the retention of present relations. The (Hull, 1943). Donald Hebb said that this principle "had connections especially if additional selections occur
of this distinction. term "transfer" is commonly used to denote such effects; the smell of brimstone about it" (Hebb, 1949, p. 79) throughout the period qf loss. This simulation result
the effects of prior selection are said to "transfer*' to the because, unless the precise nature of the interaction was parallels experimental findings which indicate that the
learning of new selections. The variables that influence specified, precise prediction could not be achieved,. We deleterious effects of a given surgically-produced brain
retention affect "transfer" as well since, as noted above, concur with Hebb's concerns, but regard the problem as lesion are diminished if the lesion is produced by the
the distinction between "memory" and acquisition does only a particular instance of the more -general problem cumulative effect of successive smaller lesions by
not refer to a difference in kind but to a difference in the faced by all historical sciences—incomplete knowledge a single complete les-ion; Anderson, J. A., 1984,
10. Inferred-process theories, such as in
focus of the investigation (cf. Osgood, 1949). The proc- of the full history of selection. Experimental analysis 23. For a discussion of the relation between laboratory
cognitive psychology, refer to "memories" as be- clearly demonstrates that the thresholds of some neurons
esses involved in stimulus generalization contribute to methods of studying retention in humans and more
ing "stored" (either in some hypothetical both "memory" and "transfer"; similar environments are affected by inputs in several sensory channels; inter- ecologically valid procedures, see Winograd, 1988.
such as long-term memory or, less often, in the guide similar responses. But robust "memory" and pretations of behavior must accommodate that fact. 24. Kolers, 1979; cf. Hunt & Elliott, 1980.
brain). From a biobehavioral perspective, where "transfer" require more than the naturally occurring 10. Tulving, 1972. Franks, described in Jenkins, 1980.
are "memories" when we are not having them? outcome of generalization. Robust effects require ex- 11. e.g., Anderson, J. R., 1983; Jacoby, 1988; Liddell, James, & Anderson, 1935.
Explain your answer, plicit training for "transfer" and "memory," and are Snodgrass, 1989. Skinner, 1950.
particularly important if behavioral therapies are to 12. Brown & Kulik, 1977. To designate words as stimuli or responses is a
11. Under laboratory conditions, what are the cir- 13. There is controversy about the validity of flash- great oversimplification since words are much more
prove effective beyond the therapeutic environment (cf.
cumstances that favor the occurrence of remind- Stokes & Baer, 1977). Training for "memory" is explic- bulb memories and, again, some investigators believe complex events than tliose designated by the same terms
ing? Of remembering? Under everyday conditions, itly addressed in Chapter 12, that they require special principles for their under- in the animal learning laboratory-—events such as tones
are there apt to be responses that are "pure" in- 2. When the present conditions include such stim- standing, while we and others do not; cf. Schmidt & and leverpresses. Clearly, words themselves are prod-
stances of either reminding or remembering? If uli—both environmental and intra-organismic (cf. Bohannon, 1988: McCloskey, Wible, & Cohen, 1988. ucts of substantial histories of behavioral selection,
not, is there any point to making the distinction? Estes, 1958)—this constitutes sufficient conditions for 14. cf. Tulving, 1972, p. 386. Complications arising from considering a word as a
8
simple stimulus or response are in later chap- a basis for the analysis or of behavior. The
ters, but do not affect the main thrust of the present "same" response may occur under the guidance of many __ CHAPTER 9
discussion. different stimuli and, as such, cannot be considered the
29. To avoid the nominal fallacy, recognize that ret- same in any useful sense. Thus, different procedures for
roactive interference and retroactive facilitation are sim- studying "memory" do not study the same "memory,"
ply the names of phenomena and not their explanations.. but—at most—responses of similar topography guided FUNCTIONING OF
30. For surveys of this literature, see Crowder, 1976;
Postman & Underwood, 1973.
by a partially common set of stimuli.
49. Brown, 1958; Peterson & Peterson, 1959.
THE EXPERIENCED LEARNER
31. cf. Postman, 1971. 50. Crowder, 1976; Johnson, 1980.
32. For a discussion of some of the conceptual prob- 51. Keppel & Underwood, 1962.
lems in work using standard verbal learning procedures, 52. Wickens, 1972.
see Donahoe & Wessells, 1980, pp. 210-216. The gen- 53. Gardiner, Craik, & Birtwistle, 1972. As selection by The individual environment pro- ties of experienced learners such as problem solv-
erality of all experimental findings is limited by the 54. Underwood, 1957. ceeds and the products of selection accumulate, the ing, verbal behavior, and remembering. Later
methods used to produce them, and paired-associate 55. Sands & Wright, 1980, functioning of the learner becomes increasingly chapters provide interpretations of such complex
learning provided an inadequate inductive basis for un- 56. The results described here were from the final difficult to understand solely in terms of the stimuli behavior; this chapter describes some of the major
derstanding many of the phenomena of memory and condition following a very extended period of pretrain- sensed at the moment and their relation to ongoing biobehavioral processes mediating that behavior.2
verbal behavior in experienced leaners. ing for the monkey subject. The human subject's behav- behavior. The present environment increasingly
33. cf. Anderson, J. R., 1983; Hinton & Anderson, ior was established by instructions and maintained by acts on an organism that has been changed by the
1981; Smolensky, 1986. the consequences of performing satisfactorily, which ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDANCE'IN
34. e.g., McCloskey & Cohen, 1989; Ratcliff, 1990.
selecting effects of past environments. Although
included an hourly wage. The monkey's behavior was the environment of the moment remains necessary EXPERIENCED LEARNER
35. Lewandowsky, 1991. maintained by such reinforcers as orange juice and ba-
36. Barnes & Underwood, 1959. for the interpretation of complex behavior, it be- The outcome of selection is that the learner's be-
nana pellets for correct responses. Before being tested
37. cf. Greeno, James, DaPolito, & Poison, 1978; comes increasingly insufficient as the selection havior is guided by environmental events—espe-
with a 20-item target set, the monkey had received
Martin, 1971. history grows more extensive. The view con- cially by stimuli and combinations of stimuli that
extensive training with target sets of gradually increas-
38. Smith, Glenberg, & Bjork, 1978. temporary events provide, an incomplete basis for
ing —a technique. Most importantly, the were sensed before the occurrence of reinforcers.
39. For an early demonstration of the effects of con-' understanding complexity should be neither novel
text on retroaction, see Bilodeau & Schlosberg, 1951, monkey had first received training in which only two Stimuli that function as reinforcers, or selectors, of
stimuli were presented and moving the lever to the right nor surprising at this point; it is inherent in all environment-behavior relations are initially lim-
For overviews of some of the factors that affect context historical sciences, ;of which the science of behav-
effects in humans see Bjork & Richardson-Klavehn, was reinforced when the stimuli were the same and to ited to reflexive eljcitors. However, other stimuli
the left when they were different. Speaking nontechni- ior is one.
1989; Davies & Thomson, 1988; and in nonhumans see increasingly become $ble to function as reinforcers
Balsam & Tomie, 1985. See Rudy, 1974 for the contri- cally, a "same/different concept" was first established. We begin this chapter by summarizing the as they acquire the ability to evoke behavior as a
bution of blocking to contextual and other retroaction 57. Wright, Santiago, Sands, Kendrick, & Cook, biobehavioral processes initiated when the envi- result of prior behaviqral selection. Together, in-
effects. 1985; cf. Wright & Watkins, 1987. ronment acts on a learner with an extensive history nate and acquired reinforcers act on the organism
40. Bower, 1981. 58. cf. Postman & Underwood, 1973. of behavioral selection. This sequence of events,
59. e.g., Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966; Atkinson & Shif- to select new environment-behavior relations and
41. For a review, see Overton, 1985, which begins with the sensing of the environment environment-environment relations. New relations
42. See Siegei, 1985 for a fascinating of the frin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965.
60. cf, Wright, Cook, Rivera, Shyan, Neiworth, & ends with the guidance of behavior, is largely allow the learner to "be sensitive to both correlations
background of these events!
Jitsumori, 1990. a product of behavioral selection. The effects of between environmental events and between envi-
43. Palmer, 1991.
44. e.g., Kolers & Roediger, 1984; Newell, 1973b; 61. See Wright, Cook, Rivera, Shyan, Neiworth, & behavioral selection, are not confined to events that ronmental and behavioral events, The precision of
Tulving, 1985; Roediger, 1990a; see also Jacoby, 1988. Jitsumori, 1990 for further analyses and interpretations are observable at the behavioral level, but include the selected relations is sharpened through stimu-
45. Schacter, 1987, of such findings. subbehavioral events as well. Subbehavioral lus discrimination and response differentiation.,
46. Spence, 1988. 62. These studies are in Wright <fe Wat- events also trace their lineages to the action of the narrowing the membership of stimulus and re-
47. cf. 1984. kins, 1987; Wright, 1989. environment because, without their ultimate ef- sponse classes to those stimuli and responses
48. This example, in which the "same" response, 63. Thomson & Tulving, 1970. fects on behavior, they would not have been se- most reliably precede reinforcing stimuli.3
hund, is the result of a different sequence of biobehav- 64. Tulving & Thomson, 1973; cf. Watkins & Tulv- lected. Subbehavioral events—notably changes in On the neural level, environment-environment
ioral processes, is another illustration of the general ing, 1975. synaptic efficacies between neurons—are the
65. Tulving & 197 L environment-behavior relations are selected
response topography by itself does not provide means by which environment-behavior relations through the modification of synaptic efficacies be-
are mediated. However, once selected for their tween neurons. Synaptic efficacies are modified by
effects at the behavioral .level, subbehavioral influences of two general types—local, influences
• events are available to mediate more subtle activi- more widespread influences involving broad-
237
238 9
Functioning of the Experienced Learner
neuromodulatory systems. First, the concur-
rence of environmental stimuli activates neighbor-
ing neurons in sensory systems. This coactivity
strengthens excitatory synapses between neighbor- Behavior
ing neurons and lateral inhibitory synapses be-
tween coactive excitatory neurons. The structure
of the environment, acting through these mecha-
VISUAL
nisms, selects sensory invariants.4 Second, the FIGURE 9.1 Neuroanatomy of selection (upper
concurrence of reinforcing stimuli with activity in panel) and its simulation in the architecture of a
different sensory channels—or with motor-system selection network (lower panel)
As shown in the upper panel, stimulation from environ-
activity produced by inputs from one or more
mental stimuli (Si and 82) activates neurons in different
sensory channels—selects polysensory regulari- primary sensory areas of the cortex, Axons from these
ties and environment-behavior relations, respec- neurons propagate activity to neurons in the sensory 'AUDITORY
tively. Polysensory regularities, which integrate association cortex and, ultimately, to neurons in the
activity from different sensory channels, are se- motor cortex. Axons from neurons in the sensory asso-
lected by a diffusely projecting neuromodulatory ciation cortex are the source, via several intervening
neurons, of inputs to the hippocampus. After interactions
output from the hippocampus to the sensory asso-
among neurons within the hippocampus, the output of
ciation areas. When polysensory neurons are acti- the hippocampus is diffusely projected via several inter-
vated by coactive inputs from different sensory vening neurons back upon neurons in sensory associa-
channels, the neuromodulator increases the synap- tion cortex. The diffusely projecting hippocampal output
tic efficacies between those neurons and their in- is proposed to cause a neuromodulator to be liberated
puts. Environment-behavior relations, which that changes synaptic efficacies between recently coac-
integrate sensory activity with motor activity that tive pre- post-synaptic neurons in sensory associa-
tion cortex. The polysensory neurons (e.g., 81-82
precedes reinforcing stimuli, are selected by a dif- neurons) then provide additional inputs to the motor
fusely projecting neuromodulatory output from the association cortex that supplement the inputs coming
ventral fegmental area (VTA) to the motor associa- more directly from sensory areas. When a reinforcing
tion areas. This neuromodulatory output is acti- stimulus occurs, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is Selection Network
vated by reinforcing stimuli. When pre- and stimulated. Stimulation of the VTA has two effects. First,
post-synaptic neurons in the motor association ar- VTA neurons diffusely project to neurons in the motor Response
association cortex and liberate a neuromodulator, Perceptual Input
eas are coactive, the neuromodulator increases the Units Units Units
dopamine. The neuromodulator changes synaptic effica-
synaptic efficacies between them. The VTA~de- cies between recently co-active pre- and post-synaptic Behavior
O... ...O
rived neuromodulator alsdbamplifies the output of neurons. Among the synapses in motor association cor-
the hippocampus to sensory association areas tex that are affected are those leading to pathways that l ) S Environment
when a reinforcing stimulus occurs. Through these project back to the VTA via the medial forebrain bundle
mechanisms, pathways in the mediating en- CMFB). The MFB pathway mediates internal reinforce-
ment. The second effect of activating VTA neurons is to
vironment-environment and environment-behav- amplify the diffuse output from the hippocampus to
ior relations are selected in a coordinated fashion,5 neurons in sensory association cortex, thereby facilitat-
(See Figure 9.1 for a schematic diagram of the ing the modification of synaptic efficacies in sensory
neural mechanisms of selection.) association cortex. The VTA-hippocampal pathway co- Hippocampal
ordinates the selection of connections in the motor and Change Detection
Given this account of the effects of selection on
the behavioral neural levels, we now explore sensory association- cortices—i.e., the connections that
mediate environment-behavior and environment-envi- Reinforcing S
its implications for the biobehavioral processes ronment relations, respectively. Finally, neurons in the
initiated when stimuli act upon an experienced motor systems of the brain give rise to axons that produce
learner. Motor Cortex Sensory Cortex
behavior by innervating the cells of muscles and glands. Response Selection Stimulus Selection
9
Functioning of the Experienced Learner 241
depth.10 As the activation pattern grows with the

language, and these combinations have been pre-
involvement of an increasing number of neurons in sent when verbal behavior was differentially rein-
Stimuli applied to the receptors of an "experienced
the visual system, other aspects of the environ- forced. The sequence of auditory stimuli that
learner initiate a widespread pattern of neural ac-
ment—e.g., auditory and tactile stimuli—axe initi- produces the /ch/ sound of "child," "choose," and
tivity in the brain that may or may not lead to a
•ating activity in still other portions of the sensory other verbal stimuli occur together in the experi-
behavioral response. We refer to this pattern;
which can extend to both sensory and motor areas, component of the activation pattern. The activity ence of listeners of English. The middle panel of
as an activation pattern.6 An activation pattern initiated by stimuli from all sensory modalities Figure 9.2 shows how familiar sequences of stim-
meets the criteria for a behavioral response in that may then produce activity in still other neurons in uli affect the activation pattern. A PET-scan from
it is guided by the environment and affected by its the sensory association areas, if synaptic efficacies the subject who previously responded to unfamil-
consequences; however, it is directly observable to polysensory neurons have been strengthened by iar sounds with activity only in primary auditory
only at the neural level of experimental analysis.7 earlier selection. cortex now showed activity in auditory association
An activation pattern is not a static entity. The cortex.
particular neurons whose activity makes up an Measurement of activation patterns. We c an -
activation pattern vary from moment to moment as not directly measure the responses of the hundreds
changes occur in the organism's environment and of thousands of neurons that constitute the sensory Motor Component
in the local chemical environment of the constitu- component of an activation pattern. However, the
ent neurons.8 This varying population of neuronal activity of some of the individual neurons may be The primary sensory and sensory/association cor-
activity results in measurable responses at the be- monitored by microelectrodes—as we noted in tices provide inputs to the motor areas of the brain
havioral level only if the contingencies of rein- earlier discussions of perceiving—and the general through various subcortical and cortical pathways,
forcement in that environment have selected such extent of an activation pattern may be determined. or tracts.12 These inputs can recruit a motor com-
responses. For example, speaking one's innermost One of the methods for determining the extent of ponent of the activation pattern, ênvironment-be-
"thoughts" be reinforced when the an activation is positron-emission tomogra- havior relations have been previously selected in
is a friend, but an enemy. However, the envi- phy, or PET. When a neuron is activated, the the presence of the stimuli that activate the stimu-
ronment might evoke an activation pattern corre- required energy comes from the "burning" of glu- lus component. Thus a history of behavioral selec-
sponding to having those "thoughts" in either case. cose, a simple sugar. When glucose is metabolized tion changes synaptic efficacies in motor areas, so
Let us outline how an activation pattern emerges in the activated neuron, charged particles are emit- that a stimulus evokes an activation pattern that
in an experienced learner. ted that can be measured from outside the head includes a motor component as well as a sensory
component.
with appropriate detectors. When a stimulus is
presented to a human subject, those brain areas that The lower panel of figure 9.2 depicts the brain
are most activated emit the most particles. A PET- regions that were activated when speech sounds
FIGURE 9.2 Reconstructions ofPET-scans in which
scan detects these particles. An example of the that occur in English were presented to the same
The sensory of an activation the most strongly activated cortical regions are
record produced by a PET-scan is shown in the top indicated by shaded areas subject. Now, a region of the motor association
of the in the sensor}/ area was activated in addition to the sensory corti-
are activated the learner sensed an envi- panel of 9.2. This record shows the In the upper panel, an auditory stimulus (e.g., a pure tone)
region—the primary auditory cortex of the tempo- was presented that was not a discriminative stimulus (i.e., ces. For example, if a series of the following speech
ronmental stimulus. Which neurons are activated sounds was presented—-/ch/ fil /!/ /d/—a motor
ral lobe-—that was active when an unfamiliar audi- did not guide behavior, was not "meaningful"). The
on the synaptic efficacies in the primary primary auditory area was roost strongly activated. In the component was produced. This series of sounds
sensory sensory association cortices.9 The sy- stimulus (i.e., not a
middle panel, an auditory stimulus was again presented makes up the word * "child," which is a discrimina-
naptic depend, in on the was presented,1 * but now the stimulus was a speech sound (phoneme) that
If activity in different sensory channels has tive stimulus for which the English-speaking sub-
cumulative selection history to that moment.—both occurred in English, the language of the listener. With ject has an extensive selection history. Conse-
natural selection and behavioral selection. In the been correlated in the learner's experience, then the this stimulus, the auditory association area was strongly
sensory component of the activation pattern in- quently, hearing this sequence of sounds causes a
of seeing, a visual stimulus initiates cortical activated in addition to the primary auditory area. In the
lower panel, a discriminative stimulus (a "meaningful" motor component to be added to the activation
activity that analyzes the environment into its con- cludes not only neurons in the primary sensory
word) was presented and the activated areas now in- pattern evoked by the auditory stimulus. When the
stituent spatial frequencies. At the same moment cortex, but also neurons in the sensory association
cluded the motor association cortex in addition to the same subject was presented with the same speech
or milliseconds later, other neurons in the visual areas. These neurons mediate polysensory regu-
primary auditory and auditory association cortices. sounds, but in an order that does not appear in
system are analyzing other aspects of the same larities. For example, certain combinations of audi- Source: Schematic depictions of findings from Petersen. Fox. English—e.g., /ch//I//d//i/~—the activation pattern
visual —e.g., its color, movement, and tory stimuli, and not in spoken Snyder, & Raichle, 1990. was once again confined to a sensory component.
242 CHAPTER 9
The did not no the activation the is the

flows into the next, with each pattern generated by by the This occur
behavior had ever been selected in the presence of For instance, the target response might be to pro-
the environment depending on the state of the only if the two patterns involve some of the same
this particular sequence of stimuli. Since the nounce the target -stimulus bread. If some charac-
speech sounds were not "meaningful," a motor nervous system at that moment—and, therefore, on teristic of the target response is affected by the neurons. Priming occurs to the extent that the acti-
component did not emerge,13 ' the state of the environment immediately before priming stimulus, then the priming stimulus is said vation patterns generated by the priming and target
that moment. Verbal stimuli provide especially to prime the target response. For example, the stimuli "overlap."
clear examples of the interdependence of succes- target response "bread" might be spoken with a
Inhibitory Processes in Activation sive activation patterns. For example, suppose you shorter latency17, when bread is preceded by a Possible regions of overlap in activation patterns.
Patterns heard a friend say "I wanted toast for breakfast so priming stimulus such as butter rather than by an The activation patterns generated by priming and
I went to the refrigerator to get a loaf of . . . , * ' and unrelated word such as letter.1® (See Figure 93 for target stimuli may overlap in one or more brain
Both the sensory and motor components of activa- a loud noise then occurred to prevent you from a depiction of this procedure.) regions, depending on the subject's history of se- '
tion patterns are affected by inhibitory as well as hearing the next word. Under such circumstances, lection with respect to those stimuli. The overlap
excitatory interactions between neurons. Through- you would "know" what your friend had said; you
out the nervous system, the activity of individual may begin in primary sensory areas, extend to
might even have "heard" him say the missing word Priming and Activation Patterns sensory and motor association areas, and conclude
neurons is determined by the interplay of excita- even though you had not sensed the appropriate
tory and inhibitory processes in a fashion similar in motor areas. On the behavioral level, research
auditory stimulus.16 In the experienced learner, the From the perspective of activation patterns, if the
to that described in the earlier discussion of visual on reminding reveals the potential richness of the
activation pattern evoked by a stimulus depends on response to a target stimulus is affected by the
spatial-frequency analysis. In general, inhibitory guidance that stimuli can exert on responding. On
the learner's history of selection in the context in priming stimulus, then ,t}ie activation pattern gen-
neurons lie between neighboring excitatory neu- which the stimulus occurred. The beginning of the neural level, PET-scans and recordings from
rons. The connections of inhibitory to excitatory erated by the target stimulus must have been af- individual neurons indicate the potential-richness
your friend's statement provided a context in fected by the activation pattern previously
neurons strengthen when the excitatory neuron that which the missing word could be understood, or of the activation patterns generated by stimuli.
activates the inhibitory neuron and the excitatory even "heard." The earlier part of the sentence
neuron to which the inhibitory neuron connects are primed you, the listener, to hear the missing word,
activated at the same time.14 On this view, the
selection of inhibitory connections is subordinate
to the selection of excitatory connections and re- Butter
Priming Procedure
quires relatively little specific guidance by the
genes, over half of which are already concerned Although experimental analyses of activation pat- Priming Stimulus
with guiding the development of the nervous sys- terns can be carried out only at the physiological
tem. When the diffuse reinforcing systems of the Inter-Stimulus
level, the functioning of activation patterns may be Interval Bread
sensory and motor association cortices selectively used to interpret observations at the behavioral
strengthen excitatory connections, inhibitory con-
nections between coactive excitatory neurons are
automatically selected. Inhibitory interactions of
level. Indeed, without behavioral consequences,
the neural mechanisms that implement activation
patterns would not have been selected in the first
Target Stimulus
r~L "bread"
this sort occur at every level of the nervous sys- place. A procedure permits the behavioral
tem—from neurons activated by receptors to mo- effects of activation patterns to be studied is a Target Response
tor neurons—and limit the neurons participating in procedure,
an activation pattern to those that were most reli- In a priming procedure, the Response Latency
ably and strongly active when, selection took is presented, followed shortly thereafter by the
place.15 target stimulus. For example, the priming stimu-
lus might be the phrase loaf of and the target FIGURE 93 Arrangement of events in a priming procedure
stimulus might be the word bread. Or, the priming A priming stimulus Is presented—here the visual stimulus BUTTER—followed, after an interstimulus interval
OF specified in the experiment, by the target stimulus—here the visual stimulus BREAD. The subject is instructed to emit
stimulus might be a single word, butter, the
ACTIVATION a target response to the target stimulus as rapidly as possible—here the name of the target stimulus, the verbal response
target stimulus bread. The subject's task is to re-
"bread." The latency of the target response is the time between the presentation of the target stimulus and the occurrence
In the natural environment, activation patterns are spond to the target stimulus according to the ex- of the target response. If the latency ;of the target response is affected-by the priming stimulus, then the priming stimulus
in a constant state of flux. As behavior occurs and perimental instructions. The response evoked by is said to prime the target response.
244 9
Functioning of the Experienced Le 245
Verbal of to
is when the priming phrase pro- even though the first word does not evoke
histories, can evoke particularly extensive re- ble those under which selection takes place in the vides a context in which the last word is related to
sponding and activation patterns. When a subject natural environment. When more ecologically second in a "free"-association test. Here, priming
only one target stimulus. For example, when the may occur through the mediation of the activation
learns lists consisting of a mixture of words printed valid procedures are used, stimuli are more apt to phrase is If Joe buys the wheat, only the response
in upper-case (e.g., FARM) and lower-case letters evoke acti.vation patterns that the selection history pattern for tiger, which is a common response
to the target word HAY is facilitated. Thus the
(e.g., book), retention tests indicate that words are has, in fact, produced.23 component of the activation pattern that affects the
evoked by lion in a "free"-association test, and to
more apt to be recognized when they are printed in Verbal stimuli undeniably have rich selection which stripes is a response.^ However, one cannot
the same case in which they were learned. ^ Thus, naming of HAY need not affect the naming of infer intervening processes with certainty from
histories. Do priming stimuli evoke activation pat- STRAW. Work of similar import has been carried
specific visual features of verbal stimuli may be terns that reflect that extensive history? The results behavioral observations alone. Depending on their
retained, and activation patterns may be generated out with naming tasks using single words as prim- unique selection histories, lion may have primed
of priming procedures suggest that they do. Under ing stimuli.25
in sensory areas of the brain. Studies also indicate some conditions, a verbal stimulus may be shown the response -to stripes, not through the mediation .
that auditory and articulatory aspects of visually Other experiments using a different type of of tiger, but through direct activation by lion (some
to exert complex priming effects on the response procedure have produced results that converge on
presented verbal stimuli may be retained. When a to the target stimulus, presumably as a result of persons erroneously "believe" that lions have
subject learns a list of paired-associates composed the same interpretation. A sentence containing a stripes). Alternatively, lion may have been rhisper-
correspondingly complex interactions between word of ambiguous meaning was presented on a
of items such as 27-tacks and is later asked to learn their activation patterns. ceived as line, and then line primed stripes. As
a second list of paired-associates with the same video monitor, and the subjects were asked to read always, the activation pattern mediating environ-
In a procedure known as a naming task, the it. Through a sophisticated experimental tech-
stimuli but different responses, the new responses subject is presented with a priming stimulus and ment-behavior relations depends on the specifics
are learned more rapidly if they evoke similar vocal nique, it was possible .to, determine which words of the individual's selection history;'different per-
then a visually presented target word that is to be the subject was looking'at, and for how long. It was
responses (e.g., 27-to:).20 Thus, activation patterns named aloud, i.e., that requires a textual response. sons may show the "same" response for different
generated by verbal stimuli may involve auditory found that when the subject came upon an ambigu- reasons.
Textual responses—reading written or printed ous word, the word was fixated for a longer time
association and motor association cortex as well as
words—are environment-behavior relations for than unambiguous words of comparable length. In
visual cortex. Finally, retention tests indicate that on the of priming. An am-
which adults have extensive selection histories. addition, the subject's frequently returned to
responses in the paired-associate procedure verbal stimulus may prime responses to
The behavioral measure most often used in naming the ambiguous word after later parts of the sentence
are similar in meaning (e.g., sofa and loveseaf), that many stimuli, because it generates an extensive
tasks is the latency with which the target response had clarified its meaning.26 For example, in the
similarity also affects retention. Even when stimuli activation pattern due to a diverse selection history.
do not "look alike" or "sound alike," their activa- occurs following the presentation of the target sentence The records'were carefully guarded after
stimulus. If the latency of the target response varies However, the extent of priming is often restricted
tion patterns may overlap in the motor association they were scratched, the word records was fixated by the context in which the stimulus appears. Con-
areas of the brain. (See the lower panel of Figure with characteristics of the priming and target stim- for a relatively long time. Records is ambiguous in
uli, this is interpreted as the result of overlapping sider one of the ambiguous sentences mentioned
9.2.)21 In summary, the activation patterns gener- meaning, as indicated by the following sentence before. If the word order in the sentence is changed
ated by priming and target stimuli may overlap in activation patterns generated by the two stimuli. that begins identically: The records were carefully
When the priming stimulus is.a phrase that is so that it now reads After^they were scratched, the
a number of regions in the sensory and motor areas, guarded after the political takeover. The conclu-
to the word, the naming records were carefully guarded, the subjects did
depending on the learner's history of selection with sion reached from these and other findings is that
response is facilitated—i.e., the latency of the tar- fixate records for a longer time, did
respect to those stimuli, ^here the overlap occurs, a stimulus can evoke an extremely complex acti-
get response is decreased—compared with when glance back after, reading later words in the sen-
when it occurs, the vation pattern reflects the subject's entire se-
of priming.22 the priming and target stimuli are unrelated.^4 For tence.28 Similarly, when an ambiguous word has a
lection history with respect to that stimulus. clearly dominant meaning rather than two mean-
example, if the priming stimulus is the phrase If Joe This conclusion holds not only for the motor
buys the straw and the target stimulus is either HAY ings of approximately equal strength, priming oc-
components of the activation patterns guided by curs only for target words related to the dominant
or SIP, the naming is facilitated. Note verbal stimuli—i.e., their meanings—but also for
of meaning.29 Some evidence can be interpreted to
that, in the context of this phrase, the meaning of the sensory components. Priming effects have-been
Given the abundant behavioral evidence that selec- straw is ambiguous because the word guides two indicate that a more extensive activation pattern
demonstrated for the physical features of verbal begins to emerge, but the components that are
tion can produce very complex relations involving relatively common responses, and both are poten- stimuli, for their spelling (orthography), and for
verbal stimuli and responses, let us see what prim- tially appropriate. The facilitation of naming re- inappropriate in that context are rapidly inhib-
their auditory/articulatory characteristics. More- ited.30 Finally, if the instructions provide a context
ing procedures reveal about the activation patterns sponses to both HAY and SIP may be interpreted over, priming effects also occur between priming
mediate these relations. In priming procedures, as indicating that the activation pattern, generated that favors the guidance of one response by the
and target words that are unrelated, but evoke target stimulus, then priming will be restricted to
many different types of priming stimuli, target by the phrase included components corresponding common responses. For example, lion may serve
stimuli, and target responses have been used. We to both meanings of the word straw. A different that--response. For example, if the subject is in-
as a priming stimulus for the target stimulus stripes structed to detect whether the target stimulus con-
9 Functioning of the Experienced Learner 247
a (e.g., /z), a stimu- it would if it had to clear its own way. Of activation pattern. Thus, only ef-
lus such as .straw does not prime the response to a course, verbal interpretations of complex interact- fects depend on interactions between the early
meaningfully related target stimulus such as hay?^ ing processes such as those involved in priming units of the two activation patterns should be pre-
must be supplemented by specific neural network sent. However, if the interstimulus interval be-
Inhibitory processes in priming. Priming e f- simulations before the interpretations can be con- tween the priming and target stimuli is longer, then
fects may be interpreted as the outcome of excita- sidered compelling,32
tory and inhibitory interactions among units in the interactions are possible among units throughout
activation patterns generated by the priming and both activation patterns. Are behavioral observa-
target stimuli. As an illustration, the failure of a tions consistent with this interpretation?
Temporal Effects on Priming
priming stimulus to prime subordinate responses The results of varying the interstimulus interval
to target stimuli can be interpreted as follows: The So far, we have considered the nature of the prim- in priming procedures are consistent with the inter-
priming stimulus begins to evoke an extensive ing and target stimuli and the context in which pretation of priming as a result of overlapping
activation pattern that includes a motor component priming takes place. What are the effects of the activation patterns. The earlier-activated units of.
for both dominant and subordinate meanings of the other variable that is easily manipulated in the an activation pattern are those in the primary sen-
priming stimulus. However, the more strongly ac- priming procedure—the time interval between the sory areas and, as such, are sensitive to the physical
tivated units for the dominant meaning soon inhibit FIGURE 9.4 Reconstruction of a PET-scan showing priming stimulus and the target stimulus? What features of the stimulus, e.g., spatial frequencies
the continued activation of units for the subordi- the most strongly activated region of the cortex when effect might this variable have on priming and the for a visual stimulus. Even with brief priming-tar-
nate meanings. Thus the activation pattern gener- the subject was asked to think about a meaningful word activation patterns of1-which priming is a function? get intervals, responses to the 'target stimulus
ated by the priming stimulus affects only target Note that the activation pattern involved the motor asso- An activation pattern generated by a stimulus should be affected when there are physical simi-
responses corresponding to the dominant meaning. ciation cortex. larities between the priming and target stimuli—
Source: Schematic depictions of findings from Petersen, Fox, consists of a set of interconnected neurons, some
In contrast, if the priming stimulus has two equally Snyder, & Raichle, 1990. in the sensory areas and others—for discrimina- and this is what is found,34 With somewhat longer
strong meanings, then the activation pattern it gen- tive, or meaningful, stimuli—in the motor areas of priming-target intervals, there is enough time for
erates will include units for both of them. These the brain. This pattern cannot be activated all at the priming stimulus to activate polysensory neu-
two sets of units will inhibit one another to some once. The environment first activates receptors, rons in the sensory association, cortex. Visually
extent, depending on the strength of inhibitory and then a subset of neurons that, in turn, activates presented words activate patterns that are particu-
interactions between them. Thus two strong but current stimuli. If a related target word is then another subset, and so on. Several tens of ms are larly rich in polysensory units because, in English,
related meanings would inhibit each other more presented, its activation pattern overlaps somewhat required to activate the relevant receptors, several a visually presented letter or word is correlated
than two equally strong but unrelated meanings. with that of the priming stimulus. The target acti- more to activate sensory neurons, and still more to with an auditory stimulus—the sound of the letter
Consistent with these interpretations, PET- vation pattern is generated more rapidly than it activate the other neurons to which they are con- or-word. For examplie, the visual stimulus P is
scans indicate that when subjects are instructed to would be otherwise, because the priming stimulus nected. The activation pattern may require hun- correlated with the speech sound /p/. Consistent
think of the meaning of words, regions of the motor has just inhibited the activity of nearby units that dreds of ms to be completely generated, and it with this expectation, priming effects are observed
association cortex are activated. (See 9.4.) might have laterally inhibited the recruitment of changes over time as "deeper" in the network when an auditorily presented word serves as the
Unfortunately, PET-scjins are not yet sensitive units in the activation pattern. Because the are recruited. priming stimulus and the--same visually presented
enough to provide moment-to-moment records of activation pattern of the target stimulus is gener- Since it takes time to generate a complete acti- word is the target stimulus. This illustrates cross-
the growth and decline of activation patterns, and ated more rapidly, the behavioral response pro- vation pattern', the degree of overlap between two because- the target response is
they do not distinguish between the activity of duced by that pattern occurs sooner—i.e., its successive patterns should also depend on the in- primed even though the'priming and target stimuli
excitatory and inhibitory neurons. However, what latency is decreased. terval between the stimuli that evoke those pat- are in different sensory modalities.
experimental analysis has revealed about excita- An analogy may be useful in understanding this terns. Accordingly, the effect of the priming At even longer priming-target intervals, prim-
tory and inhibitory interactions between individual process. The priming stimulus acts like a person stimulus on the response to the target stimulus ing occurs between words that are meaningfully
neurons supports these interpretations. bulling his way through a crowd, all of whose should be affected by the interval between the two related but bear no other relation to one another.
The facilitating effect of the priming stimulus members are pushing and shoving each other. The stimuli.33 Consider an activation pattern that is just When the interstimulus interval is brief, a mean-
on the latency of the response to the target stimulus target stimulus follows closely on the heels of the emerging because of the presentation of the prim- ingful relation between the priming and target
may also be interpreted. When the priming stimu- priming stimulus and takes advantage of the path ing stimulus. If the target stimulus is presented - stimulus should not affect the target response be-
lus is presented, it generates an activation pattern; cleared by the priming stimulus before it has lime immediately after the priming stimulus, then only cause not enough time has elapsed for the priming
the activity of the units in that pattern inhibits to close up. Meeting less resistance, the target the initial units of the priming activation pattern are stimulus to activate the later motor units of the
nearby units activated less strongly by other con- stimulus moves through the crowd more rapidly available to interact with the units of the emerging pattern, which constitute the meaning of the prim-
248 9
ing word. This is With ing at. not the When records. Complex
brief inters timulus intervals, the target response is processes occur successively, they exemplify se- stimuli serve as contexts in which the same stimu-
not affected by a meaningfully related priming Serial processing also occurs in lus-—e.g., seeing a friend—initiates very different Priming is a behavioral phenomenon measured by
stimulus. However, with interstimulus intervals of the brain, of course: The sensory component of an responses mediated by very different activation the effect of an immediately preceding stimulus on
several hundred ms, priming stimuli meaningfully activation pattern must occur before the motor patterns. In inferred-process approaches to com- the response to a subsequent stimulus. Priming is
related to the target stimulus do facilitate the target component can be recruited. plex behavior, complex contextual discriminations not a fundamental biobehavioral process, but,
response.35 Further, even when meaningfully re- An ever-changing activation pattern is pro- are sometimes referred to as schemata, scripts, or rather, a product of such processes. As such, prim-
lated priming and target words are presented in duced by ever-changing events in the environment, plans.41 As conceived here, such terms do not refer ing—like phenomena such as retroactive interfer-
different sensory modalities (e.g., visual and audi- acting on a learner who has been changed as the to inferred structures or require new biobehavioral ence and recency—cannot provide an explanation
tory), priming effects occur.36 Of course, cross- cumulative result of selection. All contemporane- processes for their interpretation. Instead, they re- of other phenomena but is itself a phenomenon to
modal priming does not occur for physical features ous stimuli potentially affect the activation pattern fer to the effects of complex discriminative stimuli be explained. Because priming is not a fundamen- •
of the priming and target stimuli since there can be generated by a stimulus; in that way, an activation on the functioning of the organism. As David Ru- tal process, it is likely to be produced in a number
110 overlap in the early, more sensory components pattern is constrained by both the environment of melhart, Paul Smolensky, James McClelland, and of different ways. So far, we have considered only
of activation patterns generated by stimuli in dif- the moment and the cumulative effects of selection Geoffrey Hinton—major contributors to adaptive- one way in which priming effects can be pro-
ferent modalities.37 from all previous moments.39 To complicate mat- network accounts of complex behavior—have put duced—as the outcome of interactions between
ters still further, when an activation pattern in- it: "Schemata are not 'things.' There is no repre- common units in successive activation patterns.
cludes enough motor units to produce responses at sentational object which is a schema. Rather, sche- Are there other processes that can produce prim-
Contributions of Priming to the behavioral level, these responses may cause ing? ^
mata emerge at the morijent they are needed from
Complex Behavior changes in the environment. Such changes, in turn, .the interaction of large numbers of simpler ele-
The behavioral effects of priming procedures re-
stimulate the receptors of the neural network afresh ments all working in concert with one another."42 Recurrence and reafference. Until this point,
and bring an altered activation pattern into exist- interpretations of priming 'have been restricted to
veal some of the rich possibilities for interplay
ence. The complexity and diversity of these shift- Enduring effects of priming. In our discussion neural networks in which the activity of a unit
between the activation patterns initiated by succes-
ing activation patterns competent to of priming, we have so far considered only the only be influenced by the activity of "earlier"
sive stimuli and by different stimuli acting concur-
a vast array of environment-behavior relations. transitory effects of the priming stimulus on the or "upstream" units in the network. networks
rently. Such interactions undoubtedly occur
In the natural environment, shifts in activation activation pattern initiated by the target stimulus. are technically called feed-forward networks.
extensively in the natural environment as environ- Activity initiated at the input units "feeds for-
ment-behavior relations are mediated by the nerv- patterns are produced by stimuli less easily charac- To simplify the discussion, we have acted as if 5
terized than the single words or simple phrases selection were no longer taking place and the in- ward,' activating units.ever "deeper" in the net-
ous system. As remarked by Endel Tulving and
used in priming procedures. For instance, if a itiation of an activation pattern would have no work. In the specific ca'ê of the nervous system,
David Schacter, "Priming is a ubiquitous occur-
friend refers to an earlier statement that we made sensory units activate polysensory units which, in
rence in everyday life."38 Indeed, priming provides effect on the connectivity of its active units. This
but have momentarily forgotten, we may ask her to is probably never correct; any time a pattern is turn, activate motor association units. However,
yet another indication that the cumulative effects
remind us where when the conversation took activated there is the opportunity for additional motor association units do not affect polysensory
of relatively simple biobehavioral processes oper-
place, who else was there, and so forth. As inter- selections to occur. For example, suppose that an units except indirectly, through changes in envi-
ating over time can produce extremely complex
preted by a selection network, the friend's replies ronmental stimulation produced by behavior. That
relations on both the neural"'and behavioral levels, infrequently encountered word is used as the target
to these inquiries serve to prime the "memory" that is, changes in behavior change the environment
The view that emerges is one in which the in a naming procedure. Under these con-
we are trying to recall.40 sensed by the organism and, in that less direct way,
behavior occurring at any given moment is the ditions, it is likely that the textual response of
change the activity of units in the sensory compo-
outcome of constantly changing activation patterns reading the word aloud will be strengthened. Ex- nent of the activation pattern.
involving many units acting at the same time—in Schemata. As another example of a complex perienced learners can. discriminate when they cor-
priming environment, suppose that you go to a rectly pronounce a word, which permits the This account of the propagation of activity in a
parallel. As contrasted with conventional digital
party and discover that the men are dressed in auditory stimuli produced by their naming' re- neural network is overly simple. The nervous sys-
computers, many processes occur simultaneously
tuxedos and the women in evening gowns, cham- tem is more richly interconnected than a feed-for-
in the brain, implementing the sponse to function as an acquired reinforcer. Ac-,
pagne is being served, and Lester Lanin's society ward network. In general, pathways that convey
of environment-environment and environment-be- quired reinforcers further strengthen the ' -
orchestra is playing Broadway show tunes. This activity from one brain region to another are com-
havior relations. Even though a single neuron op- connections that were active when the target, stimu-
environment would prime a largely different set of plemented by other pathways that convey activity
erates much more slowly than an electronic circuit lus was present (see Chapter 4). Thus priming may
"party responses" than one where people are in the reverse direction.44For example, while there
in a computer, the brain can mediate complex produce enduring effects on the ability of the target are tracts that carry activity from sensory associa-
relations very rapidly because many units are act- dressed in jeans, drinking beer, and listening to stimulus to guide the target response.43
tion to motor association areas, still others carry
250 9 Functioning of the Experienced Learner
activity from motor to sensory by the It appears!48 As by selection was to of pre-

tion areas. In general, there are reciprocal connec- target stimuli, priming may occur If recurrent ac- networks, the priming of the nonarbitrary relation sented for- different durations. These durations
tions between, most brain regions—either directly tivity Induced by the priming stimulus alters the occurred quickly because the priming and target were then used in a later study of priming. A word
or through various intervening nuclei.45 activation pattern initiated by the target stimulus. activation patterns overlapped during the feed-for- was presented on some trials as a sample stimulus
An adaptive network that can simulate the ef- If the activation pattern generated by the target ward phase of the activation patterns. The priming followed within a few ms by a masking stimulus,
fects of these "backward" pathways is said to have- stimulus is altered, then the behavioral response to of the arbitrary relation took longer to emerge e.g., XXX. The subject was asked to indicate
recurrent connections. (See Figure 9.5.) Func- the target stimulus may be affected. However, because units in "deeper" regions of the network whether or not a word had been presented. An
tionally, the effect of activity conveyed by recur- priming effects produced through recurrent con- had to be activated before recurrent connections average stimulus duration of about 20 ms before
rent connections is similar to the effect of changes nections would take longer to occur: The activation from them could alter the activity of earlier units. the introduction'of the masking stimulus was nec-
in behavior that produce changes in the environ- pattern of the priming stimulus must recruit units Speaking nontechnically, it is as if the subject first essary for the subjects to accurately judge that a
ment. That is, both behavior—through changes in later portions of the network before the recurrent had to say to himself "The priming word building word had been presented. Even though their judg-
produced in the environment sensed by the organ- or feedback pathways that reafferent the earlier means that the target word is some part of the ments were accurate, the subjects had no awareness
ism—and recurrent connections—through activity units can be activated. Priming effects mediated by body," before the target response leg could be
of the nature of tlie word at these brief intervals,
carried in "backward" pathways in the nervous recurrent connections should require longer inter- primed.
and described their responses as merely "guesses."
system—alter the activity of units in the sensory stimulus intervals between the priming and target An implication of this interpretation is that The duration at which a subject could accurately
component of the activation pattern. While the stimuli than priming effects of other origins. extended practice with arbitrary relations should judge that a word had been presented—called the
environment may be said to "afferent" the organ- In an experiment that bears on this interpreta- eventually produce rapid priming through feed-
ism, activity carried by recurrent connections may threshold of detectability—was,determined indi-
tion of some priming phenomena, subjects were forward connection's, -and the evidence supports
be said to "reafferent" the organism.46 What are the vidually for each subject. Next, the same subjects
instructed that when the priming stimulus was a this expectation.49 Once again, the cogency of
implications of reafference for some instances of were presented a sample word and then the mask-
particular category name, such as building, the neural network interpretations awaits direct obser-
priming? ing stimulus, followed by two words as compari-
target word would be an instance of another cate- vations at the neuroanatomical/physiological level
and the implementation of specific computer simu- son stimuli. Their task was to indicate which of the
As Interpreted by selection networks, even gory, such as a part of the body—e.g., leg. This two comparison words was identical to the sample
when there is little overlap in the feed-forward procedure implements an arbitrary, but systematic, lations. However, these verbal interpretations do
indicate that a considerable range of priming ef- word. When the interval between the sample word
relation between priming and target stimuli. That and masking stimulus was Increased to about 30
is, the relation is not one that has been selected by fects is within the competence of basic biobehav-
ioral principles.50 ms, the subjects selected the correct comparison
the pre-experimental environment. With nonarbi- word with reasonable accuracy. This duration de-
trary relations between category names and in- fined the threshold of semantic detection. How-
stances—e.g., the relation of building to door-— ever, the subjects were still unable to give a textual
priming of instances by category names is known Priming and Awareness
response to the sample stimulus, and reported that
to occur.47 But does priming occur when the rela- their choices of the 'comparison stimuli were
Whatever the ultimate fate of neural-network Inter-
tion between the priming category and the target "guesses."53
pretations of priming, evidence indicates that the
Instances is systematic but arbitrary? If so, what priming stimulus need not evoke verbal behavior In later testing, when, the priming stimulus was
interstimulus interval is required to produce prim- for priming to occur. Some hint of this conclusion presented to these subjects for a duration equal to
ing effects of this sort? was provided, by the earlier observation that cate- the detectability threshold, priming occurred for
Experimental work indicates that nonarbitrary gory names prime instances even-when such rela- identical but not for meaningfully related target
relations between category names and instances tions are not mentioned in the experimental stimuli. However, when the duration of the prim-
(e.g., building-door} reduces the latency of the instructions. More to the point, research has shown ing stimulus was increased to the semantic thresh-
target response when the interstimulus interval is priming can occur when the subject is unaware old, priming also occurred with meaningfully
250 milliseconds. Priming of this origin occurred of the priming stimulus—i.e., when the priming related target, words. Note that both priming ef-
even though the relation was not described in the stimulus-does not guide a textual response. In fact, fects—the first based 00 physical similarity and the
instructions given to the subjects before the experi- priming can occur when the subject has no aware- second on similarity of meaning—occurred with-
ment. Thus category names were demonstrated to a priming has-even pre-- out awareness of the priming stimulus. The prim-
FIGURE 9.5 Schematic representation of feed-
forward and recurrent connections between the
prime instances. An arbitrary priming-target rela- sented!51 ing stimulus influenced the activation pattern of the
sensory and motor association areas of the cerebral- tion also produces priming, but requires an inter- In an experiment directed at this Issue,52 a target stimulus, even when the subject was unable
cortex stimulus interval of 1,000 milliseconds modification of a matching-to-sample procedure to-give a textual response to the priming stimulus.
9
'. Functioning of the Learner
noetechnically, we not be "aware" Possible
of a stimulus for It to influence our reactions to include components that are ordinarily
other stimuli. evoked by pictorial stimuli. In the previous study
with three-dimensional line drawings, priming oc- As measured on the behavioral level,
curred when the figures approximated stimuli pro- occurs when a stimulus that is not physically simi-
IMAGINING vided by real objects. The results of this study were lar to the one that usually guides perceiving evokes
analogous to earlier work with verbal stimuli in behavior similar to the behavior guided by the
Priming experiments indicate that stimuli generate which a priming stimulus facilitated naming an customary stimulus.56 For example, when asked to
activation patterns that can be sensitive to the indi- identical target stimulus. Cart priming of responses imagine the windows on the front of your house,
vidual ' s entire history of selection, and not just the to nonverbal target stimuli occur when the priming you may make certain eye movements as if scan-
physical properties of the initiating stimuli. A fa- and target stimuli are presented in different sensory ning the front of your house, count aloud the win-
miliar verbal stimulus activates, at least briefly, all Impossible dows as you "see9* them, count more rapidly when
modalities? This' is analogous to using an audito-
of the motor components of the activation pat- rily presented word to prime a naming response to the windows are close together than when they are
tern—i.e., all of the "meanings" of the verbal a visually presented word. The results indicate that far apart, and so on. Under the guidance of verbal
stimulus. So far, we have demonstrated the poten- cross-modal priming does occur in such circum- instructions, you engage in behavior that is similar
tial richness of activation patterns almost exclu- stances. For example, when the priming stimulus to that which occurs when you are, in fact, in front
sively with verbal stimuli and the verbal responses is a word—e.g., boat—detection of a picture of a of your house counting its windows. Further, you
that they guide. Can environment-behavior rela- boat is primed to about the same degree as it is may shut your eyes as you engage,in this behavior,
tions involving nonverbal events also be sensitive when the priming stimulus is a picture of the same as if sensing current visual stimuli would somehow
to the entire selection history? For example, can interfere with visualizing your house. •
boat.55 The word boat and a picture of a boat
pictorial stimuli activate extensive activation pat- Considerable experimental work is consistent
FIGURE 9.6 Priming and target stimuli used in the
generate activation patterns that have components
terns that include motor components? The answer with the view that visual imagining involves many
to this question bears ultimately on such matters as study of perceptual priming in common. Among these components are sets of
in the sensory association cortex—what may of the same biobehavioral as
the interpretation of imagining. In imagining, a The line drawings in the upper portion of the figure are
examples of three-dimensional renderings of objects be called a perceptual component— in the example, afi older 'literature indicates that, when
stimulus evokes an activation pattern that includes subjects were asked to imagine the Eiffel Tower,
are "possible." The line drawings in the lower portion are motor association cortex—what may be called a
components that are ordinarily evoked by a stimu- examples of "impossible" objects—i.e., objects that their eyes often moved upward as if they were
lus in- another sensory modality. For example, meaning component.
could not exist in three-dimensional space. Only prior
A nonexperimental example also suggests that looking at a tall structure. Or, .wjên/a subject is
when smelling a food that was a childhood favor- exposure to "possible" drawings reduced the latency of asked to imagine hitting a nail twice with a ham-
ite, you may visualize the kitchen where you last classifying a drawing as "possible" or "impossible" when perceptual components can be evoked by stimuli
in modalities other than those that ordinarily acti- mer, two subtle contractions occur in the muscles
smelled it. In short, under some conditions a sub- those drawings were later used as target stimuli.
of his forearm.57 The&e studies demonstrate—to
ject "sees" in the absence of stimuli that usually Source: Adapted from Schacter, D. L., Cooper, L. A., Belaney, vate them. Take a moment to answer the following
S. M., Peterson, M. A., & Tharan, M. (1991). Implicit memory question; How many windows are on the front of the extent that it can be measured on the behavioral
guide seeing, "hears" in the absence of stimuli that
for possible and impossible objects; Constraints on the level—that the topography of our behavior when
usually guide hearing, and so on. construction of structural depositions. Journal of Experimental
your house? . . . Unless you have-..answered this
% we are imagining an activity is similar, although
Priming procedures demonstrate that nonver- Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 17, 3-19. question before and now recall the answer, you are
much diminished in magnitude, to the topography
bal stimuli can generate extremely rich activation Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychological Association. likely—speaking nontechiiically—to conjure up
Adapted by permission. of our behavior when we are actually in
patterns. Moreover, some of the components of an image of your house as it would appear if you that activity.
these patterns may be described as perceptual. For were facing it, and then count the windows that you
More recent research. indicates that there are
example, when a line drawing of a geometric figure "see." Moreover, when you count the windows,
also striking functional similarities between imag-
is presented as a priming stimulus, the response to primed was the speed of classifying the figure as you are apt to proceed in a systematic fashion, e.g.,
ining and seeing. That is, variables that affect see-
a target stimulus of the same figure is facilitated—- either a perceptually possible or impossible three- from left to right. In short, you are likely to engage
ing affect imagining in similar ways. Just as you
but only if the priming and target figures are per- dimensional form. If the figure was perceptually in activity—largely immeasurable at the behav-
cannot look at two objects at the same time, you
ceptually possible. That is, priming occurs only impossible—that is, if it could not have been ioral level— seems similar to the activity you
when the line drawings depict figures that have the visually imagine one object look at
sensed during the selection history of the learner— engage in when you actually see the house and ' • . another simultaneously. For example, when sub-
characteristics of real objects, and have therefore then priming did not occur.54 count its windows.
been subject to behavioral selection. (See Figure jects were asked to hnagine a visual stimulus while
Priming procedures can also be used to demon-
9.6.) In these experiments, the response that was strate that the activation patterns evoked by verbal
9 Functioning of the Experienced Learner
responding to another visual stimulus, they showed Same tent and incomplete access to the activities
more interference in responding than when they occur during imagining. Most fundamentally, be-
were to an auditory havioral observations provide an inadequate basis
the same task.58 for inferring neural processes, just as they do for
Among the more compelling demonstrations inferring hypothetical processes. The same envi-
are those in which subjects are shown pairs of line ronment-behavior relation may occur as the result
drawings of complex objects and asked if the draw- of different neural processes. Is there any evidence
ings are of the same object.59 The two drawings are at the neural level that similar activation patterns
three-dimensional line drawings of objects from Different occur during seeing and imagining?
different vantage points. Sometimes the two draw- Two lines of evidence support the conclusion
ings are of the same object (upper panel of Figure that the activation patterns involved in visualizing
9.7), sometimes of different objects (middle panel and seeing overlap considerably. First, when neu-
of Figure 9.7). The subjects quite accurately indi- ral activity is monitored after subjects have been
cated whether or not the drawings were of the same instructed to imagine an activity such as taking a
object. More importantly for present purposes, the walk through the neighborhood,62 various meas-
time they required to make the judgment increased urements63 indicate that similar brain regions are
with the angle through which real objects of that involved in imagining the activity and engaging in
shape would have to be rotated to view them both the activity. These regions include sensory associa-
from the same vantage point! That is, the time tion areas and extend to motor association areas.64
varied in much the same fashion as if the subject The second line of evidence comes from behav-
had made the judgment by rotating one object in ioral observations of persons who have damage in
her hand until it corresponded visually to the other FIGURE 9.8 A sketch of a clock face by a person
brain regions known to be involved in seeing. In with damage to the right visual association cbrtex
object. As shown in the lower panel of Figure 9.7,
general, if the damage affects seeing, it also affects Note that the right half of the clock face is somewhat
the greater the degree of rotation necessary, the
visual imagining, or visualizing—and in similar larger than- the left half and that the numerals are gener-
more time it, took to make the response. Note also ally confined to the right half of the clock face. Light
ways. For example, because of the neuroanatomi-
that the time it took to judge the drawings was quite reflected from the left half of the clock face normally
cal relation between the two halves of each retina
long compared with the time it takes to obtain activates neurons in the damaged right parietal cortex
and the visual cortex, damage to the visual associa-
priming with meaningful verbal stimuli—over and, consequently, is "neglected."
1,000 ms when the drawings were made from the tion area of the right visual cortex selectively im- Source: From findings of \Kapl an, E., & Veils, D. C. The
same vantage point, and over 4,000 ms when they pairs seeing the visual world to the left of the neuropsychology of 10 after 11. Paper presented at the
fixation point. (Refer back to Figure 7.2 if you International Neurological '-Society Meeting, Mexico City,
were 180° different.60 0 20 60 100 140 180 1983.
need to refresh your memory of the anatomy of the
Angle of Rotation (degrees)
visual system.) Persons who have suffered damage
FIGURE 9.7 Pairs of drawings that are or are not to the right visual association area—and, hence, to
renderings of the same object drawn from different the polysensory neurons located in that region—
vantage points cannot respond appropriately to the visual world to
The upper panel contains pairs of drawings of the the right side of faces, and eat food from only
The interpretation of imagining using only behav- the left of the point in space toward which their the right, side of their plates! Only by reinforcing
object. The middle panel contains pairs of drawings that
data is dangerous business. To begin with, on. are not of the same object. The lower panel depicts the gaze is directed. The activation pattern that would glancing toward the left—thereby allowing the
the behavioral level no independent evidence can effect on the latency of the response indicating that the normally be initiated by stimuli to the left of the patient to sense stimuli farther to the left—can we
confirm that the subject is "having an image;" only drawings were of the same object as a function of the fixation point does not emerge, so the motor.com- partially overcome these deficits.
the experimenter's instruction to form an image number of degrees by which the vantage points differed ponents of the activation pattern cannot occur, A Damage to the right visual association areas
and the subject's verbal response that an image has or, equivalently, the number of degrees by which one drawing of a clock face by a person with damage.
object would have to be rotated to make the renderings
affects not only seeing the left visual world, but
formed can be observed.61 Imagining is a biobe- to the right visual association area is shown in imagining that part of the world as well. Persons
identical. Figure 9.8. Note the omissions from the left side
havioral process observable—if at all with present Source: Adapted from Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). with this damage not only fail to describe the left
technology—largely on the neural level. Observa- Mental rotation and three-dimensional objects. Science, 153, of the drawing. Persons with these deficits do such visual world, they act as if it did not exist—and, for
tions at the behavioral level provide only intermit- 642-654. Copyright 1971 by the A A AS. remarkable things as shave or put makeup on only them, it does not,65 For example, a man with dam-
9
• of the
to the not say "ball" it is. we say to polysensory are strengthened.

to describe the buildings surrounding a plaza in a the child is aware of the ball. Thus involved in the integration of visual and auditory
Recall also that there'are extensive connections activity are especially important for the perception
city that was well known to him. When he imag- to environment-behavior relations in which the between the right and left halves, or hemispheres, of speech. These polysensory neurons provide in-
ined looking in a southerly direction, he described guided behavior includes verbal behavior.70 How-
of the brain by means of several fiber tracts—most puts to the hippocampus, and then receive back
only the buildings on the western side of the plaza ever, since the environment began guiding vocal
notably the corpus callosum. from the hippocampus a diffuse projection that is
(i.e., those to the right of his imagined line of sight). responses and other verbal behavior late in the
This was not because he lacked knowledge of the evolutionary history of our species, verbal behav- The brain regions that play" an especially impor- postulated-to strengthen-connections to recently
buildings on the eastern side of the plaza since, ior is likely to be an expression of the same basic tant role in perceiving and producing speech are activated polysensory neurons. In the motor por-
when he imagined looking in a northerly direction, biobehavioral processes that affect other re- located—for most persons—in the cortex of the tion of the cortex, subregions of the motor associa-
he described only the buildings on the eastern side sponses. left hemisphere. In the sensory areas of the cortex, tion cortex and motor cortex control muscles
of the plaza!66 The occurrence of priming without awareness the regions receiving visual and auditory inputs are whose coordinated action produces verbal behav-
of the priming stimulus indicates that, to affect located in the occipital lobe and temporal lobe, ior—vocal speech and writing. The motor regions
behavior, stimuli need not generate activation pat- respectively. (See Figure 9.9.) Between these two for verbal behavior are located in the frontal lobe
Interpretation of terns that include motor components concerned -regions, and bounded by the parietal lobe that of the left hemisphere ,73
with speech. The implementation of environment- receives inputs from senses such as touch, is the We now examine the effects of two types of
The major conclusion from research on both the
behavior relations does not require verbal behav- sensory association '"cortex. The polysensory neu-
behavioral and neural levels is that many of the brain damage on the functioning of the verbal
ior. Moreover, other research indicates that rons of the sensory', association cortex that are
same variables affect imagining and perceiving in system—damage to the corpus callosum that con-
environment-behavior relations can also be ac-
much the same way. The interpretation of imagin-
quired without awareness.71 Nevertheless, because
ing does not appear to require the postulation of
verbal behavior rightly occupies an important
any biobehavioral processes that are unique to
place in the interpretation of human behavior, we
imagining.67 Returning to the earlier illustration,
devote special attention to activation patterns that parietal Lobe
we may anticipate that imagining the windows in
behavior.
a house would reflect the specific selection history Frontal Lobe
of seeing those windows. If you. have walked
Wernicke's Area
around a house by daylight and it is not obscured
by trees, you will count the windows by imagining Neuroanatomical Basis of
the outside of the house. However, if you have Verbal Behavior
visited the house only at night or it is obscured by Visual
Although techniques such as PET permit indirect
trees, you might imagine the interior of each room Stimuli
measurements of neural activity correlated with
and count the windows as you walk through the
perceiving and producing speech, studies of the
house. The activation patterns involved in imagin-
effects of brain damage on verbal behavior provide
ing, just as those involved in other environment-
the richest source of information. Before consider-
behavior relations, have both sensory motor
ing these effects, let us review some relevant be-
subcomponents. Gibson's
havioral and neuroanatomical findings. The
by which the observer is said to perceive
stimuli entering into verbal environment-behavior Occipital Lobe
the behavior that the stimulus affords as well as its
relations often activate more than one sensory
sensory aspects, foreshadows the present interpre-
channel. For example, a visual stimulus, such as an To Vocal Responses
of perceiving.68
object or printed word, is often accompanied by an
auditory stimulus that is the "name" of that object
AWARENESS or word. In general, because verbal behavior often
involves polysensory integration,72 the hippocam-
As indicated earlier, when a person makes verbal Auditory Stimuli Temporal Lobe
pus plays an important role here. You will recall
responses with respect to a stimulus, the person is that a diffusely projected neuromodulatory signal
said to be aware of the stimulus.69 For instance, if from the hippocampus to polysensory association 93 Cortical regions in the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that play important roles in
a child says "ball" when a ball is present, and does cortex was proposed as the means by which con- mediating environment-behavior and environment-environment relations involved in verbal behavior
Second, pathways communicating between the involving or the lesion. For example, if they are ior guided by the- conjunction of stimuli required
sensory association cortex and the motor of cerebral hemorrhage (stroke). Interpreting lesions to a stranger and explicitly asked to •to specify location are also impaired by damage to
the frontal cortex may be damaged. If the pathways of such origins is often difficult because other remember his name, they cannot do so even a few the hippocampal-cortical system. Spatial deficits
from the sensory areas to the frontal cortex are structures or pathways are often damaged, and the minutes later. This occurs even though they clearly have been reported in both humans84 and mon-
damaged (see line B in Figure 9,10), then output effects of this damage produce variation from case understood the name, since they were able to repeat keys.85 In contrast, environment-behavior rela-
from the sensory cortex cannot activate the motor to case. In spite of this, the accumulation of obser- it immediately after hearing it.81 Laboratory stud- tions not requiring new polysensory integrations
components mediating verbal behavior. If the re- vations from diverse human cases, together with ies confirm these clinical observations. When per- are readily acquired. Learning occurs for percep-
current pathways to the sensory association cortex the development of model preparations with mon- sons with hippocampal damage are presented with tual-motor skills, such as hand-eye coordination,86
from the frontal cortex are damaged (see line C in keys and with rats, to a lesser extent,79 now yields new sentences or pictures to remember—both of for reading worcis reflected in a mirror,87 for clas-
Figure 9.10), then the sensory cortex would be a consistent picture. which require new polysensory integrations—their sically conditioned eyelid responses,88 and for
deprived of reafferent stimulation from motor Perhaps the clearest evidence of the effects of verbal retention-falls to very low levels within only emotional responses to .pictures.89 In all of these
components mediating verbal relations.76 hippocampal lesions on awareness comes from a a few minutes.82 cases, the subjects learn the new environment-be-
Damage to the pathways indicated in Figure patient who suffered brain damage due to oxygen Although performance is deficient on tasks re- havior relations without any verbal "memory" that
9.10 impairs the selection and/or maintenance of deprivation during open heart surgery ,8^ Extensive quiring new polysensory integrations, perform- they have ever encountered either the stimuli or
verbal environment-behavior relations. When the behavioral testing was conducted in the months ance making us»e o.f existing polysensory procedures before. For example, subjects that
environment can no longer evoke verbal behavior following surgery and, at the patient's request, the integrations endures. For patients with hippocam- learned to read words reflected in a mirror im-
with respect to past stimuli, a "memory" impair- precise location of the damage was determined pal amnesia, when;, num is- used as the priming proved from session to session; but began, each
ment known as amnesia occurs. Here, we consider after his death. The damage was found to be con- stimulus for the target stimulus number, the nam- session'claiming that they had no prior experience
only the form of amnesia produced by interruption fined almost exclusively to the CA1 neurons of the ing response "number" is primed. However, when with the task.90
of pathways communicating between the sensory hippocampus, the origin of the pathways that dif- the target response is a novel word such as numdy, In summary,, research on hippocampal amnesia
association cortex and hippocampus, i.e., hippo- fusely project from the hippocampus to the priming does not occur!83 Clinical observations provides additional evidence that the activation
amnesia.77 - polysensory association cortex. Thus the. lesion reveal a similar result. Verbal "memory" for events patterns initiated "by stimuli not include com-
interrupted communication between the sensory before the damage remains relatively intact (i.e., ponents th'at mediate verbal behavior for old envi-
Hippocampal amnesia. Connections to poly- association areas and the hippocampus, and little there is minimal retrograde amnesia), but ronment-behavior relations to be carried out or for
sensory neurons in sensory association cortex are else. The general outcome of behavioral testing "memories" for events occurring after the damage new relations to "be'acquired. However, relations
held to be strengthened by diffuse iieuromodula- with this patient, and others with functionally simi- are not formed (i.e., there is anterograde amne- requiring new polysensory integration by units in
tory feedback from the hippocampus. If this feed- lar lesions, is that new environment-environment sia). A particularly poignant example of this phe- the sensory association cortex—including those
back is interrupted, further changes in the synaptic relations—and, hence, the environment-behavior nomenon occurred recently when a professor of required for verbal Behavior—depend on intact
efficacies between neurons in primary sensory ar- relations dependent on the selection of those envi- physics suffered hippocampal damage after eating pathways interconnecting the hippocampus and
eas and polysensory neurons are prevented. (See ronment-environment relations—cannot be ac- shellfish containing a toxin produced by algae that sensory association cortex.91 A final caution must
the interruption indicated by line A in quired. Thus, guidance of verbal responses and shellfish had consumed. The professor can still be repeated, however: Behavioral observations by
9.10.) If connections to polysensory neurons can other expressions of polysensory integration are teach physics (these "memories" were formed be- themselves do not sufficiently constrain inferences
no longer be modified, tfien environment-environ- severely impaired. Although new verbal relations fore the damage), but lie cannot remember teaching about the underlying neural processes. Polysen-
environment-behavior relations depend- no longer be selected, those selected before the the class after it is over! At the end of every day, sory integrations, and the proposed role of the
o,n the strengthening of new polysensory damage remain essentially intact. (See endnote 78 he is plagued by the thought that'he has not accom- hippocampus in bringing them about, require ad-
connections cannot be selected. However, pre- for additional information on the occurrence of plished anything, because he cannot verbally re- ditional analysis on the neuroanatomical and cel-
viously selected relations requiring polysensory retrograde with hippocampal damage.) member anything. He keeps a notebook in which lular levels. The interpretation of verbal behavior
endure. the required connec- Finally, new environment-behavior relations not he writes all he has done and all he needs to do each presents particularly formidable obstacles to ex-
tions in sensory cortex have already requiring new polysensory integrations can still be day, but reading a notebook is not the same as perimental analysis, since verbal behavior is con-
been selected.78 acquired, remembering the past and anticipating the future ventionally present only in humans—and our
Pathways between the sensory association cor- Among the observations that support the fore- by means of the vast "notebook" of the human ability to experimentally analyze polysensory inte-
tex and the hippocampus are never intentionally going conclusions are these: As measured by their brain. grations in our own species is severely limited.
interrupted in humans, of course. However, such verbal behavior, patients with interruptions in the Behavioral deficits produced by failures in The findings described in this chapter further
damage has occurred either through misadventure pathways between the sensory association cortex polysensory integration also appear with relations ••encourage the belief that even extremely complex
during surgery or, more commonly, through acci- and the hippocampus cannot recall events that have other than those involving verbal behavior. Behav- behavior is not beyond the interpretive power of
258 9
the to the e.g., key case, was briefly visually pre- are never for a stimulus be recruited if lesions interrupt pathways in-
pathways connect within the. left hemi- sented while the subject's eyes were fixated on the to guide behavior. In general, whether verbal com- terconnect "verbal" regions with other regions.
sphere. space between the two parts of the compound ponents play a role in activating other components Figure 9.10 depicts two types of pathways that
word. Under these conditions, the right half of each depends on the specifics of the learner's selection carry information relevant to verbal environment-
retina "sees" only the word to the left of the fixation history.
Effects of to the Corpus point—key. Most importantly, stimuli confined to behavior relations. First, pathways communicating
Callosum the right half of each retina activate neurons in only between the sensory association cortex and the
the right visual cortex. As a result, subjects report hippocampus may be damaged. (See line A in
Effects of Damage to Intrahemispheric
Because the corpus callosum is the major tract no awareness that any visual stimulus has been Pathways Figure 9.10.) This interruption prevents further
connecting the left and right hemispheres, damage presented to the left of the fixation point—let alone strengthening of connections to polysensory units
to this structure allows us to observe the function- the word key. The word case, which activates the If a stimulus generates an activation pattern in the that are important for the mediation of verbal and'
ing of each hemisphere relatively independently of left hemisphere, verbal components may still not other polysensory relations.
left visual cortex, is the only word they name.
the influence of the other hemisphere. In nonhu-
Clearly, visual stimuli that generate activation
man animals, damage to the corpus callosum can
patterns in only the right hemisphere do not guide
be produced experimentally.74 However, for obvi-
verbal responses. But can such stimuli guide other Motor
ous reasons, such damage occurs in humans only
accidentally or in the course of treating certain responses without awareness? To answer this ques- Association
tion, a response system was used that—unlike the Cortex Sensqry
illnesses in medical patients. Those very few pa- Association
tients who have had the corpus callosum surgically vocal system—could be activated by neurons in the Cortex
interrupted have all suffered from rare forms of right visual cortex. Since movements of the left
epileptic seizures that could not be controlled by arm and hand are controlled by motor components
drugs. Seizure activity would begin in one herni- in the right frontal lobe, and since pathways con-
sphere and then propagate through the corpus cal- necting right sensory areas to right motor areas
losum to the other hemisphere, disrupting the were intact, movements of the right arm were used.
• functioning of large portions of the brain. Because Now, when key case was flashed, the subjects were Hippocampus
such seizures prevent the person from living a instructed to search behind a screen with the left
productive life—and produce severe neurological hand and select—by touch alone—the object
impairment if permitted to continue—the corpus named by the visual stimulus. With this procedure,
callosum was severed. although the subjects did not report seeing the
How should interrupting the corpus callosum word, they were able to pick out a key with the left
affect verbal behavior? Because of the special role hand! However, they could not report the name of
of the left hemisphere in mediating verbal behav- the object they out. The stimulus
ior, sensory input to the left hemisphere will con- key initiated an activation pattern that mediated the
tinue to initiate activation patterns that mediate manual response, even though the lesion to the
verbal behavior. However, sensory input confined corpus callosum prevented generation of a motor
to the right hemisphere will not. be able to evoke component for a vocal response.75
verbal behavior, because the pathways to the left Thus, in at least some instances, responding
hemisphere through the corpus callosum are no does not require mediation by verbal processes,
longer functional. Disrupting the corpus callosum. Speaking nontechnically, the environment does
enables us to study the ability of the right half of not first "give us an idea," which then causes the
the brain to mediate environment-behavior rela- action. Persons in whom the corpus callosum has
tions without awareness. been interrupted have no "idea"—i.e., no aware- FIGURE 9.10 Critical points of interruption of cortical pathways involved in selecting and mediating
ness of the stimulus—but can sometimes respond polysensory integrations
To assess the capabilities of the right hemi-
sphere, a procedure originally devised to study the appropriately nevertheless. However, it would be Interruptions at A prevent neural activity occurring in the sensory association cortex and hippocampus from affecting
one another. Interruptions at B prevent polysensory integrations from being communicated to motor association areas
effects of callosal damage in animals was modified too much to conclude from this research and from
and. hence, from guiding behavior, interruptions at C prevent the reafference of sensory association cortex by activity
for humans. In one such experiment, a verbal priming experiments that verbal components of in motor association cortex.
9 Functioning of the Experienced Learner
the in from the everyday vocabulary denotes "the

environment-environment and environment-be- parietal lobe - damage has .occurred to the pathways com- process of knowing," where knowing refers to "under-
havior relations mediated by the human brain do frontal lobe municating between the hippocampus and sensory standing gained by actual experience" (Merriarn-Web-
not appear to be driven exclusively or even primar- association cortex. ster). According to tfie dictionary definition, all products
amnesia
ily by verbal processes. As Marvin Minsky has put of selection would seem to qualify as cognitive proc-
hippocampal amnesia 8. Describe major features of hippocampal
it: "It is because our brains primarily exploit [neu- esses, since all environment-behavior and environment-
retrograde amnesia Indicate why selection by reinforcement environment relations may be said to contribute to
ral networks] that we possess such small degrees is impaired for some, contingencies following dam-
anterograde amnesia knowledge. For example, even a dog who salivates to a
of consciousness, in the sense that we have so little age to the hippocampal system and not for others. tone that has beeri paired with food may be said to
insight into the nature of our own conceptual ma- Illustrate your answer with examples and use tech- demonstrate a gain in its knowledge of the world. How-
chinery. What appear to us to be direct insights into nical terms, such as anterograde and retrograde ever, when used as a technical term within the inferred-
Text Questions
ourselves must be rarely genuine and usually con- amnesia. process approach, cognitive processes are unobservable
jectural. Reflective thought is the lesser part of 1. After reading the entire chapter, summarize in principle, not merely unobserved because of current
what our minds do."92 This conclusion offends the general outcome of the selection process on the technical limitations. Cognitive processes are inferred
belief in the rationality of our species—if such a functioning of the experienced learner. Describe Discussion Questions constructs constrained primarily by logical considera-
belief could survive Freud—and is contrary to the the outcome at both the behavioral and neural tions and, as such, cannot be the object of experimental
9. Describe an .everyday example of complex analysis since they are not events in the physical world.
verbal bias that pervades our culture. Nevertheless, levels.
behavior that illustrates how behavior may be in- Most inferred-process theories make no claim that the
the weight of experimental evidence and theoreti-
2. What is an activation patternl Include a de- fluenced by the biobehavioral processes studied in cognitive processes that they postulate can be coordi-
cal analysis points strongly in that direction.
scription of the development of both sensory and priming experiments'. \Vlake reference to the possi- nated with observations at the subbehavioral level. In-
motor components of the pattern and its function, ble contributions of internal reinforcement to the stead their goal is to develop an account that is sufficient
STUDY AIDS, using a specific example as an illustration. behavior. to accommodate all and only all of the observations
obtained at the behavioral level. Cognitive theories,
3. Describe the priming procedure, using tech- 10. How should ;,the relative dependence of com-
Technical Terms because of the complex relations that they attempt to
nical terms and a specific example in your answer. plex behavior on' environmental feedback re- typically postulate many inferred proc-
activation pattern Indicate how some results obtained with this pro- afference change with continued experience esses that interact in complex ways. John R, Anderson's
priming procedure cedure can be interpreted as the outcome of Inter- (exposure to the contingencies of behavioral selec- ACT* modeLCAnderson, J. R., 1983) and Allen Newell's
actions between activation patterns. Indicate the tion)? Why should this occur? What are the impli- SOAR model (Newell, Rosenbloom, & Laird, 1989) are
priming stimulus
possible contribution of inhibitory processes to cations of this change for the apparent lack of among the most highly developed theoretical treatments
target stimulus
these interactions. dependence of complex behavior on the environ- of this sort. In such models, a given complex behavior
target response ment of the moment? is said to be the result of the formation of extensive sets
4. Indicate why the activation patterns of mean-
prime of "condition-action-con^pquence" sequences. (The re-
ingless auditory stimuli, phonemes, and words are 11. Comment on our ability to use experimental
naming task semblance of this cognitive structure to Skinner's ideas
different in the experienced learner. Indicate why analysis to investigate verbal behavior. What are of three-term contingencies; and behavioral chaining is
textual response the at some of the implications of this state of affairs? apparent, except that—as inferred processes—the char-
cross-modal priming varies with the nature of the priming and target acteristics of these sequences are not constrained by
parallel processing ft stimuli, giving specific examples to illustrate your experimental analysis.) By the end of training, the com-
processing answer. puter program that implements the series of condition-
feed-forward network 5. Under what circumstances might de- 1. See Chapter 1; cf. Skinner, 1957; Smolensky, action-consequence sequences is able to produce an
recurrent connection 1986, pp. 422-424 output that corresponds to the complex behavior. For this
pend on the presence of recurrent
2. In the inferred-process approach, which is pur- reason, models of this sort are said to be production
reafference Illustrate your answer with a specific Use
sued by most workers in psychology, unobserved medi- systems, (For other examples of general cognitive mod-
masking stimulus the term reafference in your answer. ating processes are commonly called cognitive els, see Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984; Raaijmakers & Shif-
threshold of detectability 6. Indicate the major conclusions of research at processes. Cognitive processes are the functional coun- frin, 1980, 1981; Murdock, 1982, 1987: cf. Eicb, 1985.)
threshold of both the behavioral and neural levels for the inter- terpart of the subbehavioral processes considered in a Inferred-process models designed to accommodate
imagining pretation of'imagining. Refer to experimental find- biobehavioral approach. However, as noted in the first' complex behavior have sometimes been criticized be-
ings to support your answer. chapter, unlike biobehavioral processes, cognitive proc- cause they are so complex that they are often difficult to
affordance esses are inferences from behavioral observations and reject. (The ability of a theory to be falsified by experi-
hemispheres 7. Is awareness required for complex behavior? not the products of independent experimental analyses ment is one of the standard criteria by which scientific
occipital lobe Refer to specific information from studies in which at the subbehavioral level. The adjective cognitive is a theories are evaluated; Popper, 1978.) This criticism,
even if valid, misses the mark in our view. The primary 6. In the inferred-process approach, the construct of 16. You will recognize.this as another instance of the indicate—often by pressing one of two buttons—
goal of inferred -process theories is to generate input-out- working memory is most similar to the present notion of capability of a neural network to "construct" an output whether the target stimulus is a word or nonword; Meyer
put relations that mimic complex environment-behavior activation pattern, cf. J. R. Anderson, 1985, when presented with only part of the input with which it & Schvaneveldt, 1971. Although the lexical decision
relations observed in a wide variety of situations. The 7. cf. Goldiamond, 1962; Skinner, 1953,1945,1964. has been trained. task was the1 first priming procedure studied systemati-
sufficiency of the model to accomplish this task is its 8. In the inferred-process approach, a stimulus is said 17. The latency of a response is the time between the cally and has produced interesting findings, we shall
chief goal (Anderson, 1978, 1983). Direct testability of to evoke some representation of itself. To refer to the presentation of a stimulus and the occurrence of the generally not consider it further here since performance
the validity of the intervening processes and their corre- activation pattern as a representation is misleading. Ac- measured response to that stimulus. on this task is likely not to be the product of an extensive
spondence to processes within the organism are largely cording to the dictionary definition, a representation is 18. Although many different characteristics of behav- pre-experimental selection history.
beside the point. Our most fundamental reservation an entity such as "a picture or image" that "represents ioral responses have been used in an attempt to study the 24. Seidenberg, Tanenhaus, Leiman, & Bienkowski,
something else," where represent means "to serve as a effects of subbehavioral events, response latencies—and 1982.
about such models is not that they approach untestability
symbol of" or "to stand in the place of the entity the temporal characteristics of sequences of responses in 25. e.g., Meyer & Schvane-veldt, 1976; cf. Conrad,
at the level of the complete model—this is likely to be
(Meniam-Webster). But an activation pattern does not general—have been used most often. Efforts to use 1964; Onifer & Swinney, 1981.
an unavoidable characteristic of any comprehensive ef-
have the dimensions of a stimulus, and thus is unlike a temporal characteristics of behavior to indirectly assess 26. Frazier & Rayner, 1990; Rayner & Frazier, 1989.
fort to accommodate complex behavior—but that the picture or an image. In addition, the notion of repre-
intervening processes are not firmly grounded in inde- subbehavioral processes, or inferred processes in the 27. Balota & Lorch, 1986; cf. McNamara & Healy,
sentation does not include the motor component of the case of cognitive theories, may be traced to the begin- 1988.
pendent experimental analyses at the behavioral and activation pattern. Finally, and most fundamentally, rep- ning of scientific psychology with Donder's subtraction 28. Frazier & Rayner, 1990.
subbehavioral levels of analysis. If experimental analy- resentation is too static a conception. The same stimulus method. For modern evaluations of such methods, and '29. See Simpson, 1984 and Carr, 1986 for reviews; cf.
ses of the intervening processes are possible—and this may evoke somewhat different activation patterns at of the many difficulties associated with them, see Town- Kintsch & Mross, 1985.
can only occur if the intervening processes are physical different times and in different contexts. An activation send, 1972; Townsend & Evans, 1983 and Luce, 1991. 30. e.g., Onifer & Swinney, 1981!
processes, and not just logical inferences—then the fal- pattern specifies a variable but distinctive pattern of 19. e.g., Jacoby & Ifeyman, 1987. 31. Bowles & Poon, 1985; cf. Henik, Friedrich, &
sifiability criterion can be met. In that way, interpreta- neural activity—a probabilistic ensemble of unit activity 20. e.g., Nelson & Rothbart, 1972. Kellogg, 1983; Neely, 1977.
tions of complex behavior may be evaluated through and not a "thing." 21. For other examples of the ways in which retention 32. cf. McClelland & Elman, 1986.
means other than the sufficiency of the complete model. 9. On this account, the contribution of neurons in may be affected by various characteristics of stimuli, see 33. In the priming Literature, this interval is usually
3. The present description of the selection of rela- subcortical structures to an activation pattern is not D'Agostino, O'Neill, & Paivio, 1977; Durso & Johnson, called the Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA) interval.
tions on the behavioral level, and the neural mechanisms explicitly considered. The basic thrust of the present 1980; Morton, 1980. For •summaries of work of this sort, We shall refer to it Dimply as the interstimul us interval.
that mediate them, is stated in a declarative form to account is not changed by their inclusion, however. see Ashcraft, 1989; Donahoe & Wessells, 1980 and 34. cf. Posner & Snyder, 1975.
simplify the exposition. Of course—as indicated at nu- 10. Hubel & Livingstone, 1987; Ungerleider & Glass & Holyoak, 1986. 35. cf. Freedman&Loftus, 1971; Neely, 1977; Posner
merous points when these proposals were first intro- Mishkin, 1982. 22. The present interpretation of priming in terms of & Snyder, 1975; Rateliff & McKoon, 19.88.
duced^—much experimental analysis and scientific 11. The PET-scan procedure has been employed to overlapping activation patterns can be contrasted with 36. cf. Graf, Shrmamura, & Squire, 1985.
interpretation remain before the account may be ac- depict differential neural activity in the brains of both the account of priming in inferred-process or cognitive 37. Jacoby & Witherspoon, 1982.
cepted with even the usual tentativeness that accompa- animals (e.g., Petersen, Robinson, & Keys, 1985) and approaches. In inferred-process approaches, studies that 38. Tulving & Schapter, 1990, p. 302.
nies all conclusions in science. humans, using stimulation with simple visual stimuli document the characteristics of stimuli that affect reten- 39. On the behaviorailevel, we noted in Chapter 3 that
4. e.g., Yuste, Peinado, & Katz, 1992. The selection (e.g., Fox, Mintun, Raichle, & Miezin, 1986) and with tion are usually discussed under the heading of encoding. responses are most commonly guided by multiple dis-
of neural connections in motor systems, where activity- verbal stimuli (e.g., Petersen, Fox, Snyder, & Raichle, That term is not used here, both because it emphasizes criminative stimuli. The'-, importance of this factor in
dependent mechanisms are also very much in evidence, 1990), the stimulus to the relative exclusion of the responses interpreting complex behavior was explicitly recognized
12. Fuster, 1989, guided by the stimulus and because it implies—by the by B, F. Skinner in Verbal behavior (1957), in a chapter
is beyond the scope of this |>ook. Their inclusion would
13. For overviews of this work, see Montgomery, introduction of a new technical term—that encoding entitled "Multiple Causation." In the technical literature
not undermine the present treatment but importantly
1991; Posner, Petersen, Fox, & Raichle, 1988. processes differ from those biobehavioral processes al- of adaptive networks, this factor has more recently been
supplement it; cf. Gallistel, 1990; Rosenbaum, 1991. 14. cf. Swindale, 1979.
5. The coordinated diffusely projecting neuromodu- ready identified through studies of stimulus discrimina- recognized by noting that the strength "of connections
15. Within the inferred-process approach, some treat- tion and response differentiation. The. biobehavioral must satisfy simultaneous constraints, cf. McClelland,
latory systems proposed to strengthen connections ments of inhibition can be made commensurate with the
throughout the sensory and motor association cortices approach views stimuli and responses as scientifically Rumelhart, & Hinton, 1986.
present analysis, e.g.,Roediger,Neely, &Blaxton, 1983; meaningless apart from the environment-behavior rela- 40. This is an example of remembering rather than
address what has been called the binding problem in Roediger & Neely, 1982; Rumelhart & Zipser, 1986; tions in which they participate, and seeks to interpret reminding as that distinction was introduced in Chapter
adaptive-network research (e.g., Sejnowski, 1986). whereas others appear to be concerned with quite differ- verbal behavior according to the same types of processes 8, and is discussed in Chapter 12. We regret continued
Among the pathways that are active in the neural net- ent processes; e.g., Dagenbach, Carr, & Earnhardt, involved in the interpretation of other environment-en- references to topics not yet discussed, but postponing
work immediately before the reinforcer must necessarily 1990. If the term inhibition is used to refer to a decrease vironment and environment-behavior relations. some topics is unavoidable. The organism functions
be those responsible for mediating the reinforced input- in performance independent of the processes that pro- 23. One commonly used priming technique, a lexical simultaneously as a cohesive whole, but our descriptions
output relation. The proposed mechanism selects all duce that decrease, then the term is being used in a decision task, presents a word as a priming stimulus and of that functioning rflust necessarily be sequential.
such connections throughout the entire network, and theoretically incoherent fashion; cf. Donahoe & Palmer, a group of letters as a target stimulus. Some letter groups 41. Shank & Abelson, 1977; cf. Smith & Graesser,
thereby binds together the required pathways. 1988. form words, others do not. The subject's task is to 1981; Bower & Morrow, 1990.
266 9 Functioning of the Experienced Learner 267
42. Rumelhart, Smolensky, McClelland, & Hinton, 55. e.g., Potter, 1975. vices. For another, the electrical changes produced by system. When in this nontechnical sense, to say
1986, pp. 20-21. 56. Note that, according to this definition, imagining neural activity in a brain, region may be detected by an organism is aware of a stimulus is simply to say
43. cf. Foss, 1988; McKoon & Ratcliff, 1980; Roedl- involves largely similar biobehavioral processes to those electrodes placed on the scalp. Or, the rate of metabolism the stimulus is a discriminative stimulus. Here, aware-
ger & Challis, 1989; McDaniel & Masson, 1985. evoked by the customary environmental stimuli that of the fuel used by nerve cells—glucose—can be meas- ness is restricted to the guidance of verbal behavior by
44. Crick & Asanuma, 1986. guide the perceptual responses. However, instead of ured by PET-scans, and so on. See Farah, 1985, 1988, a stimulus.
45. e.g., Fuster, 1989. perceptual responses being initiated by the direct action 1989 for reviews of this research. Of course, such meas- 70. There is a related technical term, self-awareness,
46. There are potentially important differences be- of the environment, these responses are now instigated ures provide very gross indications of the activity of the in which the stimuli that guide verbal responses are not
tween the effects of afference and reafference on selec- by the effect on sensory association areas of neural single units that make up activation patterns. There is, as found in the environment but within the organism; cf.
tion. For example, if reafference produces more rapid activity arising in motor association areas. As interpreted yet, no technique for measuring single-unit activity in Skinner, 1945, 1964, We postpone an interpretation of
changes in earlier components of the neural network by selection networks, imagining consists of activation conscious humans except briefly during brain surgery self-awareness until the chapter on remembering.
than does behaviorally mediated afference and if the patterns with particularly rich participation of the stimu- conducted to alleviate a pathological condition, but for 71. e.g., Hefferline& Bruno, 1971;Rosenfeld&Baer,
reinforced behavioral response thereby occurs more rap- 1 us-selection component through the action of recurrent related work with animals see Georgopoulos, Lurito, 1970. See Donahoe <& Wessells, 1980 for a discussion
idly, then connections mediating reafference will be connections from the response-selection component. Petrides, Schwartz, & Massey, 1989. of some of the conceptual difficulties confronted by this
more immediately (and hence more strongly) strength- 57. For a summary of early work on behavioral ac- 64. e.g., Farah, Peronnet, Gonon, & Giard, 1988; cf. research area.
ened than connections involved in the less rapid behav- companiments of imagining and thinking, see Hum- Teuber, 1963. 72. cf. Geschwind, 1972.
ioral mediation. When temporal factors favor the phrey, 1951. Much of this work was earned out as a part 65. e.g., Sacks, 1987. 73. Additional information concerning the neural
selection of reafferent inputs to interior units over inputs of what was called the "motor theory of thinking." 66. Bisiach & Luzzatti, 1978; cf. Bisiach, Luzzatti, & mechanisms involved in perceiving and producing
to output units, covert rather than behaviorally expressed Modern behavioral research regards the overt motor Perani 1979. For general reviews, see Brown, 1988; speech is given in Chapter 11 in which verbal behavior
processes may be preferentially selected. This possibil- accompaniments of imagining and thinking as incom- Friedman & Weinstein, 1977; Heilman & Valenstein, is more fully discussed. The right hemisphere also makes
ity has important consequences for the interpretation of plete and nonessential components of these responses; 1979: and Stiles-Davis, 'Klritchevsky, & Bellugi, 1987. important contributions—-for example, to the stress pat-
such complex behavior as problem solving, but its fur- but see McGuigan, 1978. For information regarding the effects of this type of brain terns, or prosody, of vocal speech. Although there are
ther consideration is deferred until the next chapter. 58. Segal & Fusella, 1970; see Logic & Baddeley, damage on perceiving faces, see Bruyer, 1986. brain regions that play a special role in verbal behavior,
47. cf. Freedman & Loftus, 1971. 1990 for a review. 67. See Haber, 1983 for a critique of alternative views; it should be clear that the brain functions as a richly
48. Neely, 1977; cf. Ratcliff & McKoon, 1988. 59. Shepard & Metzler, 1971; Cooper & Shepard, cf. Parsons, 1987. interconnected whole and that, altough the effects of
49. cf. Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977. 1973. 68. Gibson, 1979. As one type of evidence implicating specific regions may be especially apparent for certain
50. In the inferred-process literature, fast-occurring 60. The activation patterns required for imagining motor components in imagining, sighted subjects who functions, many regions contribute importantly to most
effects are commonly described as automatic processing take considerable time to develop and are affected in have learned the locations of objects by looking around environment-behavior relations.
whereas slower-occurring effects are described as stra- similar ways by the variables that affect seeing. In gen- an environment, blind subjects who have learned the 74. Animal research on the effects of the corpus cal-
tegic processing. From the biobehavioral perspective, it eral, the long latencies of responding are probably due locations of objects by moving around the environment, losum on brain function was undertaken by Roger
is not helpful to conceive of effects as differing along a to the need for a number of cycles of reafference of the and blindfolded sighted subjects who have learned the Sperry, 1968, 1974, for ^hich he shared a Nobel Prize.
dimension of automaticity. One effect is as automatic (or sensory association cortex by feedback from motor com- locations of objects in a miniature environment by hand 75. For reports of other findings, see Gazzaniga,
as nonautomatic) as another. Effects that require differ- ponents of the activation pattern involved in the imag- movements all show similar behavioral effects when 1970; LeDoux, 1978; Spefay, 1974,
ent times for their occurrences are simply produced by ined rotation of the objects; cf. Moyer, 1973; Kosslyn & imagining these environments. For instance, when sub- 76. See Horei, 1976; Mishkin, 1978.
different combinations of the same fundamental proc- Pomerantz, 1977; Kosslyn, 1983. jects are asked to imagine an object located in one part 77. Amnesia produced b)7 a combination of damage
esses expressed in different ways. 61. Not unexpectedly, since verbal responses are not of the environment and then to imagine another object to the sensory-hippocampal pathways and pathways to
51. Balota. 1983; Marcel, l|983a. b. necessarily correlated with the covert activity of imag- at another location, the time before they report imagining and from the sensory and frontal cortices has more
52. Carr & Daggenbach, 1990. ining, there have been difficulties in replicating some the new object increases as a function of the distance complex behavioral consequences. The clinical syn-
53. For some subjects, the duration at which a stimu- behavioral research on imagining; e.g., Broerse & Crass- between the two objects. Whether the environment has drome that approximates this condition is Korsakoff s
lus exceeded the detectability threshold was greater than inL 1984: Intons-Peterson, 1983, A related problem been sensed through eye movements, leg movements, or amnesia. This type of amnesia is most commonly pro-
the duration of the semantic threshold for other subjects. plagued an earlier period in psychology when the issue finger movements, the greater the distance-between ob- duced by prolonged excessive in gestion of alcohol (etha-
These large individual differences between subjects in- was whether thinking was necessarily accompanied by jects in space the greater the movement—and, therefore, nol), in conjunction with a thiamine vitamin deficiency.
dicate once again the importance of research methods images; see Boring, 1950 for a discussion of the work of the time—between imagining objects in different loca- For general reviews of amnesia, see Cermak, 1982;
that permit the study of biobehavioral processes with the Wurzburg school. tions; e.g., Carpenter & Eisenberg, 1978; Marmor & Squire & Cohen, 1984.
single subjects. Different subjects have such different 62. Roland & Friberg, 1985. Zaback, 1976; Zimler & Keenan, 1983. 78. This presentation assumes that damage has oc-
selection histories that averaging results across subjects 63. A number of different procedures can be used to 69. Since awareness is a term from the everyday vo- curred to the hippocampal systems of both hemispheres.
often obscures rather clarifies our understanding of determine the general level of activity in various brain cabulary, it is commonly used in nontechnical senses as " - If damage is only unilateral, even if in the left hemi-
those processes. regions in fully conscious human subjects. For example, well. Often, an organism is said to be aware of any sphere, then environment-behavior relations requiring
54. Schacter, Cooper, Delaney, Peterson, & Tharan, radio-opaque dyes and weakly radioactive materials can stimulus to which it responds by means of any response new polysensory integrations—including those mediat-
1991; cf. Dagenbach, Carr, & Earnhardt, 1990, Experi- be injected into the bloodstream and their concentrations
ment 2. determined in different brain regions by external de-
9 Functioning of the
verbal behavior—can be maintained through path- to CA1 cell the 89. & Damaisio,, deficit appears to be a general failure of polysensory
ways interconnecting the two hemispheres via the cor- context in which the conjunction occurs. Once the intra- 90. For other examples, see El-Wakil, 1975. integration of which the verbal deficits are but one
pus callosum. hippocampal polysensory connections to CA1 are 91. Some classify tasks that require polysensory inte- manifestation among many (e.g., spatial deficits),, we
Quite general agreement exists that the hippocampus strengthened, then any subsequent activity of a polysen- gration and those that do not as instances of declarative prefer to describe the deficit as a failure of polysensory
is necessary for modifying synaptic efficacies in sory cell in sensory association cortex that has inputs memory and procedural memory (or simply nondecla- integration.
polysensory association cortex, although complex inter- from A and/or B stimuli has the potential to further rative memory), respectively; e.g., Squire, 1992. Since 92. Minsky & Papert, 1988.
connections of the hippocampus with other brain regions strengthen its cortical connections through the action of the term declarative connotes verbal behavior, but the
implicate contributions of these structures as well; cf. the hippocampus. In short, once hippocampal mecha-
Eichenbaum & Otto, 1992; Krieckhaus, Donahoe, & nisms are in place to strengthen connections to a given
Morgan, 1992; Milner, Corkin, & Teuber, 1968; Squire, polysensory cell in sensory association cortex, then
1992; Squire & Zola-Morgan, 1988; Squire, Shima- those mechanisms may continue to operate until the
mura, & Amarai, 1989; Sutherland & Rudy, 1989; cf. intrahippocampal connections to CA1 have been modi-
Squire, Cohen, & Nadel, 1984; Warrington & Weisk- fied by subsequent selection. This lingering effect of
rantz, 1982; Weiskrantz, 1988. A biological mechanism prior selection continues until subsequent experience
for implementing this function is what is contributed has altered the synaptic efficacies to CA1 cells because
here. of new reliable and reinforced conjunctions of sensory
Because lesions of the neural system interconnecting information. However, until the effects of prior experi-
the hippocampus with sensory association cortex pre- ence on the inputs to CA1 cells have been "overwritten,"
vent the formation of new polysensory integrations, sensory inputs that activate polysensory cells in associa-
experience following the lesion cannot select new tion cortex can continue to have a differential strength-
polysensory regularities (i.e., anterograde amnesia oc- ening effect on the synaptic efficacies of inputs to the
curs with respect to such regularities). However, this is polysensory cells, even if the sensory input is relatively
not the only effect of lesions to the hippocampal system. unrelated to that which produced the polysensoiy inte-
Such lesions can also impair the consolidation of gration in the first instance. In short, once connections
polysensory integrations selected in the period prior to to CA1 cells have been modified, these connections
the damage (a form of retrograde amnesia); Zola-Mor- enable later experiences to further strengthen, or consoli-
gan & Squire, 1990. Retrograde amnesia for recently date, the previously selected polysensory regularities.
selected regularities is consistent with the present ac- Then, if the hippocampal system is damaged, not only
count of the functioning of the hippocampal system. To anterograde amnesia should occur but also retrograde
illustrate, a given CA1 hippocampal cell—which cells amnesia for regularities selected before the damage—es-
give rise to the pathways that diffusely project to pecially those selected immediately prior to damage.
polysensory association cortex—has presynaptic inputs (For possible contributions of hippocampal damage to
carrying information from the polysensory cells that Alzheimer's disease, see Van Hoesen & Damaisio,
serve as inputs to the hippocampus. Assume that a given 1987.)
polysensory input to the hippocampus indicates the con- 79. Mishkin, 1982; Squire, 1992; Squire & Zola-Mor-
junction of two stimuli—e^g., A and B—and that their gan, 1983.
conjunction must be detected in order for behavior to be 80. Zola-Morgan, Squire, & Amarai,
appropriately guided under the prevailing contingencies 81. Milner, Corkin, & Teuber, 1968.
of reinforcement. For example, suppose that A and B are 82. e.g., Milner, 1972.
visual and auditory stimuli and that the task is configural 83. Diamond & Rozin, 1984; cf. Schacter, 1985; Shi-
conditioning (see Chapter 7). Through the mechanisms mamura & Squire, 1984. Priming, even of pictorial
described in the text, the diffuse output of an intact stimuli, is dependent upon the similarity of the target
hippocampus would differentially strengthen synaptic stimulus to previously experienced components and not
efficacies between cortical cells carrying A and B infor- merely of overlap in physical features, e.g., Biederman
mation and any polysensory cells on which they con- & Cooper, 1990.
verge in sensory association cortex. This effect is 84. Hirst &Volpe, 1984.
dependent, in turn, on the differential strengthening of 85. Parkinson, Murray, & Mishkin, 1988.
synaptic efficacies between polysensory inputs to CA1 86. Brooks & Baddeley, 1976; Milner, 1962.
cells within the hippocampus. For example, a given CA1 87. Cohen & Squire, 1980, 1981.
input might specify the conjunction of A and B and other 88. Weiskrantz & Warrington, 1979.
Problem Solving
CHAPTER 10 the of grip, to

Middle East, to determine once
to the
for all why
of a stimulus or an event do not, by
themselves, provide appropriate criteria for classi-
Kennedy was shot, to the role of the trouba- fication; we consider, as well, the organism
dour in Verdi's opera, and so on, We are not and its history relative' to the stimulus. Problem
PROBLEM SOLVING concerned here with problems for which we lack solving calls for a special analysis only when we
the strength, the ability, or the propitious circum- confine ourselves to behavior that has not already
for a solution, problems that are insoluble been reinforced in the presence of the problem as
to us regardless - of our efforts. Nor are we con- a stimulus.
No behavior seems to require more "higher mental No doubt we can explain mere computation and cerned here with global problems, however impor- In providing a behavioral account of problem
processes" than problem solving. We are delighted the following of prescribed rules by appealing to tant, that can be solved only by teams, groups, or solving it will be helpful to translate these criteria
when the family dog figures out how to open the the reinforcement principle, to contingencies ar- whole societies. A different level of analysis is into technical terms;
screen door, we are fascinated by chimpanzees that ranged, deliberately or not, by schools, parents, required for such problems.
have learned to use tools, and we are eager to be employers, siblings, and tutors. After all, a formula Second, we must somehow recognize that we 1. A target response, or set of responses, is in the
duped by showmen who demonstrate mathemati- is a discriminative stimulus, or a complex sequence are faced with a problem. We must know that some organism's repertoire and can be evoked by one or
cal genius in horses, goats, or pigs. It is not that we of discriminative stimuli, and following a formula behavior is required, and that it will pay off in some more stimulus conditions.
think these skills are commonplace; it is that we is typically reinforced by success of some sort.* way; that is, there must be some motivation for
Computation smacks of chains of responses 2. Discriminative stimuli are present indicating
want to believe that these animals, too, can think emitting the solution as such. A boy who finds his that the response is scheduled for reinforcement.
learned by rote. But can intuition, insight, and
and reason. We take problem solving to be the mother's earring while\digging for nightcrawlers
flashes of genius be explained without appealing 3. The current complex of discriminative 'Stimuli
surest sign of intelligence and the best tool for has solved a problem, but such accidents are of
to more complex and irreducible cognitive func- is not sufficient to evoke the response directly, or
evaluating it. little interest as examples, of problem solving.
tions? Let us see how far selectionist principles can stimuli are present that evoke prepotent competing
Part of the charm of problem-solving behavior take us, and what phenomena remain as an intrac- Often problems are presented by teachers, parents,
employers, or peers, and a'correct solution is fol- responses.
is its unpredictability. We revere Archimedes, table inexplicable residue.
Galileo, Newton not simply for their remark- lowed by a modicum of approval, recognition,
able accomplishments but for the poverty of their respect, or prestige. The of the problem For example, the response "67" is in our reper-
specifies that a solution is required, and past con- toire under the control of a variety of stimulus
tools. We are bombarded daily by the advances of "PROBLEM"
sequences usually insure that we will try to oblige. conditions. It is a response evoked by the written
modern science, by the announcement of new vac-
We must begin by defining what we mean by a For someone with a history of successfully solving or auditory stimuli "641 . . 65 ... 66 ..." (called
cines or the identification of a gene responsible,
problem and what it means to solve one. As a first such problems, the activity can be intrinsically an Intraverbai response in Skinner's classifica-
perhaps, for some congenital disorder, but we re- tion of verbal operants2); it is a response to the
serve our highest esteem not for the teams of sci- approximation, we note that we have a problem enjoyable, as legions of puzzle solvers will attest,
whenever an important consequence is contingent, and an extrinsic "payoff9 is unnecessary. In some printed stimulus "67" (a textual response); if we
entists with the latest tools of genetic engineering are repeating the words of''another, it is a response
at in part, on conditions that are not currently cases, a object is in sight, or an unpleasant
at their disposal, but for pioneers such as Jenner to the auditory stimulus "67" (an echoic response);
in effect. If we want a garden tractor, but have no is annoying us; we may spot a ten-dollar bill
Pasteur who toiled in tunexplored fields with-
money, we have a problem. If we want a job as an a sewer grate, or we -may have inadver- it is a response to "66 + l";; and so on. For most
proven procedures. Their dis- but botany, we a English-speaking adults the response is occasioned
tently our neighbor's burglar alarm when
coveries seem to have sprung from their genius problem. If we want an A on the botany exam, but by a very wide variety of stimuli or stimulus com-
we went to borrow a rake. Here, the payoff is
alone. Similarly, while we nod our approval to a. have not studied botany, we have a problem. But conspicuous and not socialfy mediated. plexes. In contrast, leaping a five-foot hurdle- or
who successfully solves a problem in ge- when we speak of problem solving, we typically uttering an echoic response to many foreign words
Finally, there must be some obstacle to our
ometry using principles that have been covered this are concerned with difficulties that we can over- are not responses in our current repertoire under
simply emitting the solution directly. A problem is any stimulus conditions.
week in school, we stand in awe of Euclid and other come through special efforts. The following crite- not a problem to us if we have encountered it before
ancients, who discovered the principles in the first ria define the domain of interest: and already know the solution. In everyday usage , If we are asked to name the smallest prime
place. The more a discover}7 seems to arise from First, the behavior which constitutes or brings we typically call something a problem if it has ' .
number that is greater than 61, the response "67"
insight rather from obedience to precedent, about a solution must be possible for us '(or for the is scheduled for reinforcement. The form and into-
formal properties. Math problems, word
the finer the example of problem solving, and the other organism of interest). No doubt we would nation of the utterance and the context in which it
problems, etc., are so called regardless of whether
more we are inclined to appeal to the operation of like to take back that embarrassing slip of the occurs identify it as a question and indicate that a
we have encountered them before. As we have had particular response (the target response) will be
higher mental powers. tongue, to turn a lump of coal into a diamond many occasions to remark, however,, the formal followed by reinforcement,3
270
272 10
Problem Solving 273

the its do
for solving such.problems. We by
not control the response directly, unless, of course, STIMULI physically manipulating the importance by simply disregarding conven-
we have heard the question before and have cor- tion. Suppose*- we choose to write our products to
There are many techniques by which we bring 362 the side, vertically, and not staggered:
rectly responded to it. When asked "What is nine
additional variables to bear on a problem. Often we 784
times seven?" most of us will promptly reply "63."
simply change our orientation. If we kneel down, 1 2 2
However, when asked for the smallest prime larger turn our head, cup our hands behind our ears, shade 362 4 8 5
The new arrangement is merely a convention,
than 61, few of us can reply immediately, though our eyes, or stand on our toes, we alter our contact but, depending on our'educational history, the ar- 784 4 9 3
if given a few minutes, we will come up with the with environmental stimuli. Simply turning one's rangement may be helpful or even necessary to 8 6 4
correct answer. It is not a matter of latency, with head alters control by countless visual stimuli and evoke the sequence of subsequent responses. We
the second response being more weakly evoked by perhaps auditory stimuli as well. Just as impor- still have no unitary response conditioned to this We now have to "think,'5 to struggle, to check
the question and hence having a longer latency; we tantly, it reduces or eliminates control by many particular stimulus configuration, but we have re- and recheck our work.
simply never have encountered the three-term con- other stimuli. Effective looking behavior can be sponses conditioned to components of the stimulus Unless we have independent corroboration of
tingency necessary to condition the response as a helpful in a wide variety of problems, from finding complex. We must execute them in a particular our work, we will not know if we have reached the
discriminated operant to the question. Uttering the a contact lens to spotting errors in a manuscript or order, however, an order we presumably learned in correct answer to an arithmetic problem. The an-
target response must be explained in other terms. a mathematical proof. grade school. We oriept, toward the 4, then the 2; swer only rarely has distinctive properties.4 Proce-
Similarly, if we want to get in out of the cold Sometimes we solve problems by physically the 4, then the 6; and so on. As we do so, we emit dural conventions provide us with a technique for
but have dropped the apartment key in the snow, manipulating environmental variables. We alpha- discriminated operants .Under the control of these identifying the answer as such; the answer is usu-
we "have a problem. .The act of unlocking the door, betize our papers or highlight important passages, stimuli: 'Tour times two\is eight; four times six is, ally set apart by a line, a division symbol, a square
we turn up the volume on the television or shut the twenty-four. . ." Each response provides stimula- root sign, etc. When we have finished'the last
opening it, and entering the apartment is a well-
door, we arrange cards by suit or gather necessary tion that controls looking at the next number in the response in the procedure we can read the answer
practiced chain of responses in our repertoire. The sequence. As we emit responses we write them
tools. A particularly helpful strategy, familiar to as a simple textual response, and no further behav-
closed door, the stoop, the brisk air, are part of a every is to a down: Vocal, or subvocai, to ior by the or the response-gener-
stimulus complex in the presence of which we have symbols. This reduces the control by irrelevant control our subsequent behavior as they recede in ated stimuli is'strong. .-
successfully entered this door, or similar doors, in properties of a problem, and may emphasize ob- time (as we saw in Chapter 9 in our discussion of Most problems have no codified solutions, and
the past. Unfortunately, a crucial stimulus is miss- scure relationships. short-term memory procedures); textual stimuli the steps from the presentation of the problem to
ing: the" key. The inventive reader will think of In some cases we don't simply manipulate vari- will continue to control our behavior as long as we the target response are by no means so certain.
dozens of solutions to this problem: ringing the ables, we supplement them—for example, by ask- continue to orient toward them. As we step through However, we solve, or attempt to solve, such prob-
doorbell, jimmying the lock with a credit card, ing advice, looking in a cookbook, or consulting the pairs of numbers in an orderly way we reach lems in analogous ways,\ We generate responses,
climbing in a window, trying the back door, phon- an encyclopedia. Often we supplement environ- the leftmost pair, 7 and 3. This evokes a new producing changes in stimuli that supplement
ing the manager, waiting for one's spouse, calling mental variables with stimuli produced by our own sequence of responses, orienting toward the textual those of the problem itself. These stimuli evoke
a locksmith, knocking the door down, and, of behavior. This is perhaps best illustrated with arith- we have produced adding them in a new responses that serve ;to evoke still further
particular order.
course, looking for the ke}L metic or algebra problems where there are formal behavior. As the solution progresses, some stimuli
Solving a problem, then, emitting a procedures that generate stimuli that are usually become increasingly remote-,, some are more re- .
response in a context that does not directly evoke sufficient, along with the stimuli arising from the cent. We repeat important terms or write them
that response. The task of a behavioral analysis is problem itself, to occasion the target response and down in order to reinstate their control in full force.
to explain how this is possible. If the context does identify it as the answer. Consider the arithmetic The cumulative effect, if one is successful, is to
problem 362 x 784. We undoubtedly have never strengthen the target response and weaken compet-
not evoke the target response, it must evoke, pre-
encountered this particular arrangement of stimuli ing responses. Eventually the target response be-
sumably in conjunction with other variables, some comes the prepotent response and is emitted,
before, and consequently have no unique response When we have added the leftmost column, we
other responses. If the target response eventually satisfying the contingency posed by the problem.5
conditioned to it. In a suitable context the form of know that the new textual stimulus we have cre-
occurs, that is, if we solve the problem, then addi- the stimulus—the numerals, the spacing, the The target response must be identified as
tional variables must have been brought to bear, ated, the below the bottom line, is the
"times" sign—identifies it as a multiplication answer. The step-by-step control of our behavior •to halt further problem-solving behavior. Often the
variables that were sufficient to evoke the re- problem. (In another context we might assume it to response is followed by reinforcement—we find
by procedural conventions, the configuration, the
sponse. Problem solving is the process of marshal- be a license plate number, a serial code, a phone the lost glasses, the lawnmower starts., the teacher
lines, etc., may not be obvious, so natural do they
ing these additional variables. extension number, etc.) We have learned codified says, ''That's right," and so on. Sometimes it satis-
seem to us now. However, we can demonstrate
fies some corroboratory test. If we are asked to
274 Problem Solv 275
of a in which all five vowels "Y" Here, it is to be has of observability under condi- Let us consider This is an
occur in alphabetical order, we can put our candi- at the "largest number" of rooms. tions. Thus, we solve, many problems "in our of a simple adaptive network, like many that we
words to the test.6 However, there are prob- To illustrate how a subject solves a problem head," much as we,would solve them overtly, by have already- encountered in this book, that we
without using codified strategies, consider the be- emitting responses that provide supplementary assume models a part of the nervous system. Indi-
lems for which the target'response is difficult to
havior of a subject asked to solve the following stimuli. When asked for the smallest prime number vidual units represent populations of not-necessar-
identify. "Why does a spinning'gyroscope not fall larger than 61, one may give the correct answer
when you let go of one end?" It is hard to say what problem without using a calculator or paper: "The ily-adjacent neurons. An output unit represents the
square root of 1764 is an integer. What is it?" The after a moment or two, apparently with little rele-
an acceptable answer would be. Or consider the population of neurons controlling a particular be-
subject paused for a while, then replied, "Well, it's vant overt behavior.8' The response does not just
following problem (see Figure 10.1): havior, say, blinking an eye. In a real organism, the
more than 40 ... It can't be 41 because it has to appear spontaneously; there is no doubt that most
eyeblink is an overt behavior and, as such, can be
end in '4' ... It can't be 42 ... Wait! Yes it can. . . of us simply count upward from 61, testing each
A large cube fs divided into thirds in each plane,
number in turn, .to arrive at 67, It is equally clear measured, recorded, and agreed upon by disinter-
yielding 27 smaller cubes, like rooms in a large No. No, it isn't 42 ... Oh, I give up! I can't solve ested observers. However, the activity of the unit
that kind of thing in my head!"7 that the chain of responses is usually observable, at
house. A snake crawls through the house,going from (the output neurons) is observable, if at all, only by
best, only to the subject.
room to room. The snake can only enter and leave a Much of the behavior of this subject was covert, the most intrusive of neurophysiological tech-
room at right angles through one of its six sides, but the overt responses suggest that he began by niques. Since the activity of the unit determines the
always makes a right angle turn in the center of each squaring round numbers to "close in" on the an- activity of the eyelid there is no reason to distin-
room, and can never re-enter a room that he has left. swer, presumably an acquired strategy: "10 times The Status of Covert Responses guish the two events: They are two dimensions of
What is the largest number of rooms that the snake 10 is 100. Too small. . . 50 times 50 is 2500. Too a single response. However, the two events play
can enter before he emerges to the outside? big." And so on. Eventually the subject emitted the The status of covert • responses in a science of
behavior, and the,notion that they provide stimuli, different roles. The environment only sees the
target response, but failed to recognize it as such. overt response, and so can arrange contingencies
may seem doubtful to the reader. However, we
Perhaps it failed a corroboratory test. The response of selection only for the eyeblink. However, the
should recall that the observability of a response is
"42" was undoubtedly weak with respect to the enduring changes brought about by the contin-
not determined by its intensity or magnitude, but
initial statement of the problem, but by the time the gency surely happen at the unit, and elsewhere in
by the characteristics or tools of the observer,
was we that the the network. The probability of overt responses is
Man)/ venerable dependent variables in psychol-
subject had generated a constellation of intermedi- ogy, as changes in skin conductivity, blood altered by contingencies of reinforcement only be-
ate response-produced stimuli including the fol- pressure, heart rate] etc., are measurable only cause the nervous system is. The overt response is
lowing: "Less than 50. . . More than. 40 ... through instrumental amplification. As Hefferline no more the "real" response than its neural precur-
Forty-something ... Ends in 4 . . . Closer to 40 than and Keenan9 have shown, minute muscular move- sors are.
50 ... 2 times 2 is 4." Each stimulus increased the ments detectable by an electromyograph device The relationship between an overt response and
probability of a wide variety of responses includ- may be unobservable even to the subject. We must its neural precursors is analogous to the relation-
ing "42." In the presence of this sequence of stim- avoid the temptation to think of covert behavior as ship between the phenotype and genotype in biol-
uli, the response "42" may well have been a kind of behavior, with properties essentially dif- ogy. Contingencies of natural selection operate
prepotent, even if it was only weakly controlled by ferent from overt behavior. Rather, all 'behavior lies only on the phenotype. A favorable gene, if not
each stimulus, on a continuum of observability. The whispering expressed, will not contribute to fitness. However,
To summarize, problem solving is the behavior of a school child is not intended to reach the front it is the genes are modified and the genes
of supplementing or manipulating discriminative of the room, while the bellowing of the Town Crier endure. A physical feature will occur more fre-
stimuli until a particular response in the organism' s or the yodeling of a shepherd can be heard for quently in future generations only because the
repertoire becomes prepotent over the many other miles. I0 Our subject matter—behavior—is not de- genes have been selected as well.
responses that are changing in probability. These fined by its magnitude or by the ability'of observers When we make an overt response, we often
manipulations are terminated when the original to agree on its occurrence. Rather it is any activity alter the stimulating environment in some way, and
FIGURE 10.1. In every room the snake must make a contingency (the problem) is satisfied, i.e., when of the organism that can enter into orderly relation- the new stimuli can enter into orderly relationships
right-angle turn and cannot return to a room he has reinforcement is delivered, either by another per- ships with environmental events. We have already' with subsequent behavior. For example, when we
entered. son or agent, by some natural consequence, or by had occasion to consider the role of perceptual
How many rooms can he visit before he must emerge to reach for a dime on a countertop our behavior
a corroboratory test indicating that the target re- responses (Chapter 7) in our interpretation- of be- results in a change in tactile stimulation (we feel
the outside? Unlike most puzzles, but like many ques-
tions in science, it is difficult to be sure when one has sponse has been emitted. The responses may be havior; we must now consider the role of other the dime or the countertop): the tactile stimuli then
arrived at the best answer. overt, but they may also be covert, i.e., below the covert behavior. help-guide the behavior of adjusting our fingers to
10
Problem Solving 277
we do not introduce. a<^ hoc principles, princi-
ples are not founded in the experimental analy- but we will interpret them from a behavioral per-
sis of overt, measurable, quantifiable behavior. We spective, a perspective that is often somewhat dif-
must reiterate that most analysis of complex human ferent from that assumed by the original
<=> behavior is interpretation and not basic science. researchers. We will then consider one problem-
solving phenome0on-—insight—in more, detail.
Postulating a role for covert behavior in our
We leave to the reader the-exercise of extrapolating
interpretation of problem solving is not an invita-
Environment Behavior the interpretive technique to other classes of prob-
tion for unconstrained speculation. Covert re-
lems—problems, perhaps, in his or her own expe-
sponses must be plausible in the context in which rience.
they are inferred, arid the three-term contingencies
necessary to establish these responses as behav-
ioral units must plausibly have occurred in the
history of the organism. Since some responses are, The Role of Response Variability
in Problem Solving
in practice, unobservable,, and since they undoubt-
edly influence the course of subsequent observable What one is doing at the time a problem arises is
input Hidden Output
behavior, we must '-.sometimes make inferences inadequate to solve the problem—otherwise there
about them if we are to provide a complete account would be no problem. It is necessary to do some-
of behavior, but behavioral laws must not be vio- thing else; in this 'sense, response variability is
FIGURE 10.2 A simple adaptive network lated when we 'do sol Inferences about covert
Output units driving behavior may feed back to earlier elements and consequently influence subsequent activity of intrinsic to problem solving. In some cases foster-
events should follow from behavioral laws, not ing response variability is, by itself, central to a
the network. The activity of an output unit, like the response it drives, depends upon environmental input, the physical serve to mask their inadequacy.
structure of the network, and a history of reinforcement, and will have all of the orderly properties of the overt behavior. problem's solution. A metallurgist, for example,
may need to test systematically a wide variety of
alloys to discover .one with particular physical
OF properties; likewise, a horticulturist may need to
pick up the coin. When we make an overt response behavior—say, if incompatible behavior is strong, SOLVING conduct a systematic program of plant breeding to
we also typically experience proprioceptive feed- or if the neuronal activity of effectors has been produce a strain of lilac with a particular hue and
We are faced with dozens, perhaps hundreds, of fragrance. Activities of this sort have been called
back that can serve a similar function. For example, blocked by a toxin such as curare. Yet, if there are problems every day, though few of them seem
we can learn a sequence of responses in a relaxation recurrent fibers, activity in that unit will influence trial-and-erfbr solving. The term is
noteworthy: We can't find our keys, the dog is misleading, but it surviVes for historical reasons.
exercise, responses that are paced largely by pro- subsequent activity in the network. The unit is howling, the postage stamp has lost its "stickum,"
prioceptive feedback. "Take a deep breath; clench affected by the same stimulus events as the overt The early Gestalt psychologists*1 used the term
we're cold, we have to make something for supper mainly to contrast with "insightful" problem solv-
your fists; now slowly let your fingers loosen up; response and is modified by the same diffuse rein- that the kids will eat but that isn't loaded with fat ing, which, they held, requires perceiving a prob-
now your forearms;"" etci Each response is guided, forcement signal; in the absence of reinforcement, and salt. Such problems are personal, idiosyn- lem in a special way that cannot be reduced to
at least in part, by the internal sensations it presumably undergoes extinction just as an overt cratic, and often poorly defined, and consequently
principles of behavior. We do not:
from preceding responses. response would. If activity in the unit could be have received scant attention from experimental endorse this conclusion, but it cannot be
Similarly, if there are fibers from output units observed by the naked eye, we would not hesitate psychologists. Problems encountered in industry that some examples of problem solving are more
back to earlier elements in a network, the to call it a response. The fact that conditioning science are often better defined but are usually complex than others. At a minimum, trial-and-er-
serve as input for subsequent activity of phenomena at the neural level be too formidable for an experimental analysis. How- ror problem solving, like .natural selection, requires
the network. This is an instance of reqfference, with instrumental intrusion poses overwhelming ever, problems encountered on IQ tests, in the only blind variation, selection (in the form of a
introduced in Chapter 9. Again, there appears to be practical problems to our attempt to provide a schoolroom, in puzzle books, and so on, are often solution to the problem) and, if the problem recurs,
no reason, in principle, to distinguish between the complete experimental analysis of human behav- both well-defined and relatively straightforward. It. retention.
output unit (or even any earlier units that are served ior, but it does not pose problems in principle. We is these problems, trivial though they, are, that have
studied most extensively. We cannot review Consider one of Thorndike's early experiments
by the diffuse reinforcement signal) and an overt believe that we are justified in considering covert -in instrumental conditioning. A hungry cat was
the immense literature on even this restricted class
response. Under some conditions a unit may be events-—thoughts, images, unexpressed feelings— placed in a cage that could be opened by stepping
of problems here; rather we shall briefly consider
active without a corresponding change in overt in our interpretation of complex behavior provided on a treadle. Food was available outside the cage,
a few well-studied of problem solving,
posing a problem for the cat. Thorndike12 reports
278 10
279
the cat would typically try to squeeze effect. The of the was
various openings in the cage, would bite and claw we by "SOCK-SACK- corded the of 16 well-defined baseline re-
"accidental" and might have occurred even if the SECK-SCOT-SCAT-STOCK-" and so on. The
the bars, would thrust its paws through the bars cat had been quite content in its cage. It is true sponses in naive pigeons (raising the head, walking
variability here is more or less systematic, an
claw anything within reach. It might then paw or many examples of problem solving require a more in circles, putting head in the feeder, etc.), and their
indication that it is a product of our individual
bump the treadle and, in so doing, trip the latch elaborate analysis, but these analyses typically ap- list was presumably not exhaustive. Experimental
histories. Exhaustive variability is feasible only
holding the door. The problem, so far as the cat was ply only to experienced problem solvers. The naive with short anagrams, of course—there are some psychologists discover principles of behavior by
concerned, was solved. True to the law of effect, organism, has no repertoire of problem-solving 40,000 permutations of an eight-letter anagram— using greatly simplified experimental preparations
on subsequent trials the cat tended to escape more skills; blind variation appears to be its only tool.14 so other strategies must be employed as well. Some in which it is usually possible to identify discrete
quickly; once the cat had been exposed to the Moreover, the present account applies quite aptly letters "go together"—CH, SH, TH, CK, ST, ATE, response classes, -but ordinarily behavior is fluid,
three-term contingency of stimulus-response-rein- to many examples of problem solving in humans AKE, etc.—-so we will tend to use these combina- interactive, and novel, with response classes con-
forcer, the problem was no longer a problem. who are faced with a problem about which they tions as elements in our systematic variations. tinuously overlapping and blending with one an-
Let us consider this performance from moment know practically nothing. other.
Without the use of such devices, the anagram
to moment in time. A cat has a vast repertoire of For example, consider the behavior of a friend might be unsolvable. This anagram is relatively
responses, some acquired, some innate, many of of ours who could not start his car one evening. difficult since most of the obvious combinations of Reinforcement and stereotypy. The effect of a
which can be executed in Thorndike's box, and Knowing nothing about cars, and being in a hurry, letters are not found in the word. Avid puzzle sustained contingency of reinforcement is to
many of which are mutually incompatible. Owing he did what anyone else would do: He fiddled and solvers may also wish to try their luck with the strengthen the contingent response relative to other
to the cat's having been deprived of food, a wide poked and pumped and jiggled every knob, wire, more formidable problem of finding the word behavior. While the contingency is in effect, be-
variety of responses will be strong.13 For some and pedal within reach. He finally started the car formed from the letter^ in ROAST MULES.15 havior may appear stereotypie. Certainly the be-
reason, unknown to us, one response is prepo- shortly after he had slammed the hood with par- Some problems can be solved, then, simply havior of a pigeon pecking a key on a variable
tent—say, thrusting its paw and nose through the ticular vigor. Whether the slammed hood had any through varying one's responses in an undirected interval schedule is less variable than its behavior
bars of the cage. This response is not reinforced— effect on the starting of the car is doubtful, but the way; others can be solved most expeditiously if the during baseline. Even when a variety of responses
Indeed, the consequences may be mildly aver- coincidence had a powerful effect on our friend: variability is constrained in some way. Let us con- satisfies a contingency, an. organism may engage
sive—and it loses strength. At some point in His first response to a balky automobile, be it his sider in the origin of variability and in only a 'single response (or of re-
extinction procedure the response ceases to be own or anyone else's, was to slam the hood, a factors that limit response variability. sponses). This was demonstrated in an experimen-
stronger than competing behavior, and some other behavior that took an annoyingly long time to tal paradigm pioneered by Vogel and Annau17 and
response occurs, say, biting the bars. This too is extinguish. There is little in our account of extended by Schwartz.1'8 Pigeons were reinforced
scheduled for extinction and loses strength. The Thorndike's cat that cannot be applied to this ex- Stereotypy and' Variability for pecking exactly four times on each of two keys,
behavior of the cat varies as a necessary conse- ample. but there was; no constraint on the order or se-
quence of the extinction of prepotent responses; in In the naive organism variability appears to be, When one considers the neural substrate of behav- quence of pecking the keys. Schwartz found that,
a novel setting such as Thorndike's puzzle box ior it is not response variability that needs explain- while there were sonie 70 sequences that satisfied
at least in part, a by-product of extinction. In the
many responses in the cat's repertoire may be of ing, it is response stereotypy. Our behavior at any the contingency (e.g., LRRLLLRR or
experienced problem solver, variability may be the
roughly equal strength, contributing to the variabil- moment is the product of the integrated action of LLLLRRRR, where L = left key and R = right key),
result of a deliberate strategy. When, deciphering a billions of neurons, most of which fire at an appre-
ity. Eventually a response that operates the treadle all pigeons developed stereotyped sequences
hastily scrawled note we are often reduced to going ciable resting rate (perhaps ten times per second for
becomes prepotent, and the door drops open. The they displayed most of the time. In subsequent
through the alphabet, letter by letter, supplement-
stimulus configuration is now quite different a typical neuron). This cauldron of activity is con- experiments using the same paradigm, Schwartz19
ing the textual stimuli with intraverbal prompts; stantly stirred up by the simultaneous bombard-
the prepotent response is to escape from the cage. found similar results with college students, with
the intraverbal cues provided by the recited alpha- ment of thousands of stimuli in several modalities.
The critical response is strengthened and becomes some subjects reporting that a particular stereo-
bet exhaust the possibilities for any given letter. The orderly relation between stimulus classes and
more probable on subsequent occasions. typed pattern of responses was not merely suffi-
Similarly, when solving anagrams—arrangements response classes observed in the laboratory cient for reinforcement but necessary.
While this may be a satisfactory account of the of letters that must be unscrambled to form
acquisition of an instrumental response, it seems a emerges from a substrate of enormous variability. Effective behavior is selected by contingencies
words—we often systematically try short se- It is safe to say that no response is ever precisely
bit threadbare as an example of problem solving. of reinforcement, and this has obvious adaptive
quences of letters, searching for promising candi- replicated. Even at the level of stimulus and re-
We are accustomed to thinking of problem solving significance; however, the perseverance of a re-
dates for the initial sound. For example when faced sponse classes in the naive organism there is great
as goal-directed, and this account makes no refer- sponse when variability is required may be detri-
with the following sequence of letters variability. A naive pigeon in an experimental
ence to the food, apart from its reinforcing effect mental. When Schwartz subsequently asked his
chamber will engage in a wide variety of explora- subjects to return to the apparatus and discover the
on prior behavior and perhaps a general motivating A C S O H T E K tory responses, Staddon and Simmelhag^ re- general rule for earning reinforcement (with a
10
Solvine 2S1
in of the
30 of responding, could at a 32-to-l ratio. If we have been taught to solve
merit), only out of four subjects was to do * Standard Deviation be brought under the control of a discriminative
so, given 750 trials. In contrast, four naive O—o a particular class of problems by finding the lowest
stimulus. However, their results, when considered
subjects were all able to do so within 600 trials. The common denominator, we are apt to do so even
together with those of Schwartz, suggest that, with
persistence of previously acquired behavior in the 20
when there is a faster way of getting the answer.
pigeons, prolonged response stereotypy arising
experienced group interfered with the kind of vari- Instructions tend to restrict or even eliminate vari-
from one contingency can reduce response vari-
ability in response topography necessary to solve ability in response topography, an effect that can
•^ ability when the contingencies change to select for
the problem. O-. variability. impair performance when contingencies change.
10 f Experimental analyses of behavior under such, con-
Extinction and variability. Consistent with our ditions indicate that behavior often continues to be
L Operant Conditioning Extinction The deleterious effect of instructions on response
account of Thorndike's cat, Schwartz found that an Level guided by the inappropriate instructions rather
variability. The control of human behavior by
extinction procedure increased response variabil- by the actual contingency of reinforcement.30 In a
rules or instructions vastly extends our ability to
ity in both pigeons and college students.20 Within 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 typical experiment, a human subject is given points
act effectively in the world, for we can profit,
the first extinction session there was an increase in Days or money for pressing a key on a particular sched-
vicariously as it were, from the nonverbal contin-
the variability of response sequences; when the ule of reinforcement. The subject is told the opti-
FIGURE 10.3 The variability of bar-pressing under gencies of reinforcement experienced by other
original contingency was reintroduced, stereo- mal pattern of behavior for that schedule or is asked
three experimental conditions people.29 If an approaching jogger warns us not to
typed responding emerged anew. Other studies of to discover it. After the schedule has been in effect
The force with which a bar was pressed during a baseline take the River Road because there is a yard full of
extinction have found similar effects.21 Notter- phase was relatively great and variable. When bar-press- for some time, the schedule changes without warn-
furious Rottweilers ddwn there, we will wisely
•man22 studied extinction and discrimination pro- ing produced food, the force stabilized at a relatively low ing. Subjects typically persist in the pattern appro-
seek another route. If we buy a new coffee-maker priate to the original, schedule.
cedures in the rat and found that the force of and steady level. During extinction the response became
more forceful and more variable again.
or camera, we can be confident that a pamphlet of
lever-pressing responses was more variable and, How can we limit such inappropriate persist-
Source: From Notterman, J. M. (1959). Force emission during instructions will enable us to use it correctly with-
on the average, greater during extinction and the ence in instructed behavior? Studies by Chase and
bar pressing. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58 f 341-347. out a prolonged period of experimentation. Behav-
extinction phase of a discrimination procedure Copyright © 1959 by the American Psychological Association, his indicate that providing subjects with
ior under the guidance of instructions is typically a varied repertoire facilitates effective
than during reinforcement phases. Mechner23 Reprinted by permission.
richly reinforced'—considerably more so, for the
found a similar effect of extinction for the length when contingencies • change unpredictably. Sub-
naive subject, than,'the nonverbal contingencies
of consecutive response runs, while Carl ton24 objects who were given instructions on eight different
that the instructions supplement. Any patron of
served that both satiation and decreased magnitude schedules of reinforcement subsequently adapted
suggesting that the effect may vary from one prepa- pirated computer software will confirm that there
of reinforcement increased response variability. relatively quickly to upsignaled changes in rein-
ration to the next. More to the point, when rein- is virtually no point in having a software package
(See Figure 10.3.) forcement schedule,31 ats did subjects who, during
forcement is made contingent on response if you cannot also copy the instructions for its
The effect of extinction on response variability a baseline phase, were given instructions to vary
variability itself, responding indeed becomes more use—blind variation at the computer keyboard
be in solving, their pattern of responding.32
variable.26 Consider the results of an experiment would be fruitless. The purpose of instructions is
since, by definition, the response scheduled for by Pry or, Haag, and O'Reilly on creativity in two precisely to solve problems for us; they provide
reinforcement is not directly evoked by the prob- set.. The deleterious ef-
porpoises. In each experimental session, stimuli, supplementing the stimuli from the prob-
lem or its context. Prepotent responses that do not fect of a response on problem-solving
the porpoises received reinforcement for engaging lem, that guide our behavior from the problem
lead to a solution will presumably extinguish, lead- behavior underlies the classic notions of
in some identifiable maneuver that the experiment- context to an effective target response. Not coinci-
ing to greater variability in responding, which, by ers had not previously seen. The porpoises obliged dentally, much problem-solving behavior in the set. Functional fixed-
itself, may contribute to the solution of the prob- ness is the tendency to neglect secondary
them by displaying a wide variety of novel, patterns experienced subject involves seeking out instruc-
lem. properties or uses of a familiar object. For example,
of behavior, such as spinning, corkscrew dives, tional stimuli in the form of reference books,
one might not think of using an inverted umbrella
inverted flips and some stunts not seen before in manuals, or advice from other people.
Selecting for variability. It should not be con- this species of porpoise.27 Neuringer and his col- to cany water from a stream to an. overheated
So richly reinforced is instructed behavior, that
cluded that reinforcement contingencies necessar- leagues have found response variability in both automobile, but, in the absence of a better con-
instructions commonly exert more powerful con-
ily stifle variability and creativity. Cole,25 for pigeons and people approaching that produced by it would serve the purpose. The mental
trol than incompatible nonverbal contingencies.
example, found that response force for pigeons a random number generator when reinforcement set is more general and refers to a tendency to
For if the tells us to use a 24-to-l approach a problem in a particular way—usually a
pecking a key was actually more variable during a was made contingent specifically on novel patterns ratio of gas to oil in chainsaw, we will continue
reinforcement condition than during extinction. of responding.28 Moreover, they found that vari- way that has recently- proven successful in similar
to do so the that it happens to run better circumstances—even if another approach would
282 10
Solving
be more fruitful. Consider the following roll the objects through it. One of told that have
in which it is your task to determine the next children (the functional fixedness group) had pre- other, only to find, of course, that the second string
evolved in various animals and then were asked to is out of reach. (See Figure 10.5.) The next re-
number in the series: viously used paper in this context only for drawing, propose a solution for another species faced with a sponse is to repeat the performance with the other
A second group (the varied training group) had difficult straggle for survival. For one group, the
1 2 4 7 11 16 22 2 string, to the'same effect. When something is out
used it in three ways: drawing, making paper examples all illustrated a common device: Make
1 3 7 15 31 63 2 of reach one naturally looks about for something
houses, and in a communication game. A third yourself look like a dangerous animal. The capri-
1 2 6 21 88 2 to extend one's reach, and subjects usually next try
group had no relevant experience with paper in the corn beetle reveals wasp-like markings when at-
1 12 16 8 1 2 5 2 to use the pliers as a hook or to extend their grip on
experimental setting. As expected, more of the tacked, the hawkmoth caterpillar has a pattern on
the first string. Typically, only after these re-
children in the varied training group suggested the its underside like that of a poisonous snake, and the
The first three problems are straightforward sponses have extinguished do subjects begin to cast
target solution than did those in the other groups. crested rat, when attacked, parts its hair to reveal a
number series problems, progressing in complex- about for other solutions to the problem.
(See Figure 10.4.) In a related -experiment, chil- skunk-like stripe on its back. The second group
ity. Solving them in order makes it more difficult The probability of solving the two-string prob-
was given examples that illustrated a variety of
to solve the fourth problem.33 lem depends, in part, on the relative strength of
adaptations: The hoverfly makes a buzzing sound
Several classic studies on functional fixedness like a bee, the opossum plays dead, and the walking various responses in the subject's repertoire in this
and mental set (or Einstellung) can be interpreted stick looks like a twig. When the children were told particular complex context. This can be demon-
as illustrating stereotypic responding. Dunker34 100 about white moths that could easily be spotted strated by altering the probability of various re-
presented subjects with an array of objects on a against the mottled bark of trees by predators, the sponses by altering the stimuli in the room. Maier
table—matches, a candle, a small box and some group that had received varied examples proposed observed, for example, that of 23 subjects who
tacks. The subject's task was to mount the candle 80 ~ far more kinds of solutions (5.3, on average) than were unable to solve the problem 19 were able to
on the wall in such a way that wax would not drip the other group (1.7, on average). The children in do so after the experimenter unobtrusively brushed
on the floor. In one condition the box was empty; the latter group almost invariably suggested imitat- against one of the strings and set it swinging. The
in other conditions it held the candles, matches, or £ 60 ing a dangerous animal.36 Thus, as with the adults sight of a swinging string presumably increased the
tacks. The problem could be solved by tacking the by Chase and Ms colleagues, a varied rep- probability of actively the string in motion,
box to the wall and using it as a shelf for the candle. o
ertoire appears to be a crucial ingredient in problem, and thus facilitated, the solution,
U
Subjects who were presented with an empty box solving in children. ; The effect of the pliers cannot be neglected in
were more likely to solve the problem than those 40
interpreting this experiment. One uses pliers to grip
to whom the box was presented as a container. something with great force, and for little else. The
Presumably the latter group persisted in using the o
box as a container or "thinking of the box as a al Two-String Problem
20
container" and were therefore slow to consider Although Maier37 was the first to study the now-
orienting it in such a way that it would serve as a famous two-string problem, it has served as a
shelf not a box. paradigmatic problem in many subsequent studies,
We saw above that providing subjects with a and so can serve as an example to illustrate the
varied repertoire inoculated them against the ten- points discussed above. The critical features
dency to persevere with old patterns of behavior of the problem are as follows: A subject is shown
when contingencies changed. Brown and her col- into a room in which some objects, such as a pair
Pretraining Condition
leagues have found similar benefits of a varied of pliers, a screwdriver, or a clarnp, are lying about.
repertoire in the study of functional fixedness.35 FIGURE 10.4 The proportion of correct solutions Two strings are hanging from hooks on the ceiling,
Children, ranging from three to nine years of age, by kindergarten children to a novel task in which
paper could be rolled, into a tube to transport round
and the subject's task is to tie the ends of the strings
were presented with scenarios that posed a prob- together, using any materials at hand as needed.
lem, specifically, how to transport small round objects over a barrier
Children in the variability condition had used paper in a The problem can be solved by tying the pliers, or
objects (cherries, eggs, or jewels) past an obstacle variety of ways; those in the "functional fixedness" con- some other object, to one of the strings, setting it
without actually carrying them across. Children swinging like a pendulum, going over to the second .FIGURE 10.5 A subject's strongest response when
dition had used it only in drawing. Other children had no
had a variety of everyday objects available to them asked to tie two strings together is invariably to try to
relevant experience. Similar results were found for fourth and catching the pliers when they swing
to use as tools, one of which was a piece of paper. bring the two ends together by reaching
graders. within reach. The prepotent response is invariably
The target solution was to form the paper into a Note: See Brown, 1989. Only when this response extinguishes do alternative re-
to grab the end of one string and walk toward the sponses become prepotent.
284 10
Problem -Solving
evoked by the of is
stereotypic and does not include tying them to a from the data. Initially, the probability of pulling
one string to the other was quite high. As the terminal performance may be too complex or
string. Birch and Rabinowitz38 demonstrated the may depend on the products of intermediate re-
response extinguished, other responses increased
importance of this variable- by manipulating sub- sponses. The task of checkmating one's opponent
in. probability, including tying something to the
jects* prior experience with the-objects that were in chess, for example, usually cannot be executed
string. As this became more probable, setting the
available in the room. Each subject was presented by merely considering variations systematically;
pendulum in motion became likely, after which the
with two relatively unusual objects that could serve the terminal position is too distant and the possible
solution was virtually certain. (See Figure 10.7.)
as weights to make a pendulum: an electrical variations too numerous. Similarly, one cannot
switch and an electrical relay (a special kind of usually solve a cryptogram, or a long anagram- by
switch, but different in appearance from a typical an exhaustive search of the possibilities. Many
switch). Some subjects had been given pretraining The Role of Acquired Reinforcers in
Problem Solving problems are complex and are best solved in steps.
in which they used the switch to complete electrical Solving problems of this sort usually requires the
circuits; other subjects had been given similar use of acquired strategies. As mentioned above,
Many problems cannot be solved feasibly simply
training with the relay. Of the 19 subjects who by fostering variability in response topography, for some strategies have been codified, such as algo-
eventually solved the two-string problem, 17 used FIGURE 10.6 When faced with the two-string rithms for doing long division, multiplication,
the unfamiliar object to serve as a weight; that is, problem, subjects who were provided with the object square roots, and so on. These strategies typically
those for whom the relay evoked "circuit-board on the right tried to use it to extend their reach, are instructed, since they are useful/for an unlim-
behavior" used the switch as a weight, and those presumably reflecting prior history with similar objects ited range of problems. Many problems cannot, be
who were familiar with the "correct" use of the Only after this response extinguished were subjects able
to solve the problem. Subjects provided with the object Connects Strings solved with codified strategies; nevertheless gen-
switch used the relay as a weight. In subsequent eral strategies are often helpful. Whether a general
on the left typically "treated it as a weight" and tied it to Swings
interviews, subjects in the relay group maintained one of the strings. The pendular motion, however slight, strategy is helpful or not depends largely on how
vehemently that the switch was obviously a better that occurred when the object was released typically much one knows about the domain in question. A
weight; the subjects in the switch group maintained occasioned a rapid "solution*5: Subjects promptly set the strategy in the hands of an expert will quickly lead
the opposite opinion with equal fervor. Clearly, the weight swinging in a long arc. to a solution; the same strategy employed by a
pretraining had established responses incompat- novice may lead nowjiere.
ible with the response necessary to solve the prob- Pulls One String
to Another Being an expert at something means, in part,
lem. that many aspects of the domain are familiar; that
Epstein3^ provided subjects with only a single is, they serve both a disciirninative function, evok-
other object failed entirely to solve the problem,
object as a potential weight, but found that solution ing behavior, and a conditioned reinforcing func-
and solution times for those who did solve it were
times depended on the functional properties of the tion that can strengthen other behavior. Acquired
much longer than in the first group. Moreover, part Time
object. For one set of subjects the object was a short reinforcers play an important role in many acquired
of the difference could be attributed to futile at-
heavy cylinder with a small hook at the top; for the tempts to hook the second string with the object, strategies, for they can serve to select variations
FIGURE 10.7 A computer simulation of a solution
other subjects it was the "same cylinder with a Epstein40 found that performance on the two- of the two-string problem that lead to partial solutions.-
15-inch rod extending from it, terminating in a string problem could be simulated with a computer The baseline probability of five behaviors relevant to the In the game of chess, for,example, an experi-
Typical responses by tracking the probability of each of five resolution was derived from observation of subjects; these enced player recognizes many stable properties of
evoked by the objects were assessed by asking an sponses commonly observed in subjects who suc- baseline probabilities were then modified, moment-to- a given position; an open line, a particular pawn
independent panel to suggest uses for them. Over moment in time, according to simple equations describ- structure, a weak king-side, a material advantage,
cessfully solved the problem. The probabilities
80% suggested using the first object as a weight; ing extinction, reinforcement, resurgence, and chaining.
were determined from just three linear equations and so on. Some of these properties have tended,
an greater percentage suggested using the As reaching extinguishes, other relevant responses are
specifying the effects of extinction, resurgence more likely to become prepotent. Once the object is tied in the past, to lead to victory, others to defeat;
second to extend one's reach. No one suggested the (the emergence of alternative responses as a domi- to one of the strings, swinging becomes much more consequently they can serve a conditioned rein-
alternative use for either object. As expected, sub- nant response undergoes extinction),41 and likely and a solution quickly follows. The simulation forcing or punishing function. For the expert, an
jects who were provided the small cylinder solved matic chaining (the emergence of an integrated closely approximates the probabilities of actual re- •'.enormous number of properties of chess positions
the problem quickly (2.75 minutes average); no sequence of responses in which each response sponses observed in Epstein's subjects, can serve these functions, and while the novice is
one in this group tried to use it to reach the second brings about conditions that evoke subsequent ele- Source: From Epstein, R. (1991). Skinner, creativity, and the moving his pieces virtually at random, the expert
About a fourth of the subjects given the problem of spontaneous behavior. Psychological Science, 2,
ments of the chain), with parameters estimated 362-370. Copyright © 1991 Cambridge University Press. is systematically exploring variations that will lead
to a reinforcing position. Novices are often
10 Problem Solving
to of the a easily conditions. and on it." Animals responding on very 20

master will calculate no more than a few moves These way-stations will select variations that lead schedules act the same way. For example, Pause Length
ahead. It is the novice who must exhaustively to them, evidently serving a conditioned reinforc- chimpanzees reinforced only for every 4000 but- "Red"
explore variations, for intermediate positions have ing function. ton-pressing responses paused for long periods 15
little meaning to him. sometimes falling asleep—after each reinforcer
a problem Wh e n faced before "getting back to work" and pressing the
Means-end analyses. Some strategies that are with a complex problem, it is often a useful strategy button. However, on alternate trials an acquired
quite general depend on acquired reinforcers for to break up the problem into its constituent parts reinforcer (the food hopper light) was presented 10
their effectiveness. A means-end analysis, for ex- and work on each part separately. We often solve after every 400 responses; on these trials the long
ample, is a strategy of minimizing the difference jigsaw puzzles in this way, particularly if it is a pauses were virtually eliminated.44 (See Figure
between the present situation and the target situ- group project, with one person. working on sky 10.8.) Moreover^ when the chimpanzees were
ation.42 If you are locked out of your car, you may pieces, another on "that red thing, whatever it is," given an opportunity to choose between the two
consider trying to slip a coat-hanger through the and so on. When writing a complex computer conditions they invariably chose the condition that
window to jimmy up the locking knob. But of program it is standard practice to write separate provided acquired reinforcers. We can think of the
course you have no coat-hanger with you; you will procedures for different components of the task. task as a problem broken into ten parts, each part
have to set about to find one, or to find something For example, when writing a program to compute comprising 400 responses. The acquired reinforcer 1
-3 6.5 11.7 16.9 22.1oo
equivalent. A long piece of wire serves a condi- the area of land encompassed by a survey, one maintained performance on the subordinate parts 20-
tioned reinforcing function for someone in this might begin by writing a procedure to convert of the problem, thus -expediting solution of the Pause Length
situation, as can be- seen by the alacrity with which rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates. larger problem. "Green"
a wire is picked up, purchased or borrowed. It also One might not even know, at the outset, how to Chained schedules of reinforcement help illu- 15-
"reduces the distance" between the present situ- solve the larger problem. It is often the case that minate the role of acquired reinforcers in maintain-
ation and the target situation and so conforms to a scientific research is directed at a subordinate part ing behavior on a difficult task. As an illustration
of a problem whose solution a of a schedule, a respond on
means-end strategy. QJ
promise. A cure for AIDS eludes us, but re- a variable interval (VI) schedule in the presence of
Z3
tr
0)
searchers have been working feverishly for a dec- a red light, only to have the light change to blue.
Working backward. Working backward from
ade on small but essential parts of the problem: Responding in the presence of the blue light
the solution is a general strategy that can establish 5 -
isolating the virus, describing its molecular archi- changes the light to green. Responding in the pres-
partial solutions as events that can serve a condi- tecture, testing antigens, and so on.
tioned reinforcing function. If you book a hotel ence of the green light finally produces food.
room in an unfamiliar city—say, London—it When parts of a problem have been identified, Here, the only consequence of responding to
they serve as acquired reinforcers that select and the red light is that the blue light comes on. Re-
would be a wise policy to learn the way to the hotel
maintain the behavior that produces them. Even if sponding to red will be maintained only to the 1.3 6.5 11.7 16,9 22.1°°
from a nearby landmark—say, Trafalgar Square.
we have erred in our analysis of the larger problem extent that the blue light has become an acquired
Then you could easily find your way back to the
and have identified a part that in fact plays no role reinforcer. Similarly, responding to blue will be Minutes
hotel from any point in the city, since you have FIGURE The frequency of pause durations
in the ultimate solution, it will serve as an acquired only if the green is reinforcing. In
a way-station far easier to locate reinforcer. It may be, for example, that polar coor- when conditioned reinforcers were omitted (top panel)
your terminal goal. Trafalgar Square would then chained schedules of this sort it is commonly found and when they were provided~( bottom panel)
are useless to our surveying program, or that responding in early links of the chain is weaker
serve a conditioned reinforcing function; any be- that a particular compound tested by a pharmacol- In the presence of the red light reinforcement followed
havior that brought you to Trafalgar Square would in later links.45 Responding on early links the 4000th response; long pauses between responses
ogy laboratory has no effect on the AIDS virus. The were common. In the presence of the green light, every
be strengthened. to be interrupted by long pauses. This stands
conditioned reinforcing function of an event pre- 400th response was followed by the sound of the feeder,
Working backward is often a useful strategy in to reason, as the stimuli signaling the early links
sumably arises from the initial analysis of the prob- but food occurred only after the 4000th response. In this
mathematical proofs, solving mazes, trying to re- are temporally removed from the final reinforce-
lem into its component parts, not on its proven condition the chimpanzees responded rapidly with few
construct the sequence of events leading up to an relevance.43 ment and presumably acquire a conditioned rein- ' long pauses.
accident or a crime, and, in general, any problem forcing function only wealdy. However, when the Source: From Findley, J. D., & Brady, J. D. (1965). Facilitation
in which the target is known but the path to the Evidence from the animal laboratory. A com- stimulus order is varied from trial to trial so that of large ratio performance by use of conditioned reinforcement.
each stimulus is occasionally paired with food, Journal of the. Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 8, 125-129.
target is obscure. Working backward provides us plex problem can be discouraging; we say, 6'I just Copyright 1965 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of
with subsidiary goals or way-stations that we can can't get started," or "I'll get up early tomorrow responding is strong in all links of the chain, and Behavior, Inc.
288 10
are of led to great pains to try to reach it with one stick

reinforcement in the terminal link of the chain is but to avoid the gain the approval of or the other, even pushing his right shoulder through but an analogy with our own behavior is not an
also important. For example, Findley 47 found with and teachers. the bars. When everything provesfutile, Sultan com- explanation we understand our own behav-
rats that the rate of chain-pulling responses in the mits a "bad error/' or, more clearly, a great stupid- ior better than that of the chimpanzee. What exactly
first link of a two-link chain decreased as the rate ity, such as he made sometimes on other occasions. is insight, and why do we sometimes have it
of reinforcement in the terminal link decreased. The Role of Insight in Problem He pulls a box from the back of the room towards sometimes fail? The term insight suggests sponta-
(See Figure 10.9.) Solving the bars; true, he pushes it away again at once as it neity and unpredictability.- If behavior is lawful it
is useless, or, rather, actually in the way. Immedi-
Thus, mastering the components of a problem should be possible, at least in principle, to predict
According to allegory, Archimedes was ponder- ately afterwards, he does something which, although
will serve a conditioned reinforcing function pro- practically useless, must be counted among the behavior that is commonly attributed to insight.
vided that doing so has indeed been correlated with ing, as he settled into his bath, how to determine Although Kohler and others apparently accept
"good errors": he pushes one of the sticks out as far
successful solution of the problem, or similar prob- the density of the crown of the King of Syracuse, insight as an irreducible psychological concept,,
as it will go, then takes the second, and with it, pokes
lems, in the past. A common weakness of educa- so that the King might be assured of its purity. the first one cautiously towards the objective . .. and some researchers have • attempted to provide an
"Eureka!" he cried, in history's most famous mo- actually touches the objective with its tip . . . and experimental analysis of insightful behavior.
tional contingencies is that students are required to
ment of insight. The displacement of the bathwater Sultan visibly feels (we humans can sympathize) a Birch50 showed that the ability of a chimpanzee to
work on skills and problem components that have
had suggested a way to determine the crown's certain satisfaction. . .
solve problems with tools could be predicted, in
never been paired with successful performance of
volume; the rest of the calculation was a simple [After an hour of this] Sultan first of all squats
a larger problem. Students often learn about frac- indifferently on the box, which has been left staging part, by knowing the animal's prior history with
matter.
tions and memorize Spanish vocabulary, not be- a little back from the railings; then he gets up, picks the tool. Birch posed the following problem to six
Insight remains the most mysterious problem- chimpanzees, all five to six years old: A bit of food
up the two sticks, sit-down again on the box and
solving phenomenon. We tend to use the term
plays carelessly, with them. While doing this, it hap- lay outside the animal's cage, just out of reach.
whenever an organism faced with a problem pens that he finds himself holding one rod in either
5r Available to the chirnp was a stick with which the
abruptly rouses itself from relative inactivity and hand in such away that they lie in a straight line; he food could be pulled or raked within reach. Of the
swiftly, smoothly, and energetically emits the tar- pushes the thinner one a little way into the opening
j£ 4 six chimpanzees, one had liad prior experience
get response. It is relatively rare and unpredictable, of the thicker, jurnps up and is already on the run
and hence very difficult to analyze experimentally. towards the railings.... and begins to draw a banana wMle one other prior
towards him with the double stick. experience reeling in bits of food to a
Most of our understanding of insight comes, curi-
ously, from work with animals. The remaining four animals had not had any spe-
The'chimp's solution was insightful. He had cific training that was directly relevant to the prob-
Among the most thoroughly studied examples never encountered the, problem situation before. lem, though the beliayior of reaching for and
E of insight are the spontaneous and novel use of After direct attempts to reach the banana failed, he manipulating .objects was presumably well estab-
U tools to achieve some practical consequence. appeared to be puzzled and discouraged. Suddenly
Wolfgang Kohler48 was one of the first to study lished. Birch found that the four naive animals
the chirnp "changed tactics;" he swiftly and were unable to solve the1, problem. However, the
this sort of problem solving in chimpanzees. In a smoothly executed a new pattern of behavior animal experienced in
typical problem, a bit of food, such as a banana, which successful in obtaining the.fruit. Appar-
hung in the cage, out of reach of even a leaping it almost immediately (in U2 seconds), while the
0.5 1 2 4 , 8 ently the chimp had a "brainstorm,^" a "flash of retrieved food \with a string was able
Mean VI Schedule (min) chimpanzee. Lying about the cage were boxes of insight," enabled to solve the problem. He
various sizes. Kohler reported that after long gaz- to solve it in five minutes. Birch allowed the
FIGURE 10.9 In Findley s experiment, a rat's "saw" the solution and then carried it out. four naive animals to manipulate sticks for
ing and futile attempts to reach the banana, a chimp
chain-pulling responses turned on a light; in the We are inclined, at first, to accept this interpre- days, after which they were again presented with
presence of the light, lever-pressing produced food on
would suddenly run over and push one of the boxes tation' of the experiment. After all, we have had
toward the banana, vault off the box, and seize the the problem. All of them solved the problem virtu-
a variable interval (VI) schedule similar experiences ourselves, and we remember ally immediately.
Chain-pulling was more likely when the average interval fruit.
with satisfaction the euphoria that attends a flash Schiller51 showed that the amount of specific
in the schedule was relatively short and consequently In another experiment, Kohler placed a bit of of insight. We remind ourselves that chimpanzees
reinforcement was relatively immediate and more pre- food outside a cage. Sultan, the chirnp, was adept experience with sticks that a chimpanzee requires
are close relatives, and wonder if other animals are
dictable than when the average interval was long. at pulling in food with sticks, but, in this case, the to solve problem depends, in part, on its age.
Source: After Findley, J. D. (1962). An experimental outline for capable of similar of ingenuity..
two available bamboo rods were too short. How- Two-year-old chimpanzees did improve their
building and exploring multi-operant behavior repertoires. We must admit to a certain dissatisfaction, problem-solving skills after three days, but after
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 113—166. ever, they could be fit together like tent poles to however. Attributing the sudden solution of a prob-
Copyright 1962 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of make a stick sufficiently long. Kohler describes one year in a compound with sticks to play with
lem to insight is to give it a name, not to explain it.
Behavior, Inc. Sultan's behavior thus: and "-several platforms to climb on, they improved
The above account may be correct, so far as it goes;
dramatically. They not only solved the simplest
10
291
of the in which the behavior only solved the two Feeder
on the so principles. However, since we know little about the performance appearing almost human:
a single sweeping motion would pull in the food; moment-to-moment behavior of the chimps in the
they were also able to retrieve the stick from an- problem-solving task, and even less about the fine- At first each pigeon appeared to be 'confused;' it
other platform, out of view of the food, return to grained interactions with the environment in the stretched and turned beneath the banana, looked
the food rake it in with the stick. However, they animals' past, there is little we do. back and forth from banana to box, and so on. Then
Fortunately, the, phenomenon of insight has been each subject began rather suddenly to push the box
were not as skilled with tools as experienced older
in what was clearly the direction of the banana. Each
animals (seven- to nine-year-olds), who could studied with pigeons in greater detail than was subject sighted the banana as it pushed and read-
solve more complex problems, such as one that possible with chimpanzees. By carefully control- justed the box 'as necessary to move it towards the
required them to fit two sticks together to form a . ling the components of his pigeons' repertoires, banana. Each subject stopped pushing in the appro-
long rod. Epstein52 has been able to provide a plausible priate place, climbed and pecked the banana
The findings of Birch and Schiller indicate that moment-to-moment account of their insightful be-
whatever insight is, the organism must have an havior. Pigeons that had not had all of the constituent
appropriate repertoire of operants to serve as com- The difficulty of interpreting the insight experi- training displayed predictably ineffective behav-
ponents of a possible solution to the problem at ments with chimpanzees is that the components of ior. For example, one bird, which had not been put
hand. Insight seemed to escape those chimpanzees the terminal performance—i.e., pushing boxes, on extinction for jumping and flying up toward the
that did not have such a repertoire. Note, however, climbing on boxes, reaching for bananas, manipu- banana, solved the problem eventually, but only
that these findings do not explain the problem- lating sticks, etc.—are responses that are likely to after a prolonged peridd of unreinfarced jumping
solving behavior of the chimps. We know that be well-practiced before the experiment. Pigeons, toward the banana. Birds that had been reinforced
successful chimpanzees had used sticks before to however, engage in none of these behaviors; if for pecking the box, but not toward the green
rake, poke, and push objects around, but what insightful performance can be "generated" in the target, pecked the box aimlessly about the cham-
exactly is the relationship between these operants pigeon, we can interpret the behavior of chimpan- ber. (See Figure Kjf.10.) '• ' ® Climbs and Pecks Banana
and their integration into a solution of the problem? zees and humans with more confidence. Epstein, et al. proposed'a'moment-to-moment L»J Starting Position of
The problem itself was a novel arrangement of At a minimum, components of the behavior account of the pigeons' behavior: The birds5 appar-
ent confusion arose from the fact that they were in O Climbs and .Stretches Toward Banana
stimuli for the animals, and the solution required a said to show insight must be in the organism's
particular sequence of responses that had never repertoire. In the simplest insight experiments, Ep- a novel situation in which several powerful dis- A Perches
been practiced. We have not yet shown the term stein and his colleagues trained pigeons on one or criminative stimuli were simultaneously present
for the first time. There was no clearly prepotent FIGURE 10.10 . Paths along which the box was
insight to be superfluous. What is the lawful rela- more of the following components of Kohler's pushed by seven pigeons in the "insight" experiment
tionship between the experience of the chimps and box-and-banana problem: (1) Climbing on a sta- response. Eventually one repertoire became prepo- of Epstein, et al. (1984) \
their solution of the problem? Can we predict that tionary box and pecking a miniature "banana" was tent, possibly as a consequence of a trivial variable. The black crescent represents the location of the banana,
a chimpanzee will solve the problem if it has had reinforced with food. (2) Pecking a small box For example, simply turning the head toward the the square indicates the initial location of the box in the
a chance to play with sticks? If so, what behavioral toward a green target at the edge of the chamber box would dramatically the stimulus configu- chamber, and the line shows the path of the box as it was -
was reinforced with food. (3) Attempts to jump or ration as experienced by the bird, and would pre- pushed by the pigeon. The two., pigeons in the top frame
principles do we invoke? n?
sumably make the box-elicited repertoire more had been reinforced for climbing and pecking but never
Schiller reports considerable variability in the fly up to the banana were extinguished. The pi- for pushing the box. In a 45 minute test session they never
likely. Once the pigeon made its first peck to the
performance of Ms animals. The mere acquisition geons were then presented with a novel situation: pushed the box at all. The performance of-birds rein-
box, the box-pecking repertoire would be quite
of component operants was not sufficient to insure The green target was removed, and, for the first forced for climbing and pecking and for pushing the box
strong, for the stimulus conditions would be very
the problem would be solved at all, some time, the box was placed some distance away from aimlessly is shown in the second frame. One of the
similar to those of training. Pecking the box toward pigeons pecked the banana after about 14.5 minutes.of
animals took considerably longer than others to the banana. The pigeons were now in a situation
the banana rather than aimlessly about the chamber pecking the box randomly around the chamber. The
solve it. A science of behavior must, as an ideal, analogous to that of Kohler's chimpanzees; they
could perhaps be explained by the fact that both the pigeons represented in the bottom frame had been taught
explain the solution of the successful animals, the • possessed the requisite repertoire to solve the prob- target and the banana had, when approached, been to climb and peck and to push the box toward a green
failure of the unsuccessful ones, and the variability lem, but they had never encountered the particular paired with food, and both presumably elicited spot on the floor. These pigeons all solved the problem
among animals in each category. We can appeal to problem before. salivation and other food-elicited responses,54 • quickly and with little wasted effort. Boxed times repre-
extinction, response generalization, multiple deter- The performance of the three birds who had Once the box approached the banana, the stimulus sent the time to a solution in minutes and seconds.
of response strength, so on. It should trained on all of the constituent behaviors was configuration became more similar to that in which Source: From Epstein, Kirshiiit, Lanza, & Rubin. Reprinted with
be possible to give a post hoc account of each remarkably similar to that of Kohler's chimps. All permission from Nature (1984,308, pp. 61-62). Copyright 1984
climbing and pecking had been reinforced, and Macmilian Magazines Ltd.
10
the the the A coveries." Newton was more succinct; asked how
was solved. many components of an individual's elusive. We can only vaguely speculate he solved problems opaque to everyone else, he
Epstein was subsequently to would interact in a complex environment, and that about the moment-to-moment events that account replied, "By always thinking about them."58 •
insight in the pigeon in a more complex task the principles have been found wanting. However, for certain extraordinary feats of problem solving. These replies are undoubtedly too modest, but
required the interaction of four repertoires; climb- as Epstein has noted,55 tracking the simultaneous Consider the mathematical prowess of Zerah Col- they remind us that the repertoire these extraordi-
ing and pecking were trained separately, and the' changes in probability of just a few responses in a burn, the "American, lightning-calculating boy," nary men brought to bear on the problems they
pigeon had to retrieve the box from behind a closed pigeon, invoking only four behavioral principles., Bom in rural Vermont in 1804,-he became famous faced was vastly different from our own. To a
door. While the pigeon did solve the problem, its far exceeds the abilities of an unaided human. It is as a child for his ability to perform mental calcula- pigeon on a city sidewalk, Epstein's birds would
smooth performance was disrupted in predictable possible that we may do so through formal inter- tions, and he toured the United States and Europe, appear to be remarkable geniuses, yet their insight-
ways as the four repertoires interacted with one pretation, that is, with computer simulation, as displaying his powers. He quickly solved a famous ful performances were a function of a special rep-
another. For example, the pigeon climbed on the Epstein has done with the two-string problem, but problem that no one had had the patience to solve ertoire interacting in a unique environment, It. is at
box prematurely, and only when this had extin- work in this domain is just in its infancy. before. Fermat, the famous 17th century mathema- least a plausible hypothesis that the achievements
guished was progress made toward solving the tician, had speculated that a certain series, namely, of our greatest thinkers are also the results of lawful
problem. Lest this seem to vitiate the parallel with interactions of unusual repertoires in unique cir-
CONCLUSION 22*+ 1
insight in chimpanzees, recall that Sultan commit- cumstances.
ted, in Kohler's words, "a great stupidity" by fetch- would produce only prime numbers. What led Fer-
We have attempted to provide an outline of a
ing a box when assembling bamboo rods was mat to this intuition is unclear, but it is extremely
behavioral interpretation of one of the most com- STUDY AIDS
required to solve the problem. Epstein's experi- plex facets of human behavior. There are some difficult to test, since the. numbers get huge very
ments suggest that Sultan's errors were as lawful aspects of reasoning and problem solving that we quickly, and it is very tedious to determine if a large Technical Terms
as his insight, have not had space to discuss—hypothesis testing, number is prime. It appears to be necessary to
How well do Epstein's pigeons explain insight- analogical reasoning, inferences of probability, in- divide the number by every'prime number smaller intraverbal response
ful performance in human beings? It is premature duction, syllogistic reasoning, to name a few. The than the number's square root.56 The five
to say, we interpretation of these phenomena must be left to numbers of the series had been'shown to be primes, trial-and-error problem solving
brought us much closer to an understanding of the reader, with the reminder that, given the con- but the status of the sixth number, 4,294,967,297, functional fixedness
insight in humans, for they show how the interplay straints on working with humans, providing an was unknown. The number was shown to Colbum, mental set ,
of only a few repertoires can lead to novel and interpretation that invokes only known principles who replied, after thinking for a minute or two, that
two-string problem \
adaptive performance, requiring that we invoke of behavior is often the best we can do. it is not a prime; it has the divisor 641,57
only a handful of well-established behavioral prin- resurgence"'
It is no coincidence that our interpretation of It is pointless to try to explain the behavior of
ciples. Humans presumably emit sequences of cov- the hero of an anecdote, dead these 150 years, but automatic chaining \
problem solving has many parallels with evolution
ert behavior and respond to those sequences. Thus it serves as a reminder of how extraordinary human means-end analysis
through natural selection. In a changing environ-
humans can "look ahead" from the moment of ment, structures that were adaptive in the past may can be. Curiously, Colburn was unable to
insight to the solution of the problem; there is little be ineffective now, and new forms are selected. explain his own performance, but the Irish mathe-
to pigeons dcfcso. This covert behavior But in order for a lineage to be represented in matician, William Hamilton, studied Colburn at
is not available for study given our current technol- succeeding generations, there must be variability length and concluded that his techniques were un-
ogy. However, there is no reason to believe that the remarkable and largely a matter of memory. This 1. What are' the three characteristic properties of
• of form among the offspring so that at least one will a problem as defined in the text? Show how the
interaction of repertoires cannot occur covertly and be selected by the new contingencies of survival. conclusion is little help, but we can assume that for
Colburn, constantly thinking about numbers as he definition applies to a problem in your own expe-
so give rise to the euphoria we experience as in- In problem solving, we are faced with novel con- rience.
sight. Human behavior is immeasurably more tingencies; otherwise there would be no problem. did, 641 was, at least, a familiar prime.
complex than the few responses established in the In order for us to solve the problem, our repertoire Hamilton's appraisal of Colburn recalls the 2. Problems cannot be defined by formal prop-
pigeons in these insight studies; adult humans have must be varied enough that the prevailing contin- modest assessments that Gauss and Newton held erties alone. Explain why a particular situation
extraordinary repertoires and many years of expe- gencies select a solution. Throughout of themselves. When to explain how he was might be defined as a problem for one person but
solving problems. Is it not possible we have seen many examples of the dele- able to make so many original contributions to 'not another. Make use of the technical definition in
remarkable human insights arise from the richness terious effects of inflexibility, stereotypy, and mathematics, Gauss replied, "If others would but your answer.
of our repertoires rather than from the action of mental set, and of successful problem solving reflect on mathematical truths as deeply and as 3. "What is meant by "supplementary stimuli"?
qualitatively different principles? To reject the through variation and selection. continuously as I have, they would make my dis- Are all- such stimuli external events? Give an ex-
294 10
Problem Solvir 295
of a supplementary stimulus for your prob- 16. Steddon & Simmelhag, 1971. * 35. Brown, 1989.
in 1. 17. Vogel & Aiinau, 1973. . . 36. Naturally, the children treated their solutions as if
1. Rules usually serve functions other than discrimi-
18. Schwartz, 1980, 1981a, 1981b. In Schwartz's ex- they were immediately available to individual moths, not
4. How does a target response serve to halt prob- native ones; they alter the functions of other stimuli. See
periments, the pattern of a pigeon's key pecks was
lem-solving behavior? That is, how do we know Schlinger & Blakely, 1987; Blakely & Schlinger, 1987; as features that would need to develop slowly over
guided, in part, by a visual display: a five-by-five matrix
that we have solved a problem? Schlinger, 1990. generations. One child suggested that the moth turn into
of lights. At the beginning of a trial, the upper left light
2. Skinner, 1957. We will discuss verbal operants a gorilla, a solution of unparalleled effectiveness and no
5. What are some of the variables that decrease was on. A peck to one key would move the light to the
frequently and in greater detail in subsequent chapters. less feasible to an individual moth than developing a
or increase response variability? Relate the con- right one column; a peck to the other would move the
We introduce several of them here to remind the reader mottled pattern on its wings.
cepts of "mental set" and "functional fixedness" to light down one row. When the light reached the lower
that a response of a particular topography can have many 37. Maier, 1931.
. right of the display, food would be delivered. While each
response variability. controlling variables.
of the 70 paths was equally effective in producing food, 38. Birch & Rabinowitz, 1951.
6. How do the experiments on the two-string 3. When we say that a question "indicates" that 39. Epstein,, 1985a.
it is clear that some routes require more switching be-
reinforcement will follow, we mean only that in the past tween keys than others. 40. Epstein, 1991.
problem illustrate the role of stereotypy and re-
our responses have tended to be reinforced under similar 19. Schwartz, 1982. 41. Epstein, 1983; I985b.
sponse variability on problem-solving perform- circumstances; reinforcement need not be inevitable.
ance? 20. Schwartz, 1980, 1982. 42. Newell & Simon, 1972.
Although reinforcement may be intermittent and incon- 21. Antonitis, 1951. 43. See Schlinger & Blakely, 1987; Blakely & Schlin-
7. Identify a problem and show how acquired spicuous, it plays a crucial role in our account of prob- 22. Notterman, 1959? Notterman & Block, 1960. ger, 1987; .Schlinger, 1990 for a discussion of the func-
reinforcers can play a role in the solution to the lem-solving behavior. In a perverse world in which 23. Mechner, 1958.
correct responses were punished, there would presum- tion-altering effect of certain classes of verbal
problem. 24. Carlton, 1962. constructions, viz. "contingency-specifying" verbal be-
ably be little problem-solving behavior. 25. Cole, 1965. ',\ ' '
8. How do data from chained schedules in non- 4. The reciprocal of 243, for example. havior.
26. Blough, 1966; Machado, 1989; Schoenfeld. Har- 44. Findley & Brady, 1965.
human animals shed light on problem solving in 5. The manipulation of supplementary stimuli can ris, & Farmer, 1966.
humans? strengthen not only single responses, but whole reper- 45. Gollub, 1977; Kelleher & Fry, 1962.
. 27. Pryor, Haag, & O'Reilly, 1969. 46. Kelleher & Fry, 1962-
toires, or classes of related responses, a process called 28. Neuringer, 1986, 1991; Page & Neuringer, 1985.
9. What is meant by "insight"? Why is attribut- 47. Findley, 1962.
contingency adduction by Andronis, 1983; Layng and 29. Skinner, 1966a.
ing the solution of a problem to insight unsatisfac- 48. Kohler,, 1925.
Andronis, 1984. 30. & Galizio, 1983: Baron, Kaufman, &
tory? 6. Abstemiously and facetiously are the only two we 49. Kohler, 3 925, pp. 130-132, passim.
Stauber, 1969; Galizio, 1979; Harzem, Lowe, & Bag- 50. Birch, 1945. ".
10. Consider an example of problem solving from know of. shaw, 1978; Hayes, Brownstein, Zettle, Rosenfarb, &
7. Palmer, 1991. 51. Schiller, 1958.
your own experience that illustrates insight, and try Korn, 1986; LeFrancois, Chase, & Joyce, 1988; Mat-
8. Collateral overt behavior may well be relevant— 52. Epstein, 1985a; Epstein, Kirshnit, Lanza, & Ru-
to interpret it in light of the experimental data of thews, Shimoff, Catania, & Sagvolden, 1977. bin, 1984. ,. \
we stop what we are doing, avert our eyes, and so on, 31. LeFrancois, Chase, & Joyce, 1988.
Schiller and Epstein. 53. Epstein, Kirshnit, L^nza, & Rubin, 1984.
minimizing competing operants and reflexive orienting 32. LeFrancois, Chase, & Joyce, 1988.
responses. 54. • The banana was the object that was, on the whole,
33. For those with no patience for such puzzles., the
9. Hefferline & Keenan, 1963. first problem can be solved by adding the integers, 1, 2.9 most similar to the target. If •.another salient object were
Discussion Questions 10. Branch (1977) may have been the first to point out 3, etc., to successive terms. The second problem requires present, say, a black target several inches off the floor,
all behavior lies on a "continuum of observability," adding 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., to successive terms. In the third we might see the box pecked toward it rather than toward
11. In its discussion of covert, responses, the text a consideration that discourages the tendency to regard problem, successive terms are generated by the series, the banana,
warns unconstrained in ac- private events as qualitatively different from behavior 55. Persona] communication.
! (X) + 1, 2(X) + 2, 3(X) + 3, etc. In the fourth problem,
counting for complex behavior. How does a scien- is easily measured. (See Palmer, 1991 for a devel- each number represents its corresponding letter in the 56. Some shortcuts are possible, of course. A number
tific interpretation differ from mere speculation? opment of this argument.) the resulting sequence spells a word. Be- ending in 7 can only be evenly divided by numbers
11. e.g., Kohler, 1925. cause the third problem eventually yields to a numerical
12. What is meant by the claim that the ob- ending in 1,3,7, or 9, but the of possibilities is
12. Thorndike, 1898. solution, we are likely to persevere for a long time
servability of a behavior depends upon the ob- still prodigious.
13. Donahoe & Wessells, 1980. looking for a quantitative solution to the fourth.
server and not on the behavior itself? 14. cf. Campbell, 1974. 57.' Bell, 1965, p. 66.
34. Dunker, 1945. 58. 1965, p. 254.
13. In what sense is response variability central to 15. The two words are "hotcakes" and "somersault"
problem solving? respectively. Technically, an anagram is one word or
phrase whose letters can be rearranged to form other
14. What makes an individual an especially good words or phrases. The term is now more loosely applied
problem solver? Are these characteristics always to any sequence of letters that can be rearranged to form
helpful, or do they sometimes interfere with effec- a word or phrase, perhaps because of the ubiquitous
tive problem solving? puzzles of this sort in newspapers and magazines.
Verbal Behav 297
.CHAPTER 11 TO
At the outset, we must note that there are physical

VERBAL BEHAVIOR structures relevant to speech that are unique to
humans. First, adult humans have a specialized
vocal apparatus and can manipulate it with exqui-
site subtlety. Even chimpanzees, our closest rela-
interpretations are true or complete—indeed a se- tives, lack the coordinated dexterity of humans in
In our last chapter we attempted to show that
lectionist account necessarily varies from one case the lips, tongue, palate, and vocal cords.3 Human
problem solving, quintessential!)/ intelligent be-
to the next; rather, we hope to illustrate that solu- evolution exploited the respiratory system to pro-
havior, could be interpreted in light of familiar
tions to the problems are not beyond the scope of vide the power for sustained vocal expression.
selectionist principles, and the argument was
selectionist principles. Since the respiratory system evolved to serve other
rendered more plausible by evidence that these
We will consider, in turn, five aspects of verbal purposes, it is not surprising that some modifica-
principles appear to operate to produce problem-
behavior that appear to set it apart from nonverbal tions were necessary for it to serve this,additional
solving behavior in nonhuman organisms. Inter-
behavior, suggesting that it requires special treat- function. Speech is produced during the expiratory
preting verbal behavior seems to be a more
ment. As will appear below, we accept the prem- phase of respiration, and the ability to produce a
formidable task, however, for there is little evi-
ises of the following claims but dispute the prolonged utterance of\modulated pitch and inten-
dence that other organisms, with the possible ex- sity requires the coordinated action of a particular
ception of our closest anthropoid cousins, engage conclusions. Nevertheless, we feel that the points
must be addressed. configuration of the muscles of the rib cage and the
in behavior that is at all comparable to human abdomen to regulate the volume of the lungs. Hu-
verbal behavior. It appears that the principle of man adults—but not newborns—share these adap-
1, Verbal behavior is served by unique physical
natural selection will play an important role in our tations with the anthropoid apes who
structures and perceptual mechanisms. Conse-
account, for, while our children soon become flu- prolonged, modulated vocalizations; however,
quently, we must ask if the verbal system consti-
ent speakers, the home environment does not have apes apparently lack the neural structures neces-
tutes a mental "module" with its own idiosyncratic
a comparable effect on the family pets. sary for the automated motor patterns of the vocal
principles.
It is not our purpose here to survey the central apparatus so conspicuous in fluent human speech.4 FIGURE 11.1 The pharynx in the adult human is
topics of verbal behavior. The literature, both theo- 2, Speech cannot be considered a chain of re- Expiration contributes to the organization of elongated, providing a resonating chamber that
retical and empirical, is immense, and we could not sponses in which each word or sound evokes the speech, and vice versa. Our expirations typically permits a range of speech sounds unavailable to the
hope to cover the topic from even a single perspec- next. Therefore a science of behavior, with its chimpanzee or even the newborn human
coincide with verbal units—usually the sentence—
tive. It will not have escaped the reader that the focus on environment-behavior relations, may be
and the chemoreceptors that would ordinarily in-
paradigm that we have adopted—selectionism— of limited use in the analysis of verbal behavior.
itiate inspiration may be overridden if the end of a
lies outside the mainstream of contemporary psy- 3, Verbal behavior is novel, apparently without sentence has not been reached.5
chology. Even so, the topic is too broad for a limit. This suggests that it cannot be understood as In adult humans the (the cavity be-
survey. Rather, we will attempt to examine ways a product of selection principles, for selection im- hind the nose and mouth) is elongated relative to
in which verbal behavior is unique and requires nor the chimpanzee is capable of making the full
plies the replication of stable units. of a chimpanzee or even a newborn human. In of human speech sounds.
special treatment. It is sometimes claimed that a newborns chimpanzees the (the upper
4, Verbal behavior conforms to rules, suggesting Arduous attempts to teach a chimpanzee spo-
approach is inadequate, in principle, to part of the windpipe, containing the vocal cords)
it cannot be understood without reference to a ken language have been conspicuous failures; one
account for the remarkable verbal abilities of hu- opens just below the oral cavity. By the time the
grammar, a system of rules that generates well- chimp, after several years of training, was able to
man beings.1 Needless to say, we do not endorse human infant is about two years old, the pharyn-
formed sentences. utter only three words: mama, papa, and cup.7
this view, but the claims that additional principles geal cavity lias developed considerably, while However, recognition of the articulatory deficits of
are required in a complete account of language 5, Skilled verbal behavior is acquired with ex- is little change in the anatomical structures of chimpanzees has inspired relatively successful at-
cannot be ignored. In this chapter we attempt to traordinary speed and with little evidence of differ- the chimpanzee. The elongated pharynx serves as tempts' to teach them sign language. Chimpanzees
identify critical problems in verbal behavior and ential reinforcement from parents. This suggests a resonating chamber that, is necessary for the are nearly as dexterous as humans and have little
point to the kind of solutions a selectionist view that there may be special innate adaptations for production of certain sounds • common in human trouble making many of the signs of American
might provide. We do not claim that our particular language learning. speech,6 (See 11.1.) Thus neither the infant Sign Language (ASL). Washoe, the first chimp to
296
11
in ASL loosely, of of
conditions, eventually designed to them what they want. Two- to the hemisphere, verbal functions will
some 130 signs and often combined them into sign phrases are usually sufficient for this. It is In most humans, the detailed motor differentiations eventually be-carried out by the right hemisphere,
two-word, and sometimes longer, sequences.8 possible, of course, that chimpanzees are simply and sensory discriminations necessary for verbal and the child may come to speak essentially nor-
15
Moreover, she could generate .novel sequences of incapable of long integrated sequences of signing "behavior are mediated primarily by regions in the mally. Indeed, some victims of congenital hydro-
signs: Having been trained to sign More tickle, she left hemisphere. This appears to provide support cephalus speak normally despite the loss of most
behavior, but their fluent locomotor behavior sug-
would later sign More juice or More swing, which for those who believe in the /modularity of lan- of the cerebral cortex in both hemispheres.16 If
gests otherwise. It is equally possible that chim- ,
were presumably requests for the respective items. guage—that is, that language is a separate domain special structures are indeed necessary for verbal
panzees are simply insensitive to those con- behavior, they must be widely distributed.
Washoe's use of signs was, in some respects, re- with its own structures, principles, and evolution-
tingencies that control long verbal responses in
markably human. She would sign Quiet! to herself ary origins. While the importance of these regions
older children and adults. Humans are especially
when she was trying to evade notice, or Hurry! to verbal behavior in the typical human is beyond
when she was bustling off somewhere in haste. sensitive to secondary reinforcement and to rein- dispute, we question their relevance to the .hy- Speech Centers: Evidence from
When signing to a human less fluent in ASL than forcement by subtle social stimuli. Money, fame, pothesis of modularity. First, the left-hemisphere the Aphasias
she, Washoe would sign slowly, in apparent con- hearing oneself praised or denigrated, a curt word, control of fine sensory discrimination and motor
sideration for her unskilled companion. She was an impassive expression, a blip on the stock ex- differentiation is not confined either to verbal be- Clearly, spoken language must be mediated in part
observed to invent signs for items for which she change, hearing that the Celtics have lost, or jin- havior or to humans. In monkeys and birds, dis- by those areas of the nervous system that control
knew no name, and she combined signs crea- goistic slogans can delight us, arouse us, drive us criminating intraspecific calls is largely a the vocal apparatus and that receive input from the
tively. to despair, or make our blood boil. Most of these 12
left-hemisphere function, Moreover, relative to auditory system. That there are regions serving
Other researchers have used tangible objects powerful events reach us through perfectly arbi- damage to the right hemisphere, damage to the left such functions and that damage to these areas
trary stimuli only remotely related to events of hemisphere impairs complex nonverbal motor se- disrupts speech and comprehension does not sug-
(such as plastic plates of various shapes) as sym-
quences as well as those involved in speech.13 It gest that verbal behavior is discontinuous with
bols and have found that chimpanzees can follow biological importance. Many nonhuman animals
appears that the left hemisphere is specialized for other behavior, or that it is mediated by structures
rather complicated directions, such as, Sarah insert are clearly sensitive to species-specific social
discriminating and mediating sequences of events that embody special linguistic principles. Evidence
banana in pail? They can apply a category name " stimuli, to arbitrary stimuli are typically 14
or responses, be they verbal or nonverbal. With brain damage suggests, to the
such as food or tool to novel instances of the followed by primary reinforcers, but they cannot contrary, that the role of different structures in the
category, to pictures of instances of the category, be whipped into a frenzy over such trivial events Note that the vocal apparatus, while symmetri- nervous system depends greatly upon one's indi-
and even to previously learned symbols for items as the burning of a flag, a scurrilous comment, or cal, is a single effector-system, unlike the limbs. If vidual experiences.
in that category.10 Woodruff, Premack, and Ken- the death of a religious leader. Human beings control of the vocal tract were bilateral, like the
nel11 even showed that a chimpanzee could use control of other effectors, coordinated movements For example, damagd to Wernicke's area, in
stand alone in our sensitivity to arbitrary events. the auditory association cortex of the left temporal
symbols to demonstrate "conservation of volume" would require long interconnections between
Verbal stimuli, if we except cries of disgust, anger, lobe, commonly disrupts \ a variety of language
in a classic Piagetian conservation task: The hemispheres with a resulting loss of efficiency.
glee, and so on, are perfectly arbitrary, and the Since our hands often act independently of one functions including discrimination of speech
chimp, after having witnessed the relevant trans-
contingencies which such of of a fine hand movement is rela- sounds and writing, However, a lesion to
formation, would place a token meaning "same"
verbal behavior as word order, intonation, and tively efficient, as it is mediated by a single hemi- Wernicke's area does, not affect, the writing abili-
two vessels of different but contain- ties of a deaf person. * 7 Curiously, if the deaf person
ing quantity of liquid. pattern are exquisitely subtle. It is a tenable sphere. Lateralization may have' developed, then,
hypothesis that a crucial ingredient of the human partly from the demands of coordinated action of is a lip-reader the effect of the lesion is more
As impressive as these achievements are, chim- typical. 18
This finding is not-surprising, of course,
panzees show little sensitivity to sign order, and do language faculty is not some language-specific the musculature of the mouth, tongue and -throat.
adaptation but, rather, a greater sensitivity to con- Lateralization would have served ingestive func- for control of verbal behavior in deaf people is
not progress much beyond two-word phrases, evidently independent of auditory stimuli; how-
while deaf children typically move on to more and tingencies of conditioned reinforcement, arising tions as well as speech functions, though the rapid
coordination of movements necessary to produce ever, it suggests that the specific structures under-
more complicated and elaborate combfftations of perhaps from some general property of the nerv-
speech sounds would be especially well served. • lying verbal, behavior are less important than the
signs. Fine control of the vocal musculature and ous system or possibly from some dimension of contingencies that establish relationships between
unique articulatory mechanisms are not the only the reinforcement mechanism, such as a greater That verbal behavior is typically mediated by response classes and discriminative stimuli.
adaptations contributing to adult verbal domain of the diffuse reinforcement signal or of the left hemisphere does not mean that are
unique, innate language centers there with a special Damage to Wernicke's area in Chinese patients
behavior. the richness of recurrent connections that permit underlines this point. These patients suffer impair-
Chimpanzees in language are usually responses to serve discriminative and conditioned architecture that somehow explains speech and
ments typical of Western patients and, among other
given tangible reinforcers physical contact, reinforcement functions. comprehension. If an infant receives dam-
things,-, have difficulty discriminating similar-
300 CHAPTER 11
Verbal Behavior 301
sounding words. However, like deaf people, they anchor. The to it but
have no trouble writing.19 Of course, the Chinese responded, "I know what it does . . . You use it to
do not write in phonetic characters but in picto- anchor a ship." Anchor may be a single worci, but There is some evidence the human nervous
graphs. Evidently their writing behavior is not it is a member of a number of response classes and system is specially adapted to perceive human
under the control of auditory stimuli. The Japanese not all of them were disrupted by the lesion. Simi- speech sounds. Speech sounds (phonemes) are
have two classes of written symbol, one of which larly, when Margolin and Carlson22 showed a sub- considerably more complicated physically than
(kana symbols) is phonetic, like Western alpha- ject a picture of a pistol, he was unable to name it. pure tones, and typically consist of two or more
bets, and one of which (kanji symbols) is pictorial, However, after a moment or two he began to pull bands of frequencies, sometimes rising or falling,
like Chinese. Damage to Wernicke's area in a his "trigger finger" as if firing a gun; he noticed Ms and sometimes interrupted by slight pauses. Tiny
Japanese patient will impair the ability to write own response, and replied, "Oh! It's a gun . . . a variations in the properties of the signal are suffi-
kana symbols but not kanji symbols, while other cient for the speech sound to be heard as a different
pistol!5' Here, the visual stimulus no longer con-
lesions can have the opposite effect.20 phoneme. For example, the phrase the gray ship
trolled the verbal response pistol, but it did control
In conventional treatments of language it is will be heard as the gray chip or the great ship
the behavior of the hand. The tactile and visual depending on slight changes in the length of both
common to speak of a lexicon, a repository where stimuli arising from the subject's own behavior Silent
words and their meanings are stored. While the the sh sound and the preceding brief interval of Interval
were sufficient to evoke the "appropriate" verbal silence.27 (See Figure'11.2.) \ Time
lexicon is intended as a metaphor, it is often in- response.
voked as if it were real, though no physical struc- Speech sounds can be simulated mechanically,
In some cases stimulus control will be lost by permitting experimenters to manipulate the physi- 100 r Noise Duration= 62 msec
tures are ever proposed as possible candidates. The one modality but retained by another. One patient,
notion that words are appropriate units of behavior cal properties of the sound precisely, sometimes
upon meeting a friend, could not recall his name with surprising results. For example, when the
and that words have meanings is seldom ques- until the friend spoke.23 Another subject was un- 80 -
tioned. From a behavioral perspective, however, initial speech sound of a syllable such as ga is
able to identify a hammer by sight, but named it presented alone, it does not sound like a consonant
the formal properties of a response are an inade-
promptly upon picking it up.24 Sometimes, how- or any other speech sound: rather, it sounds like a .5 60
quate basis for classification; we specify the GrayShip
ever, within a single modality, the control of some chirp or whistle. When followed by different vowel Great Ship
controlling variables as well. A response of a par-
responses is lost while that of others is spared. One sounds, the same chirp will sometimes be heard as Gray Chip
ticular topography—say, paper—can appear in
subject who could not read words could neverthe- two different consonants. In contrast, different Great Chip
many reliable three-term contingencies and will
less point out that they were misspelled. Carlson25 chirps followed by different vowels can be heard /a
consequently be a member of many response
gave her a list of eighty word pairs in which one as the same consonant.
classes. To illustrate, the response paper can be
evoked by reading the word, by repeating it after word of the pair was misspelled. She was able to If the consonant portion of a syllable (the chirp)
another, by the sight of a sheet of paper, by wall read only five words but picked out the misspelling is played through an earphone to one ear, and the
ô
coverings, written reports, wasps' nests, news in 95% of the cases. Another subject could com- .vowel portion is simultaneously presented to the
sheets, and many other stimuli or events. While plete the poem "Roses are red, violets are blue. .." other ear,, a listener will hear two overlapping 20 40 • 60 80 100
paper Is a single word, its, is a member of many but could not name sugar when its definition was sounds—the whole syllable, apparently integrated
28 Duration of Silent interval (ms)
response classes, each of which must be analyzed aloud to her.26 from its two components, and a chirp. Thus, one
separately. This view of verbal units is supported Thus neuropsychological data suggest that the hemisphere apparently integrated the two stimuli FIGURE 11.2 A schematic speech spectrogram of
metaphor of the lexicon is a poor one. Verbal into a speech sound while the other responded to the phrase, ''gray ship" (top)
by neuropsychological data. When people suffer
responses, like all other behavior, are evidently the raw stimuli. There need be no special act of By varying the length of the fricative, "sh," and the
lesions they sometimes become unable to
controlled by specific antecedents and can best be integration, of course. The auditory input was suf- preceding silent interval, experimenters altered the
name objects. In the traditional formulation this is words that the subjects heard. With the fricative held
understood by considering the selecting contingen- ficient, to evoke a particular perceptual response in
a loss of lexical access; the word can no longer be constant at 62 milliseconds, subjects predominantly re-
cies in the history of the individual. Some verbal the listener; whether it would do so for a perfectly
retrieved. However, it appears that a more accurate naive subject is unclear. ported hearing "gray ship," "gray chip," and "great chip"
statement of the case is that the stimulus control of functions may be localized, but considering the as the silent interval was lengthened,
a particular response class has been disrupted by diversity of variables that control verbal responses, When speech sounds are systematically varied Source: From Repp, B. H., Liberman, A. M., Eccardt, T., &
it is likely that the physical mechanisms mediating along some physical dimension, the perceived Pesetsky, D. (1978). Perceptual integration of acoustic cues for
the lesion. stop, fricative, and affricative manner. Journal of Experimental
sound changes. For example, it is possible to
For example, Kolb and Whishaw21 report verbal behavior are widely distributed in the nerv- Psychology; Human Perception and Performance, 4, 621-637.
change a b sound to a d sound to a g sound simply
an aphasic patient a picture of a ship's ous system. Copyright © 1978 by the American Psychological Association,
by modifying the rise or fall in frequency of the Reprinted by permission.
302 ]I
Verba] Behavior 303
of the If the physical
Labeli-ng ior than outcomes are "predicted," since, How are we to explain these results? Phonemes
of the signal are in even increments, the
, v&A in the former case, there-is a relatively large dis- carry the burden of semantic distinctions. We re-
soend not change except at pho WO
crepancy between the responses conditioned to the spond one way to boat, another way to goat. Under
boundaries, where it changes abruptly. For
stimulus and the responses elicited by the outcome. normal conditions the visual stimuli arising from a
example, five successive presentations of the
In categorical perception, as in.edge-effect experi- speaker's movements correspond to the acoustic
stimulus, slightly different from one another, will"
all be heard as a d sound. The next stimulus in the ments, slight differences in stimulus properties stimuli entering our ear. Either complex of stimuli
sequence will be heard as a g sound, even though lead to large differences in outcome (being told that will enable us to differentiate boat and goat and to
it is quite close physically to the previous d you have won a million bucks is considerably more respond appropriately. Under noisy conditions, or
satisfying than being told that you have won a when the acoustic stimulus is degraded, however,
sound.29 Thus, slight physical differences at pho-
million ducks); hence, the outcome, after a stimu- the visual stimulus is more reliably correlated with
neme boundaries are sufficient to evoke different
lus boundary is crossed, is relatively surprising, what is being said than the acoustic stimulus; we
perceptual responses, while large differences 25 -
and stimulus control is sharpened. If sharp dis- cannot, make a b sound without closing our lips.
within a phoneme are not noticed. (See Figure
crimination between categories follows from the From what we know of the reinforcement princi-
11.3.) This abrupt shift in phoneme identification
reinforcement principle, then an innate tendency to ple, we would expect the more reliable predictor of
is called categorical perception and has been cited
categorize verbal stimuli is not a dramatic contri- an event to block control by other, simultaneously
as an example of a speech-specific adaptation of 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
presented, stimuli, and it follows that the visual
the human nervous system. Habituation studies bution of the genetic endowment to the language
Stimulus Value
faculty. stimulus may, in some cases, for /some subjects,
with very young infants have demonstrated the control the perceptual response even if it is incon-
phenomenon, suggesting that it does not depend on FIGURE 11.3 Categorical perception It is possible, of course, that categorical percep-
Continuous changes in the physical properties of the sistent with what is heard. We would not expect to
one's experience in discriminating verbal stimuli. tion is critical for infants learning their language,
speech signal produce discontinuous changes in what we find this effect for most pairs of phonemes, of
Categorical perception may, in fact, be impor- hear. Stimuli 5 and 9 are physically more dissimilar than and that an innate tendency to perceive phonemes course. B and g happen to be formed in ways that
tant in speech perception, but it is easy to exagger- stimuli 9 and 10, yet stimuli 5 through 9 are all heard, categorically facilitates language acquisition. By are visually distinct; moreover, as we saw above,
ate its significance with respect to speech-specific predominantly, as "d" while stimulus 10 is as 4'g.'" the time the infant matures, however, the they are acoustically quite similar. In fact, Mac-
adaptations of the human nervous system. First, it Subjects make fine discriminations at phoneme bounda- years of experience with phoneme perception can Donald and McGurK found no anomalies in sub-
is possible that categorical perception is an acci- ries but are unable to detect relatively large differences override an innate perceptual tendency. Consider jects' reports when pairs of syllables were not
dental property of the human auditory system. between stimuli within the boundaries of a phoneme. the following experiment by MacDonald & visually distinct, as in ga and da.
Some instances of categorical perception appear to arise
Incremental changes in the physical properties of McGurk.35 While our interpretation of the MacDonald and
from properties of our auditory system; some depend on
stimuli need not affect our receptors in equal incre- the discriminations honored in the verbal community in Adult subjects were shown a film of a person McGurk experiment is1*,necessarily tentative, it is
ments.30 If our auditory system were differentially which we were raised. facing the camera and repeatedly uttering the syl- evident that we do not perceive phonemes as we do
sensitive to certain phonemic boundaries, it would Source: From Liberman, A. M. The grammars of speech and lable ga. The sound for the film, however, did solely because of a special, speech-specific adap-
hardly be surprising to find that these boundaries language. Cognitive Psychology, _/, 301—323.
not correspond with the picture. The syllable re- tation of our auditory system. What, we perceive is,
are respected in speech. After all, we could peatedly presented over the sound track, synchro- in part, a product of our experiences. As in all
not communicate in a language whose sounds nous with the movements of. the mouth, was ba. aspects of human behavior, contingencies of natu-
could not be discriminated. hearing ga, the syllable sug- ral selection of reinforcement
Finally, is evidence suggesting that spe-
Not all are categori- gested by the visual stimulus, or da, (Neither da jointly to our perception of
for classes of verbal sounds.
cally, and the phenomenon of categorical percep- nor ga can be formed with closed lips, but da is
tion appears to vary somewhat with experimental stimuli are unnecessary- Blough34 has shown that
when responses in the presence of two classes of acoustically closer than ga to ba.) If subjects closed
procedures,,31 Furthermore, phonemic distinctions their eyes, they immediately heard the stimulus
are not constant across cultures. The Japanese, for stimuli are differentially reinforced, the discrimi- Babbling
nation is sharpest at the boundary between the two "correctly" as ba. In this case, the perceptual re-
example, perceive / and r categorically, while Eng- sponse of the subjects was more powerfully guided
lish-speakers do not. There is some evidence that stimulus classes. This phenomenon, called an edge For the first year or two of life, children typically
by the visual stimuli than by the auditory stimuli.
nonspeech sounds are perceived categorically,32 effect (see Chapter 3), is a kind of categorical a wide variety of speech sounds, including not
The subjective effect was found to increase with ' only those sounds found in their native verbal
and there is even evidence of categorical percep- perception and follows in a straightforward way
age: 98% of adults, but only 80% of young chil- community but those of all other cultures as well.
tion in the chinchilla,33 an organism with an audi- from the reinforcement principle: Outcomes which
dren, reported hearing something the This unsystematic is unique to human
tory system to own, are "surprising" alter the stimulus control of behav-
auditory stimulus. and is undoubtedly important in language
304 n
Verbal Behavior 305
acquisition. First, it exercises vocal to set our even
and presumably facilitates the coordination of ef- our closest relatives. However, we are aware of no The articulatory movements of the fluent
fectors which will eventually produce speech. Sec- evidence that there is a "language organ," a neural speaker, then, cannot be divided into a sequence of
ond, it provides a variable pool of responses from structure with special properties dedicated solely discrete responses, each corresponding to a written
which contingencies of selection can shape verbal to the task of generating grammatical sentences. letter or word. Clearly, then, the listener does not
units. Recall that variability in the .units to be The available physiological evidence suggests that hear a sequence of discrete, invariant speech
replicated is a prerequisite for selection processes. verbal behavior is qualitatively similar to other sounds. In fact, experienced listeners are remark-
The exploratory behavior of the naive organism in human behavior. ably forgiving of defects in the auditory signal
an operant chamber provides the variability from Warren* showed that missing speech sounds are
which target behaviors are shaped or selected. seldom detected by listeners, provided that some
Similarly, the variability in the infant's vocaliza- PARALLEL IN noise is substituted. He spliced a fragment of white
tions provides an appropriate substrate for the se- BEHAVIOR noise (a coughing sound) in the place of speech
lection of speech sounds and larger units in the sounds in samples of recorded speech. For exam-
Under some conditions we pick our words one by ple, in the following sentence,
child's verbal community.
one, as when we try to speak in a foreign tongue of
That contingencies of selection can alter the
which we have only a crude mastery, or when we The state governors met with their respective
probability of babbling responses was demon-
are attempting to be precise, as when we are on a legislatures convening in the capital city.
strated in a study by Routh.36 Infants who were
witness stand, or when we are trying to achieve a
clucked at and tickled following certain classes of
particular effect, as when we are composing a the cough replaced the s sound in legislatures
speech sound (vowels or consonants) showed a phrase for a fastidious audience. It is more com- Time
considerable increase in the frequency of the target Virtually none of his subjects detected the anom-
monly the case, however, that our verbal behavior FIGURE 11.4 Parallel transmission aly. Depending on the context, the spliced cough
classes relative to baseline levels, to. the unreinfor- cannot be considered a chain of discrete operants, A child learning to read sounds out the letters one by one was heard as a variety of different speech sounds.
ced class of sounds, and to their respective control a or a word, ana we do much the same thing-when we encounter a It was found that the *eel was on the axle.
groups. The reinforcement contingency differenti- to a chain of responses that we might build, step by long chemical name or other unfamiliar term. However
ated the highly variable behavioral substrate into an analysis of the physical properties of fluent speech
It was found that the *eel was on the shoe.
step, with a rat in an experimental chamber. In
at least two response classes. writing, one word necessarily follows another in its reveals that there is considerable overlap of speech It was found that the *eel was on the orange
The physical mechanisms underlying babbling turn, but in speech there is often no clear boundary sounds. In the word "bag," for example, the physical It was found that the *ee]was on the table
are unknown, but that babbling is found in all properties characteristic of the letter «b" overlap the "a"
between words either in the articulatory move- Subjects heard wheel, heel, peel, or meal, de-
verbal communities and even in deaf children sug- ments of the speaker, in the acoustic signal, or in pending on the context.41,
gests that there is a large innate component to the the effect on the listener. Source: After Liberman, 1972.
The fact that speech is riot produced or per-
phenomenon. Moreover, the adaptive significance In fluent speech, phonemes -overlap, a phe- ceived as a sequence of discrete sounds disposes of
of babbling is clear. The human infant utters a nomenon called When the the simple-minded notion that speech is nothing
variety of sounds from wfiich a repertoire of corn- physical properties of a sample of are ana- more than a simple response chain, in which each
verbal operants can be by lyzed, one finds that the acoustic signal charac- word or each sound is a response which serves as
cies of selection. the syllable di is slightly different from the d sound
teristic of a particular phoneme is often emitted the controlling stimulus for the next. It does not
In conclusion. are physical struc- m the syllable du, 38as shown in physical analyses of
simultaneously with that of nearby phonemes,37 In the speech signal. follow, however, that an analysis of verbal behav-
the system), the word bag, for example, analysis of the acoustic ior m terms of stimulus and response classes is
perceptual mechanisms (categorical perception), Fluent speech is interspersed with slight pauses
signal reveals that the portion of the signal charac- invalid. We may train a rat, step by step, to run
certain behavioral dispositions (babbling), and per- m the auditory signal, but the pauses often do not
teristic of the vowel sound pervades the entire through a tube, climb some stairs, press a bar and
even a special sensitivity to reinforcement correspond to word boundaries. Rather, the pauses
utterance, overlapping completely with the sounds so on, but that does not mean that the response
(secondary reinforcement., social reinforcement) tend to occur at transitions between consonant
characteristic of b and g. More striking, perhaps, cnam so established is a model of all response
sounds that may or may not occur at a word bound-
facilitate verbal behavior in human beings; even the consonant sounds partially overlap one sequences. All behavior, not just spoken sounds
ary Consider the speech spectrogram (Figure
whether they were originally selected because they another. (See Figure 11.4.) Moreover, the topog- occurs in parallel with other behavior. We gesture'
11.5) showing the physical properties of a frag-
served that function or are just being exploited by raphy of response corresponding to a particular speak, glance around us, walk, and flick bits of lint
ment of speech and the corresponding speech
contingencies of verbal behavior is not clear, but speech sound varies depending on what other off of our shirt sleeve, all in parallel. (It is neces-
sounds as represented by letters. The most con-
role of the genetic endowment, is evident: These or follow it. The d sound in sary, of course, that the responses be physically
spicuous pauses in the signal occur within words
compatible with one another.)
306 t. BAITER f i
Verbal
the to vary, dis- Linguistic creativity automatically rules out all ex-
tinctive appeared. Thus, is nothing tant associationist theories of language learning, for
8000 remarkable about parallel transmission once we they cannot, because of the limitations of the princi-
recall that the utterance as spoken is our primary ples they employ, account for the infinite number of
datum; written • words are only crude repre- sentences that every speaker-hearer is potentially
sentations. capable of understanding (with no previous "learn-
6000 ing" history),
Under some conditions, of course, verbal re-
sponses are chained like operants in an experimen- The context, makes it clear that the term "associa-
4000
tal chamber. When we attempt to learn a long, tionist theories" embraces the selectionist ap-
unfamiliar name, or a long word in another lan- proach that we endorse.
guage, we piece the word together, syllable by The notion that humans are able to speak and
syllable, until we can repeat the whole thing. Simi- understand an infinite number of grammatical sen-
2000
larly, when we learn a poem., we learn it phrase by tences is central to most modern positions in lin-
phrase, or line by line, or even word by word. In guistics and in much of psychology. This view has
these cases, response chaining appears to be rele- led to the position that a productive grammatical
vant. We might still see parallel transmission system lies at the heart of language, and that ap-
The s n a pp
within segments, but individual segments appear to proaches that attempt to account for verbal behav-
Time ior in terms of environmental contingencies
be chained together in sequence. Overlapping re-
sponses may be common among fluent speakers, without including a provision for a productive
FIGURE 11.5 A schematic speech spectrogram of a portion of the fluent utterance, "John said that the dog mechanism are likely to be superficial. Indeed, if
snapped at him," but for young children, people speaking haltingly
Note that the pauses in the physical signal do not always correspond to word boundaries, nor does the signal seem to in a foreign tongue, and even adults who anticipate the sentence were an appropriate unit of verbal
the sounds as we hear them. For example, we do not. hear the breaks in the word "snapped" as pauses, but ridiculed, we might to be behavior, a selectionist account would be inade-
those breaks contribute to the sounds that we do perceive, as we saw in Figure 11.2. quate, for selectionist'principles account for the
emitted in-sequence, perhaps because of a tendency
Source; From Foss, Donald J.. & Hakes, David T., Psycholinguistics, © 1978, p. 77. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, toward self-editing. , emergence and persistence of stable forms, be they
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. physical structures or behaviors. Moreover, in the
The size of the relevant verbal unit is clearly selectionist's view the first appearance of an adap-
important to whether or not we observe segmenta- tive form is due to blind Variation: A genetic mu-
tion. The lack of segmentation between word tation is more likely to produce a more poorly
Once the discriminative stimuli controlling a Jordan, simulating speech production in an boundaries may be a problem in traditional formu- adapted individual than a better adapted one, and
response are present, the probability of the re- adaptive network, has demonstrated that parallel lations, but in a selectionist interpretation of verbal the exploratory behavior of a pigeon in an experi-
sponse increases. It can be emitted if no incompat- transmission can occur where there is no response behavior, the word is not always an appropriate mental chamber or of a child with a ring puzzle is
ible responses are stronger. If incompatible competition.42 He represented eight distinctive unit of analysis. If the orderly unit is a more likely to be "incorrect", than, to lead to rein-
responses are stronger, thd< target response can be features of speech production, (voicing, place of or a frame,43 we should not necessarily expect to forcement. A stream of sentences, each one uttered
emitted when the other response has terminated. articulation, etc.) by patterns of a see pauses between individual words. We will for the first time, and one "correct," that is,
Many speech sounds are mutually compatible, as recursive network, and he set the network the task examine the issue units-of analysis one followed by an appropriate by
the phenomenon of parallel transmission demon- of producing the phrase sinistre structure. Using in the next section. the verbal community, is clearly not the direct
strates. Consequently, it is not surprising that the discrepancy between the actual output and the product of blind variation and selection.
sounds overlap. The fact that verbal behav- required output to modify the connection weights,
For many students of language it is axiomatic
ior can be represented as written characters favors he was able to demonstrate that the network would NOVELTY IN VERBAL BEHAVIOR that the sentence is an appropriate unit of analysis,
the interpretation that there is a one-to-one corre- produce a sequence of articulatory responses com-
A conspicuous feature of verbal behavior is its but there is no empirical justification for this as-
spondence between letters and speech sounds, and parable to that of a human speaker. Moreover,
novelty. When we consider large units of verbal sumption. First of all, the sentence is a formal unit
speech sounds occur in an orderly sequence. some of the responses occurred in parallel. The
behavior we rarely find two samples that are iden- and has a definition within the formal apparatus of
But speech preceded writing, and it is merely a rounding of the mouth required to produce the first
linguistics; it does not have an agreed behavioral
deficiency in our system of transcription that leads vowel sound in structure occurred earlier in the tical. This fact has been interpreted as evidence of
or operational definition. We noted above that
us to suppose occur in the order of pattern than suggested by the position' of the u in the inadequacy of principles derived from the
sentences usually coincide with the expiratory
in words. struct—. The critical point is that as soon as the of nonverbal behavior to explain language:
phase of respiration, but this fact appears to bear
308 I!
Verbal Behavior
no to the linguistic of view the is First, it be however, in to
Furthermore, to the a analysis of the central of language to an of behavior with the of a grammatical the validity of this of verbal operants
has a common-sense definition—you know one unobservable domain—in the head—and second, or linguistic analysis. Response classes depend in is underscored by neuropsychological data. The
when you hear one—it is clear that much verbal it requires us to abandon selectionist principles in, detail on the specific contingencies of reinforce- following examples are but a sample—we only
behavior fails to qualify. "On the top shelf—on the favor of unknown generative mechanisms, media- f ment for the organism in question; there is no present classes will feature in subsequent
left," "Not if I can help it," and "Maybe, if he" nisms have from the very general answer to the question of what a verbal discussions—but they will give the reader a sense
hurries*9 are three examples (gathered within a few that they are invoked to explain. operant is, just as there is no general answer to what of the variety of variables controlling verbal behav-
minutes) of perfectly clear but elliptical utterances An adequate account of verbal behavior must constitutes an operant in an experimental chamber. ior. We do not present an exhaustive list, for we
that can be forced into our common-sense mold for indeed account for its novelty, but it must account \ I For example, the sarcastic question, "Where's the wish to discourage the reader from equating the
sentences only by supplying additional material. for irregular utterances as well as those that most t -' ' fire?" is, for most of us, a unitary response, pre- classification of verbal operants with Skinner's
Much casual conversation consists of a stream of people consider grammatically correct. However, : sumably a single operant, evoked by a familiar analysis of verbal behavior.
run-on fragments woven together with conjunc- the problem of novelty in verbal behavior is no person or subordinate in a conspicuous but appar-
tions, gestures, pauses, and meaningless fillers; the different from the problem of novelty in nonverbal ently unnecessary hurry. For a fire marshal the Textual responses. When we read, our verbal
linguist can usually dip into this verbal salad and behavior. If it is true that a child can, in principle, same utterance may also be a unitary response, but behavior is guided by a pattern of visual stimuli.
'• extract a sentence, but that is an exercise in inter- utter an infinite number of sentences, then a child under the control of the sound of an alarm, and As young children we acquire units of textual
pretation. Finally, there are many utterances that can, in the same sense, climb an infinite number of hence a different operant. For the loiterer on a street behavior47 initially corresponding to letters, but
just don't make any sense; there are verbal slips, trees, skip an infinite number of stones across the corner, hearing the wailing of the fire engines, the extending to words and. phrases, as we become
nervous prattle, and so on, that no one would surface of a pond, or whistle an infinite number of | utterance may be the combination of two or more skilled readers. We can even read foreign lan-
defend as sentences. A friend once queried, "Is it tunes. All behavior is novel if we look closely '' operants, fire : and the grammatical frame, guages passably, without the slightest under-
still raining outside yet, or what?" While this was enough; even, a rat pressing a bar in an operant / Where's the X-—? To one who happens to be read- standing of what we are saying. Since the form and
presumably merely the blend of two incompatible chamber will vary the force and position and dura- ing this text aloud, the utterance is presumably sequence of such verbal behavior are controlled by
utterances of roughly equal probability, no such tion of its presses and the posture of its body from three operants under control of the three printed the text, with little relation to context or content,
can be for the words. To the six-year-old beginning reader, textual responses are quite different from most
one occasion to the next. The problem of novelty
following testimony of Ron Ziegler, President sounding out the words letter by letter, or trigrarn other verbal operants,, Nevertheless, textual re-
is partly a problem of identifying appropriate units
Nixon's Press Secretary. Asked by a senator by trigrani, the utterance is more than three oper-
' of analysis. sponses can be intermixed with other verbal oper-
whether a set of Watergate tapes were all intact, a ants, while her younger brother may run about,
The concept of the response class, or operant, ants as when: a politician gives a speech, glancing
question that required only a simple "Yes" or repeating the phrase as a unitary response, simply
is central to a selectionist account of behavior. It is occasionally at note cards or a prepared text. Under
"No," he replied: in imitation of adults around him. Thus, we cannot
the operant, not the individual response, that is such conditions it would be hopeless to try to
/ would feel that most of the conversations that took reinforced and that increases or decreases in fre- begin to understand behavior by considering its interpret the speaker's- behavior solely from its
place in those areas of the White House that did have formal properties alone. topography.
quency. The operant is an empirically defined class
the recording system would in almost their entirety of responses that is relatively stable over time— i Some persons who have suffered brain damage
be in existence, but the special prosecutor, the court, display a peculiar disorder called alexia, or the loss
not novel—but concatenations or combina- f
and, I think, the American people are sufficiently
familiar with the recording system, to know where tlons of operants will often be novel. The • of the ability to" read.48 While this disorder com-
the recording devices existed and to know the situ- appropriate unit of analysis in language, then, is the monly occurs in conjunction with other deficits, it
and an utterance will be unique if There are, of course, contingencies of verbal be- can occur alone. Fro in the present perspective, this
ation in terms of the recording process, but I feel,
although the process has not been undertaken yet in It is composed of a unique combination of verbal havior that pervade a culture; that is what we mean poses no special problem; the stimulus control of
preparation of the material to abide by the court operants, just as a sentence will be unique if it is by a verbal community. An American child will textual operants is disrupted by a lesion, but other
decision, really what the answer to that question composed of a unique combination of words. One to English and can get along reasonably verbal operants remain intact.
• 45 well anywhere English is spoken. Even so, the
IS.
will utter as many unique utterances as there are
child's verbal repertoire will be-unique. It will
It is customary to dismiss such irregularities as unique constellations of controlling variables. To Echoic responses. A child also acquires a reper-
differ somewhat from that of other people in the
the product of "performance" variables: All verbal say that this is an infinite number is meaningless. toire of echoic operants, and can repeat sounds,
verbal community, and it will differ'from his own
utterances begin as grammatically correct sen- From the foregoing comments it would be natu- words, phrases, and longer utterances after a
repertoire later in life. Nonetheless, it is possible to
in the head, but they get garbled or abbrevi- ral to assume that words are verbal operants, for ' model. While this repertoire is probably crucial for
analyze typical contingencies of reinforcement in
in execution. Clearly this is simply an attempt they appear to be the stable building blocks from a verbal community to illustrate a variety of verbal the child's learning his language, echoic responses
to salvage the sentence as a unit of analysis. In our which larger utterances are constructed. We must operants, as Skinner46 has done. As we will see, are common in adult speech. We rehearse a name
or a phone number until we can write it down or
310 ii Verbal Behavior 311
up party, we recite vows the by the of the Since tacts are controlled by objects,
parish vicar or swear to uphold the laws of the verbal community, which profits from precise events, novelty in verbal behavior can be ex- are evoked by antecedent verbal stimuli, but
commonwealth the justice of the peace. Often stimulus control of verbal behavior. We are said to plained, in part, by novel circumstances. Since the is no point-to-point correspondence between the
we repeat a phrase from a previous utterance, par- an object when we name or describe it, but tacts verbal community has little interest in hearing the stimulus and the response in intraverbals. When
ticularly when we are trying to "buy time." A include other kinds of responses to stimuli as well. same thing over and over again, we are differen- one particular verbal expression is commonly fol-
student who is asked, "What is the capital of We say, "Quarter to four" in the presence of the tially reinforced for reporting changes, making lowed by another, the first one will tend to become
Senegal?" may respond, perhaps quite slowly, kitchen clock, or "German measles" when con- distinctions, and identifying unique events; conse- a controlling stimulus for the second. Having heard
"The capital of Senegal is . . ." Echoic control fronted by a particular constellation of physical quently, we develop a fine-grained repertoire of on many occasions Give me liberty, or give me
apparently supplements other variables to produce symptoms. Tacts increase in probability in the tacts and can usually report events quite pre- death! we are virtually certain to respond death to
a common phenomenon: When a speaker uses a cisely.51 the verbal stimulus Give me liberty or give me —.
presence of relevant stimuli, but, like other verbal
picturesque or slightly unusual word, like astound- operants, whether or not they are emitted depends While textual and echoic responses are control- Moreover, even when'the antecedent stimulus is
ing or undeniable, the word is subsequently used on many other factors as well. led by visual and auditory stimuli respectively, simply liberty, or give me •— the probability of
throughout the conversation by all parties, possibly The concepts of reference and naming are tacts are controlled by stimuli of every sort. Con- saying death presumably increases. Memorized
ie spite- of deliberate attempts to avoid it. It is only sequently, it would be remarkable if there were poetry, prose, and "facts" are typical!)' intraverbal
clearly related to the concept of the tact, but, as with
under such conditions that we are apt to notice the classes of brain lesion that disrupted tacts uniquely. chains, which we demonstrate by giving ourselves
many traditional terms, they do not map neatly
effect of the stimulus word; echoic control is prob- Moreover, since the classification of verbal oper- a "running start" when we falter. When we are
onto units derived from an operant analysis. Oper-
ably far more pervasive than we realize. Like tex- ants is largely unknown to neuropsychologists, interrupted in the middle of Hamlet's'soliloquy, we
tual responses, echoics are often intermixed with ants must be defined in terms of their antecedents
such a lesion would likely go unreported as such. may be unable to continue without going back a
other verbal operants, and an interpretation of ver- and typical consequences as well as the orderliness
Some neuropsychological data do seem to be rele- line or two. Word associations and much of what
bal behavior must take them into account. of the relation among these events. Tacts can be
vant, however. Some patients suffer anomia, or the passes for knowledge can be interpreted in terms
As was the case with textual operants, brain any length: Many tacts are words, but some are inability to name objects; as we have noted above,
phrases or whole sentences: on the table, in the box, of intraverbal control. The verbal stimulus Battle
lesions can cause a selective loss of echoic oper- it is often the case that patients who appear to be of Hastings increases the probability of a variety of
To Whishaw: The mail's here! and so on. In some cases a tact can to an in do so under intraverbal responses including William, the Con-
be a verbal frame: Having learned on the chair, on different-stimulus conditions.'A subject who can-
Disorders of repetition may result . . .from a selec- queror, ten sixty-six, Harold, Norman invasion,
the table, on the bed, the child may say on the bench not name a spoon when looking at it may be able
tive dissociation between auditory-input and and Anglo-Saxons. Which of them, if any, is actu-
without special training. The frame on the X— is a to do so when the spoon is picked up. The response
speech-output systems. In this latter case, of selec- ally emitted will depend on many collateral vari-
tive dissociation, the disorder of repetition may be
tact controlled in part by the physical relationship spoon is a member of a variety of response classes; ables. Intraverbal contrdl is clearly relevant to the
the only significant language disturbance, and may of one thing on top of another. On the news, on the one class may be disrupted by the lesion while phenomenon of priming Discussed in Chapter 9.'
go unnoticed except through special testing. TV, and on the radio presumably include frames of others survive. While there is but a single name for For experienced speakers, intraverbal control
the same topography but under different stimulus spoon, there are many tacts of that topography.
Other lesions can cause a disorder called, trans- contributes strength to virtually everything we say.
control. Tacts need not be whole words; certain Tacts often provide much of the' "content" of In some cases intraverbal control will be the domi-
which in some cases is mani- such as the terminal -s in nouns and what we say. We can get along in a foreign country nant variable in determining a respoB.se, but in
fested by who can repeat words but cannot verbs, are presumably controlled by with a crude repertoire of tacts and with very little many others the control will be shared with other
spontaneously, in some cases they can features of a situation that cause us to speak
words but not even understand them.50 Here it understanding of grammatical distinctions. Some variables; for our choice among synony-
of plurality, possession, or currency of action. frontal-lobe lesions produce in which the mous expressions may be" largely a function of
mechanisms serving echoic operants
Similarly, parts of words, such as word roots, can, patient is able to produce only content words with intraverbal relations. Perhaps the most important
have been preserved while others have been lost.
over time, emerge as tacts. When we see a pile of few, if any, words, such as articles, con- of intraverbals is their contribution to gram-
Again, these findings are compatible with Skin-
ner's classification of verbal operants but not with things thrown haphazardly on the floor we junctions, and prepositions. In these patients it matical frames. For example, when we begin a
morphemes, words, sentences, and other tradi- be inclined to call it a con— and then grope unsuc- appears that mechanisms underlying tacts were sentence with He, She or//, the grammatical tag -s
tional 'units of analysis, cessfully for a suitable ending for our word. Con- spared while operants evoked by relationships is strengthened and. if other variables are- suitable,
gregation, consortium, confabulation, congeries, among tacts suffered. (Such operants are called can contribute to the proper inflection of present-
Tacts. Another class of verbal behavior (the convulsion, conglomeration, conjunction, con- in Skinner's terminology.) tense verbs. We have naany stock expressions and
in Skinner's terminology) is that class of discrimi- traption, confection, convocation, all suggest still more standard constructions with which we
nated operants controlled by some property or things thrown together, and con may emerge as a tntraverbal responses. The .last class of verbal pepper our speech. We can see the effect of in-
object in the nonverbal world. Stimulus control is unit controlled by that property. operants that we will mention here is the intraver- traverbal control in grammatical frames most
312 11
clearly In where it to grammatical er- went," or "I broke." later, the child There is no disputing the obedience to
rors. If a singular subject happens to be followed appears to have learned a rule for forming past- rules in children's verbal behavior, but it does not form, and the child's verbal practices
by a prepositional ending in -s, we often fall I follow that the rules are "actively formulated or closely approximate those of the verbal com-
tense verbs and will a d or ed sound to the munity.
into the error of inflecting the verb as If the subject of the verb and say "followed" and "painted.5' The jx) : sought by children, consciously or unconsciously,
were plural. For example, we might say That bunch ' The three-term contingency of reinforcement Is a When we grasp the fact that all discriminated
child is said to have learned a rule that the past tense
of idiots cruising our streets make mefurious! Here rule—in the presence of the discriminative stimu- operants are rule-following in the sense used here,
of verbs is formed by adding ed. He has not simply
the intraverbal control exerted by idiots and per- lus, a response will be followed by reinforce- the prevalence of rules in verbal behavior is unre-
learned individual past-tense forms one by one, for markable. More importantly, it reveals that there
haps streets was apparently stronger than that of he will sometimes apply the rule to irregular verbs ment—and all discriminated operant behavior is
bunch. rule-following in this sense.56 A pigeon who pecks are rules governing verbal behavior that are not
such as come, go, and get, and say "I corned'9 and grammatical in nature. Consider Skinner's discus-
Some examples of brain lesions have been re- "I goed" and even, sometimes, "I wented" or "I got a red key but not a white key can be said to be
sion of verbal fragments:
ported that destroyed all verbal functions except upped." These incorrect Irregular verbs may even following a rule, but we do not invoke an active
intraverbals and echoics. A victim of a gas leak persist in the child's repertoire for years.52 The search for regularities or a drive to seek order, nor Some apparent minimal units have no respectable
suffered massive damage to her cerebral cortex, but child has presumably not heard these words before need we do so with children who overgeneralize genealogy, and they have tended to be neglected by
Broca's area and Wernicke's area were preserved. the formation of plurals or past tenses. those concerned with historical and comparative
and undoubtedly has not been differentially rein-
She lost all appropriate spontaneous language but Skinner discusses verbal discriminated oper- data. Many examples have long been familiar, how-
forced for uttering them.
could repeat what was said to her, and if given the Berko5^ found further evidence that children ants at great length57 and specifically addresses the ever. An initial sp is characteristic of many words in
beginning of a poem or a phrase, she could com- present issue: Of roots and affixes, he writes: English having to do with emanation from the mouth
appear to extend grammatical rules to new in- (spit, speak, spew) orfront some other point ('sputter,
plete it. Perhaps most revealing, if an ungrarnmati- stances despite the absence of these instances in the sprinkle, spray) or with radiation from a point
cal sentence were read to her, she would repeat it They are functional uhits in the behavior of the
verbal community. In English, some nouns are speaker only insofar as they correspond with par- (spoke, spire, spur). It would appear, therefore, that
with the grammar corrected, suggesting that gram- made plural by adding an s sound, others by adding the response sp has functional unity under the con-
ticular features of a stimulating situation. The evi-
matical tags are indeed, in some cases, a matter of ez and others by adding z, e.g., rock—rocks, dence is clearest when a speaker composes new trol of a particular geometric pattern common to
intraverbal control. glass—glasses, and pig—pigs. Berko showed chil- forms of response, with respect to new situations, many stimuli. . . . The basic fact is that a stimulus
In this section, we have attempted to show Having developed a functional suffix -ed with re- involving emanation or radiation from a point com-
dren drawings of little amoeboid creatures with monly evokes the response sp. The. response only
words, sentences, and other formal units of gram- nonsense-syllable names. She found that children spect to that subtle property which we speak of as
action-in-the-past, the suffix may be added for the rarely occurs alone—ând even then only in inchoate
mar have little place in a behavioral analysis. The could give the "correct" plural of the nonsense-syl- first time to a word which has hitherto described only behavior under stress,: in which a novel pattern
concept of the verbal operant captures far better the lable name most of the time. For example she might showing radiation from a point might lead the
dynamic and Idiosyncratic properties of verbal be- action in the present, The process is conspicuous
say, "This is a 'wug.' Here is another wug. Now when the speaker composes a form which is not speaker to stammer sp yithout completing a stand-
havior. The extraordinary novelty of verbal behav- we have two ." The child would correctly ard verbal form. . . .
established by the practices of a particular commu-
ior emerges from the unlimited number of reply, "wugz." It is untenable to suppose that the nity. He singed is obviously com]~)OSQdfrom separate Although we may demonstrate a functional unit of
combinations of orderly units. Novelty arises, not children had been previously reinforced for utter- elements, because the community' reinforces the verbal behavior in which \i response of a given form
from some hidden lagoon of free will, but from the form He sang. He walked may also have been com- is controlled by a given stimulus, it does not follow
Ing such words; It appears that they were able to that every instance of a response having that form
interplay of controlling variables in an ever-chang- posed, but since the form is also separately rein-
apply a rule when supplied with a novel example. forced, the evidence is not so clear f represents the same operant,, nor that every instance
ing and complex world. 8i t
Children often overregularize plurals in reveal- of a response evoked by that property has that form.
ways. Children will often say "foots" rather That the nonstandard form singed should dis- It does not follow, for example, that every instance
than "feet," apparently from having learned to place the previously acquired sang should cause no ofsp is an instance of the unit just described or that
form plurals by adding s. Somewhat later, perhaps every case of radiation will evoke a response con-
TO concern. When two responses are incompatible, raining sp. (And it does not follow, of course, that the
having learned to add ez to words ending in s- (e.g., only the stronger, or prepotent, response will be functional unity of a minimal operant in the behavior
Language Is to be from fox—foxes), children will sometimes say 64foot- emitted. The other response is still In the repertoire of a. speaker corresponds to the practices of any
behavior in that it conforms to rules. Studies of ses." Analogous overgeneralizations are found in \ and continues to fluctuate in_ probability with community, A child of six took the terminal -nese, in
language acquisition reveal that children appear to many other languages, particularly highly inflected changes in controlling variables; it has not been Chinese and Japanese, to refer to the shape of the
be following rules in defiance of prevailing contin- languages such as Russian.54 eliminated or erased. Under some conditions we eyes.)60
gencies of reinforcement. Consider the phenome- These findings are commonly held to be prob- will the standard form emerge, and, in fact,
lematic from a behavioral perspective and suggest 1 children often mix correct and incorrect forms of Thus, the mere fact that verbal behavior can be
non of overregularizatioe or overgeneralizatlon.
;
the same verb for months.59 Ultimately, of course, characterized by a system of rules does not, by
A young child will often learn the correct past tense that the acquisition of language involves the gen-
itself; have any implications about the adequacy of
of irregular verbs such as go and>break and say, "I eration and testing of hypotheses about rules.55 the nonstandard form loses strength relative to the
selectionist principles to account for it. However,
314
_êjv ,-!•;,/./ ./..fffct Verbal Behavior
in of for its com- to be in an of a verb. In we have never

plexity in selectionist we of or used gloomy in such constructions, but we The of a is analo-
progress Skinner's work in 1957, we someone with the following gous to a response chain in which
have heard it in adjectival constructions: A gloomy
remains to be done. We must for example, how to Lewis Carroll): are to vary depending on prevailing condi-
day; my cousin and her gloomy husband; he is
it is -ed is merged with brood to form brooded tions. For example, we might teach a pigeon the
TTie tove gimbles in the wabe gloomy and dyspeptic; and so on. Using, or hearing
and not with gloomy to form gloomied. What in following response chain: A peck to the center key
a word used, in a particular kind of frame or con- of a three-key display produces either a high-
fact are the discriminative stimuli that control the Our subject may respond, whimsically, with struction appears to alter the probability of using it
ending -edl Skinner mentions "the subtle property any of the following utterances: pitched or a low-pitched tone; if high, the pigeon
in a variety of related constructions without ex- pecks the left key; otherwise it pecks the right key.
we speak of as action-in-the-past," and no doubt plicit experience.-The stimulus control appears to
How long has the tove been gimbling in the wabe? Finally, a third peck, to the center key, is followed
this is relevant. However, current behavior is al- Did the tove really gimble? be mainly intraverbal, although, as we pointed out
ways guided by current variables, and it is unclear by food. After sufficient practice, we might get
I gimbledfor several hours last night myself. above, our own responses to a verbal stimulus (our
how action-in-the-past is represented in the present It takes two toves to gimble. fluent performance in which the pigeon rapidly
interpretation of it) may be relevant. pecks out an appropriate sequence. The "frame" r
constellation of controlling variables. Moreover, Will he still gimble after he s seen Paree?
We must also entertain the possibility that the would be center X—- center. The third peck, to the j
the same variables might plausibly evoke either//^
One might infer we recognize that gimbles A individual word is not the appropriate unit of analy- center ke}^, would be controlled partly by the stim-
brooded or He was gloomy but not He was brood
is a verb, tove a noun, and that they can be used in sis in the examples cited. We may learn be gloomy uli arising from the first peck and partly by the
or He gloomied. Two different syntactical con-
any of a variety of constructions accordingly. We and its variants as units and a gloomy day, a gloomy temporal and tactile properties (but not the loca-
structions could be evoked by the same set of
do not do so because gimbles is an activity and tove man, etc., as units. The/frame He'was X—may be tion) of the second peck, while X—L is a variable
conditions; we have to ask why the constructions
a thing. We know nothing about these words ex- strong under the same-conditions that He Xed is that would'be controlled in part by "situational"
are not parallel and why we do not get blends. To cept how they have been used in the passage.
say that brood is a verb and gloomy is an adjective /,ri strong. The variables disposing the speaker to one stimuli, in this case, the pitch of a tone. Similarly,
Perhaps on the analogy of The frog sits in the pond I '* ' rather than the other construction might be trivial, in the frame It's a X—day, isn't it? the variable
evades the issue. To put it loosely, how does the we are able to generalize to novel, but consistent,
speaker know that the one is a verb and the other but once embarked on the'former frame, there term, e.g., dismal, fine, splendid, lousy, is control-
utterances. The example suggests that the variables i would be intraverbal support for completing it with led partly by the earlier elements of the frame, but
•' an adjective, and what place do these terms have in ; <
gloomy,, but not brood. partly by the weather; The- controlling stimuli for
a behavioral account? Answering these questions verbal or syntactic rather than semantic. j
goes to the very heart of the controversy between The of identifying the appropriate units in day include the specific verbal elements of the first
We should be cautious in drawing this conclu- of the frame, It's a, plus the temporal and
those who view language as a qualitatively unique such an utterance and the task of specifying the
sion, however. People have been exposed to count- prosodic'elements (but not the phonetic elements)
module of the mind with peculiar rules largely variables controlling grammatical tags is a formi-
less utterances of the form The tove gimbles, and it of the variable term. >
constrained by innate mechanisms and those who dable one. Unfortunately, if, as we believe, human
is likely to suggest a meaning to us, however
view it as behavior, behavior mediated by some behavior is the product of countless instances of Similarly, consider the problem of "nonad-
vague. For example, we may perhaps think of some
unique structures, but subject to the same princi- selection, there will be no general solution to the jacent dependencies." In the utterance / called him
creature gamboling somewhere. In any case, the
ples as nonverbal behavior. The elaborate systems problem. The controlling variables will almost cer- up to ask about getting a ride to Boston, or / called
expression has a familiar form, The X— Ys, a frame j
of rules devised by the linguist, to characterize the we have often seen in modified form: TVJO Xs tainly differ somewhat from person to person. Julie up to ask about getting a ride to Boston, the
linguistic competence of the speaker specify rela- Y— or X— needs to Y— or Yesterday X— Yed or However, that does not absolve us from, showing word up follows a variable term. It appears to be
tionships among abstract formal entities such as Will X— Y—? Note is no to the the control is plausible, that there are some of a frame call X-— up, where X— has
nouns, verbs, prepositions, as well as hidden mark- gimbles is not "really" a verb. Our subject conditions that can reasonably be invoked to ac- properties. In accounting
ers other terms unfamiliar to the layman. To count for a particular construction. Postulating ad for the up it
just responded in a way consistent with
selectionist, rules and concepts are empty interpretation. Another subject might have re- hoc frames to account for every grammatical puz- say, two words later, we appeal to the control by
unless they can be operationalized, or translated sponded, "Are there other kinds of gimbles in. the ; zle we confront is the weakest form of support for the element in the frame, call, and the temporal
into physical or behavioral terms. wabe?" on the analogy of "The fat birds in the j a selectionist position, in the absence of any inde- prosodic properties of the variable term. That
It would be convenient to argue tree." Here tove is treated as an adjective ~' pendent evidence such frames are, in fact, these latter properties are important, not
grammatical concepts cannot be operationalized gimbles as a plural noun. operanls. However, it is likely that fluent speakers invoked ad hoc, is demonstrated by considering
can therefore be dismissed from our analysis. It appears then, that we say He brooded partly in their repertoire many overlapping different examples of the variable^—. There Is no \
It may well be the case that traditional terms carry because we have heard, or have said, / was brood- of different sizes, and that, because of intraverbal syntactic reason why we should not include a long j
extra baggage that will be useless in our account, ing or He broods a lot or of a of control among elements, countless grammatical subordinate clause in oar variable term, but note •'
it in is the are the weakening effect on the word up we do
so:
316 11
Verbal Bella 317
/ called the did such a good Job on your ity—otherwise we would the ambigu-
bicuspids up. ity of reference in the first Nor we van- 65
the
we to control by variables—each in such in
Here up has lost all We the particular, we the concept of the in- indeed a high frequency of reinforce-
weakening effect if we are in the of the four constructions be occasioned by modeling, and correction by parents. Brown
the circumstances. It is such subtleties as traverbal frame is central to many subtle grammati-
of the frame: cal distinctions. For example, with regard to the Hanlon counted .only instances in which a
these that motivate many linguists to argue that response was followed by an explicit expression of
/ called the dentist that you recommended—No! It language is too complex and its rules too arcane to example, we have heard and said countless
utterances of the form When he did this, So-and-so approval or • disapproval such as Very good, or
wasn't you; it was Eric—up. be learned in a few short years by nearly all chil-
did that, and He did- this when So-and-so did that. That's wrong. MoerK observed that other parental
If we are determined to use this construction we dren in all cultures; children must get a substantial responses can have the same effect; for example,
The control exerted by When he X— over the
can maintain some of the force of up by uttering head start from the genetic endowment. They pos- the parent simply repeating the child's utterance
subsequent form and interpretation of what follows
variable term in a rapid monotone: tulate that humans are endowed with a universal be dismissed.63 can serve a reinforcing function.
grammar, and a language acquisition device that Brown and Haul on 5s observation that adults
I called thefamousbrainsurgeonyourecommended- The fact that verbal behavior conforms to rules
extracts the relevant elements of the grammar from provide only the most perfunctory and sporadic
butnolongerlike up, has overinterpreted. It does not follow that
the restricted and mi stake-ridden snatches of rules are "in the head" or that they are somehow feedback to children about the grammatical cor-
Thus there appears to be anecdotal evidence, at speech that children hear. This grammar is used, in rectness of their verbal behavior has: been influen-
r "used" to generate verbal behavior. As we have
least, that frames have a certain unity regardless of turn, to generate sentences. "J argued, all discriminated behavior can be inter- tial;, it has been cited widely as evidence that
their variable terms. This hypothesis has a superficial appeal; it side- preted as rule-following in the same sense. The contingencies of reinforcement play a relatively
While we suspect that a careful evaluation of steps all of the difficulties of accounting for the subtle regularities in language deserve explana- unimportant role in language acquisition. Rein-
the units of analysis is essential in understanding acquisition of verbal behavior in terms of princi- tion, but to describe theVule is not to explain the forcement, in this view, is seen as the deliberate
any given sample of verbal behavior, we must ples of learning. Moreover, by invoking the genetic behavior. We must turn to the history of the indi- arrangement of educational contingencies by so-
acknowledge that remaining difficulties are formi- endowment, the hypothesis appears to fall within vidual, both as a speaker and a listener, and exam- licitous parents. However, no one would maintain
dable. Some grammatical distinctions respected by a selectionist framework. However, we feel it ine the contingencies responsible for the behavior explicitly arranged reinforcement is adequate
are at far it the inferred. to explain the. acquisition of a fluent verbal: reper-
all self-evident. For one example among many, sweeps away. First, there are no plausible contin- '• toire. The sheer number of such contingencies that
that the first three examples are standard but gencies of natural selection that could account for would have to be arranged is staggering. Moreover,
the fourth is irregular: the postulated universal grammar; it strains credi- THE ROLE OF
REINFORCEMENT IN LANGUAGE many children,grow up to be fluent speakers in
bility to suppose that the survival of our forebears environments where parents, if present at all, are
/ called the doctor up. ACQUISITION
I called up the doctor, hinged on obscure grammatical rules such as the far from solicitous.
I called him up. ambiguity of pronoun reference or the interpreta- Most children learn to speak their language within These observations do not force us to retreat to
I called up him. tion of reflexive expressions. Second, no one has a few years, but few receive formal training. The the position that language'somehow unfolds in the
specified how a language acquisition device might extent to which they receive explicit reinforcement child, like the petals of a rose, as the product of a
There is no or actually work. As we have argued elsewhere, such
why the fourth be from their parents remains controversial. Brown. & genetic plan, nor do they even suggest rein-
a device can no use of the physical Hanlon64 the interactions of parents with
larly, in the in the of the forcement plays a secondary role in a child's ac-
the phonetic properties of each language are their children in an to evaluate the extent
following examples, the ambiguity in the ref- quisition of a verbal repertoire. Only a very small
wholly arbitrary. The input to the device must be, ; to the parents reinforced grammatical utter-
of the he. proportion of the contingencies of reinforcement ,
raw stimuli, but a grammatical representation or punished or corrected ungrammatical ut- in human affairs is explicit, and verbal contingen- ;
Hank dropped his keys when he was leaving. stimuli.,Unfortunately, presupposes the terances. They concluded parents provided cies are no exception, as Moerk's analysis reminds
When he was leaving, Hank dropped his keys. very ability to a that the language very little explicit feedback one way or the other:
When Hank was leaving, he dropped his keys. us. When a child speaks, adults usually orient to
acquisition device was postulated to explain.61 They tolerated a wide range of deviant utterances
He dropped his keys when Hank was leaving. the child and almost invariably respond appropri-
While the proffered nativist explanation for did not praise instances of proper grammar; ately in some way. Verbal behavior provides chil-
We interpret the fourth example to mean that syntactical niceties may be implausible and incom- when parents did correct their children it was typi-
dren with tremendous power, which they learn to
someone other than Hank dropped his keys. In the we are not relieved of the task of explaining cally for content, not errors of grammar. For exam-
wield more and more effectively as their repertoire
first three examples "he" could refer to Hank or to them in selectionist terms. The task must remain a ple, Mama isn't boy, he a girl, was followed by
develops. Virtually every instance of verbal behav-
someone else. Again, whatever the reason for challenge for investigators, for That's right, while And Walt Disney comes on
ior is charged with reinforcement of some sort,
distinction, we cannot appeal to clarity or simplic- are Tuesday, followed by No. 'He does not. How-
very little of it is explicitly
318 CHAPTER 11 319
Of course, left, it will different of the community. vocal behav-

to me, the "speaker," for I see the the ior we do not to be As
requires, just reinforcement, but back, as it were. With vocal behavior, however, the out: questions verbal un-
reinforcement. Adults respond to chil- speaker hears his own speech at least as faithfully answered, particularly about the acquisition
When a sound pattern has been associated with
dren's of its-grammatical form, and as quickly as any other listener.67 As a conse- ;i, of some of the more subtle grammatical distinc-
reinforcing events, it becomes a conditioned reinfor-
and children can control their world quite effec- quence, one's own speech is not only a response, ' cer. . . The young child alone in the nursery may tions. However, we fee! that, selectionist principles
tively with the imperfectly developed grammar of it is a stimulus, comparable, as a stimulus, to the | automatically reinforce his own exploratory vocal are equal to the task, and if the task remains largely
the three-year-old. Many aspects of verbal behav- speech of others. ;< behavior when he produces sounds which he has unfinished, it is perhaps because of its daunting
ior can be accounted for in terms of the reinforcers Children become discriminating listeners long heard in the speech of others. The self-reinforcing complexity. Most of these obscure grammatical
before they become fluent speakers. As evidence property may be merely an intonation or some other distinctions have been identified by linguists, to
that follow from effective communication—turn-
idiosyncrasy of a given speaker or of speakers in their credit, but linguists are usually committed to
taking, requesting, naming, verbal game-playing, of this, note that they respond appropriately to general. . . The process is important in shaping up
imitation, learning songs and nursery rhymes, and utterances that are far more complex than those a formal analysis and have shown little interest in
standard forms of response.
so on; however, these contingencies appear to be they produce. Furthermore, they can identify ir- a selectionist account. On our side, we feel that the
insufficient to account for some of the fine-grained regularities in their own speech as "errors" when Thus, while an occasional contingency of rein- formal rules of the linguist do not in any sense
patterns of adult verbal behavior. We should note, those irregularities are mimicked by adults. This is forcement may be arranged by parents, countless provide an explanation of verbal behavior, for they
in passing, that most adults make every attempt to particularly common in the case of phonological contingencies of reinforcement are implicit in the cannot, so far as we can see, be translated into the
model language at a level that is appropriate for the irregularities. If an adult says 'top for stop a child acts of speaking and hearing oneself speak. More- coin of physical structures or stimulus and re-
child. That is, adults and older siblings speak might object, even though the child himself pro- over, the feedback is virtually instantaneous, as sponse classes, nor can they be reconciled with
slowly, emphatically, and distinctly when speak- nounces the word that way. Furthermore, children reinforcement must be if it is to be very effective. principles of selection, either phylogenetic or on-
ing to a child, eventually fading to adult speech as who are initially unable to make the initial s sound Consider, as an analogy, a boy learning to whistle. togenetic. The formal world of the linguist may be
the child matures, thus providing implicit graded in stop, stick, and so on, will often generalize to a The boy is envious of his older brother who can very pure and elegant, but it needs to be related, in
lessons to the child,66 As important as this model- wide variety of instances when they first become whistle like a flute, but he purses his lips as if he detail, to human behavior and human structures
ing undoubtedly is, it still does not explain the to do so,68 suggesting that their receptive • were blowing out candles, and the only sound it can be as a candidate for an
acquisition of the subtle verbal operants typical of preceded their productive repertoire. produced is a decidedly unmusical Whoosh. At explanation of behavior, Nevertheless, we
The significance of these observations is that length, accidentally perhaps, the boy relaxes his must be grateful to the linguist for more clearly
an adult repertoire, for it does not specify any
lips slightly and produces a tone, his first note. He defining the task with which we are faced.
differentially reinforcing events. While Moerk's children (and other speakers) are given immediate
is electrified! Nothing could be more reinforcing, Skinner, a thoroughgoing selectionist, dedi-
analysis showed that reinforcement is prevalent in feedback about the "correctness" of their speech,
and he quickly repeats his performance, slightly cated several chapters of Verbal Behavior to the
parent-child interactions, he did not contradict That is, the person-as-speaker is provided with
modifying the topography of his responses. Even- problems of grammar and\syntax. We feel that his
, Brown and Hanlon's finding that many grammati- differential reinforcement by the stimuli reaching
tually, he too becomes an adept whistler. No one analyses, so far ^s they go, are sound, but his work
cally deviant utterances are implicitly and explic- the person-as-listener. We are not able to pro- need stand by and nod approval. The reinforcement
itly reinforced as well. nounce Kohler or trompe Toeil like a native, preceded most of modern linguistics, and he con-
is immediate, powerful, automatic, and mediated sequently did noi address some of the puzzling
How, then, do we Account for the exquisite we know it. We "hear" we have made a mis-
by repertoires of the boy-as-whistler and questions that have since come to light. He did"
verbal repertoire of adults? The answer ap- we cannot, at the moment, say the the boy-as-listener. We need not embroil ourselves
to lie in a seemingly arbitrary characteristic word correctly. The child cannot say Larry is very however, provide a. framework for the
in a controversy as to whether reinforcement can of verbal and we no
of typical talL but his him, . "really" be automatic or self-mediated. It is obvi-
conditions, it is vocal. In our view, this fact is says, Larry tall. The frame X— is very Y—, with its . that the remaining problems will eventually yield
ous that it can.
crucial, not accidental. Auditory stimuli faithfully properties, ap- to analyses within the paradigm that he created
Children learning to speak are in a comparable virtually single-handedly.
all listeners within earshot with only a small pears to be a perceptual unit in the child-as-listener, position. They can recognize the cadence and unity
played by the of receptors. Ges- but not an in the child-as-speaker, In our review of some of the problems in a
of but cannot produce selectionist account of verbal behavior, we have
and signs, however, require that "listeners," Because each speaker is also a listener, verbal If, eventually, they succeed in doing so, they
or receivers, look at the "speaker," or the signer. distinctions remain relatively sharp across cultures found little evidence for a modular view. It appears
not be congratulated by well-meaning par- to us that verbal behavior is not a unitary phenome-
Moreover, the pattern of visual stimuli will vary and from generation to generation. In a gestural the achievement itself is a powerful and much non with well-defined principles unique to its do-
one receiver to the next. That is, if I make the language it is harder to maintain the same sharp immediate reinforcement.70
ASL sign for "work," it will appear slightly differ- distinctions. We rely, in part, on feedback main; rather, it is behavior exquisitely sensitive to
ent to a person on my than to a person on my to we are following the
32(1 CHAPTER 11
of
on for 12. to
19. Luria, 1970.
learning to whistle, is acquired partly through 20. Sasanuma, 1975.
4. Cite be
"automatic" reinforcement, What other skills 21. Kolb & Whishaw,
divided into a sequence of discrete responses like
might be acquired through automatic reinforce- 22. Margolin'& Carlson, 1982.
SJt/DFAJDS letters in a word. Does this mean that an analysis
ment? Do you think a pigeon or a rat can learn a 23. Kolb & Whishaw, 1985.
of response chains is unhelpful in understanding
Technical response through automatic reinforcement? Why 24. Margolin & Carlson, 1982.
verbal behavior? or why not? 25. Carlson, 1984.
pharynx 5. How does the verbal operant differ from tra- 26. Geschwind, Quadfasel, & Segarra, 1968.
larynx ditional grammatical units such as words, phrases, 27. Repp, Liberman, Eccardt, & Pesetsky, 1978; cited
or phonemes? in Glass & Holyoak, 1986.
Wernicke's 28. Rand, 1974.
kana symbols 6. Comment on the following statement: To un- 29. Liberman, Harris, Hoffman, & Griffith, 1957.
kanji symbols derstand language, we must first analyze the struc- 1. See Chomsky, 1959, 1965, 1980, and elsewhere,
for strong statements to this effect. 30. For example, certain combinations of auditory
lexicon or form of language. (To what extent can we stimuli might set up harmonics in the basilar membrane
2. The reader who wishes a comprehensive account
phonemes understand behavior only by considering the to- of verbal behavior from a selectionist perspective should that would render the received stimulus qualitatively
categorical perception pography of the behavior?) read Skinner's Verbal Behavior (1957). Having heard different from physically similar stimuli.
that the book was scrutinized and caustically dismissed 31. Pisoni & Lazarus, 1974.
babbling 7. Cite evidence from language acquisition in
by Noam Chomsky in a 1959 review, most psychologists 32. E.g., Jusczyk, Rosner, Cutting, F6ard, & Smith,
parallel transmission children that people follow rules when they speak.
have chosen not to read it 'Nevertheless, the review is 1977; Kopp&Lane, 1968; Pisoni, 1977.
verbal operant Does this mean that verbal behavior cannot be 33. Kuhl& Miller, 1975.
seriously flawed, and the book remains a masterpiece of
grammatical understood in terms of elementary selectionist selectionist interpretation. We will not rehearse the de- 34. Blough, 1975.
principles? bate here; the reader is referred to MacCorquodale, 1970 35. MacDonald & JVlcGurk, 1978; see also McGurk
alexia
8. The hypothesis that. is an for a review of the review and to Palmer, 1986 for a & MacDonald, 1976. We report here only one experi-
'
guage acquisition device appears to resolve man}/ critique of Chomsky's alternative proposals, mental condition as an illustration of their general find-
tact 3. Lieberman, 1984. ings.
puzzling questions about the acquisition of a com-
inflection 4. Lieberman, 1967, .1984. 36. Routh, 1969.
plex verbal repertoire. What are some of the diffi-
anemia culties that face such a proposal?
5. Lieberman, 1984. Lenneberg, 1967 points out that 37. Liberman, Mattmgly,'& Turvey, 3 972.
aphasias we can speak for hours without experiencing any dis- 38. Liberman, Mattingly, & Turvey., 1972.
9. What advantages follow from the fact that comfort from the modification of our normal respiration 39. Foss & Hakes, 19783
function words 40. Warren, 1967. \
language is typically vocal rather than gestural? that speech requires. In contrast, other voluntary devia-
autoclitic tions from normal breathing usually quickly cause dis- 41. Wan-en & Warren, 1970.
Broca's area tress; e.g., breathing through a tube, voluntary panting, 42. Jordan, 1986.
overregularizati on (overgeneralizati on) and (for the novice) playing a wind instrument. 43. A frame is a verbal operant in which com-
6. Lieberman, 1973. ponents can vary. Donate the money to the United Way
universal 7. Hayes, 1951.
10. Some researchers hold that the signing is an example of the.frame donate X— to Y—~, X—
8. Gardner & 1971, 1974, 1975. Y— can vary in topography but must be uttered with
of chimpanzees is not "true language." How 9. Premack, 1976.
you decide if a is "truly" temporal properties and a
10. Savage-Rumbaugh, Rumbaugh, Smith, & 44. - Weimer, 1973.
guage? If you programmed a computer to generate Lawson, 1980. 45. Cited in Walter,
sentences, would you conclude that it 11. Woodruff, Premack, & Kennel, 1978. 46. Skinner, 1957,
1. Identify physical unique to "had language"? Is the question worthwhile? Why 12. Peterson, Beecher, Zoloth, Moody, & Stebbins, 47. Skinner's term.
that appear to play an important role in verbal or why not? 1978.
behavior. 48. Kolb & Whishaw. 1985,
13. Kimura & Archibald, 1974, 49. Kolb & Whishaw, 1985., p. 350.
11. As a consequence of reinforcement, behavior 14. Kimura, 1979,
2. Identify behavioral features of 50. Kolb & Whishaw, 1985, p. 352.
to be repeated. If this is so, how we 15. Under these conditions, there may be a detectable
that to play an role in explain novelty in human behavior, verbal or oth~ 51. A conspicuous exception is the description of
verbal behavior. loss in performance of those functions normally medi- private events. Each person has unique access to stimuli
erwise? Is the problem of the novelty of verbal ated by the right hemisphere relative to a normal adult,
3. Cite evidence for the hypothesis 16. Lewin, 1980. originating within the skin. Since the verbal community
behavior different of the novelty of
as we do 17. Luria, 1970. must use indirect evidence to evaluate the extent of our
verbal behavior?
18. Cameron, Currier, & Haerer, 1971. the depth of our despair, or the volume of our
euphoria, a fine-grained is difficult to estab-
lish, the language of emotion remains vague 61. See Palmer, 1986, for a more detailed exposition 70, See & Michael, for a discussion lishing a word as a by it
metaphorical. Curiously, it is the inner world that we of these points and other difficulties with the nativist of and Sundberg, 1980, for with a strong reinforcer the rate at the
know the least. We will discuss this topic at position.
study, Sundberg found that estab- word was uttered by a toddler.
length in Chapter 12, 62. See Stemmer, 1990, for a good example of such
52. Slobin, 1979, an interpretation. Stemmer discusses, among other
53. Berko, 1958. things, the role of relational terms in accounting for our
54. Braine, 1971; Ferguson & Slobin, 1973. sensitivity to grammatical structures. In our terminol-
55. E.g., Ashcraft, 1989; Slobin 1979. The argument ogy, a relational term is an example of a fixed element
is buttressed with many more complicated examples but of a grammatical frame. For example, the word holds in
in these cases it is not clear exactly what the rules are. the frame X— holds Y— specifies the relation between
The characterization of the rules is informed by a par- X— andF—.
ticular theoretical commitment in linguistics. The over- 63. Owing to the importance of historical variables
generalization examples are widely cited because they and the practical and ethical constraints on working with
are relatively unambiguous. people, we must usually be content with merely provid-
56. The term rule-governed behavior has a restricted ing plausible interpretations of verbal phenomena. An
technical meaning in the operant literature—a repertoire experimental analysis is usually out of the question.
of behavior under the control of verbal instructions or Perhaps as a result, most examples in the literature of
contingency-specifying stimuli. (See Chapter 5.) Here, puzzling syntactical constructions are hypothetical.
we are concerned with all discriminated operant behav- When posing a grammatical conundrum, it is standard
ior. The role of rules in verbal behavior has been the practice to provide a textual stimulus as the datum to be
focus of debate between traditional linguists and those explained. For example, the following widely-cited sen-
who champion adaptive networks as a model of cogni- tence is said to be ambiguous:
tive processes. Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986 The shooting of the hunters was awful.
showed that a relatively simple, two-layer network was However, our task is to explain verbal behavior, not a
able to learn by induction to form the correct past tense carefully constructed arrangement of symbols. If some-
for many irregular and regular verbs and to generalize one actually said such a thing we must know who said
to novel cases with no explicit representation of the rules it, under what conditions, and with what history. (A
built into the network, They claim: "We have, we be- glance at the guiding variables of the utterance would
lieve, provided a distinct alternative to the view that dispel any ambiguity.) Textbook examples are usually
children learn rules of English past-tense formation in offered as //they were examples of spontaneous verbal
any explicit sense. We have shown that a reasonable behavior; however, they are usually hackneyed exam-
account of the acquisition of past tense can be provided ples from the literature or are carefully crafted by the
without recourse to the notion of a 'rule' as anything writer to illustrate some grammatical construction. It is
more than a description of the language." (p. 267) This an easy task to explain the behavior of the textbook
interpretation was disputed by Pinker and Prince, 1988 writer, but to "explain" the behavior of a hypothetical
who pointed out that there were many crucial differences speaker is more formidable. Our discussion of such
between the behavior of the network and the behavior of examples can never be more an interpretation; since
children, that the network failed to capture important the example was invented, the guiding variables must be
generalizations about English past tense formation, and invented as well.
that it could model rules not found in English or any 64. Brown &Hanlon, 1970.
other language. While Rumelhart and McC 1 ell and's net- 65. Moerk, 1983, 1990.
work was undoubtedly a poor model of a child learning 66. Snow, 1972; Snow & Ferguson, 1977.
English, it illustrates the important point that a system 67. Under unusual circumstances, as when the
that can be described by rules need not use the rules to speaker is listening to music with earphones, the speaker
generate orderly behavior. The rules can be in the con- experiences unique auditory input, and may not hear his
tingencies, not in the mechanism. own words as clearly as do other listeners. Conversation
57. Skinner, 1957; pp. 81-146. is difficult and sometimes comical under these condi-
58. Skinner, 1957, p. 121. tions.
59. Maratsos, 1983. 68. Smith, 1973.
60. Skinner, 1957; p. 121-122. 69. Skinner, 1957, p. 58.
Remembering
"Studied zoology," by to a particular OF IN

.CHAPTER 12 contingency in our past. It is unlikely OF
that response has been reinforced in the pres-
ence of that question before. To insist that "Studied As we noted in Chapters 1 and 4, the principles of
behavior on which our interpretations rest have
REMEMBERING zoology" is simply a discriminated operant makes
it difficult to explain why the very same question, arisen from experimental analyses of behavior,
posed a few days later but under otherwise identi- from tightly controlled studies of empirically de-
cal conditions, 'might occasion the response "I fined, replicable units of behavior. When we try to
rented a video." Clearly, the question is not a account for behavior outside the laboratory solely
In the Humphrey Bogart film Casablanca, the thoughts, images, and actions come to us unbidden.
sufficient controlling variable. The experience it- in terms of the principles derived from an experi-
cynical hero feels a rush of powerful emotions on Remembering something, however, suggests ac-
self—renting a video—appears to play a crucial mental analysis, we are engaged in interpretation.
hearing a few chords of a song—a song last heard tivity. When we see an acquaintance, we falter as
role. In fact, it doesn't seem to matter what we did To the extent that these principles prove insuffi-
years before, when he was passionately in love we struggle to remember her name. As she ap-
proaches, we feverishly run through the alphabet, last night; whatever it was, we will remember cient and we are driven to invent supplementary
with a beautiful woman. In Proust's Remembrance
today and respond appropriately. While this is an principles, we are engaged merely.in speculation.
of Things Past, the contemplative narrator is or recite the names of mutual friends, or rehearse
our previous encounters. When we finally blurt out everyday phenomenon, it is also a remarkable per- The interpretation of phenomena outside of the
brought back vividly to scenes of his childhood by
her name, we are responding not just to the sight formance that requires a special explanation. laboratory is a part of the scientific enterprise;
the taste of a tea-cake—a special treat of his youth.
of our friend, but to. our own attempts to recall her We may be inclined to suppose that the past speculation may suggest lines of inquiry, but it
We have all had similar experiences; a particular
name. We use the term remembering for those event itself functions as\ a discriminative stimulus should not be confused with interpretation, as it is
stimulus or complex of stimuli—a whiff of talcum
powder, an old Beatles song, a voice on the phone, memory phenomena that comprise not just a single determining our behavior; our earlier experience not constrained by empirically derived principles,
a glimpsed face in the crowd—evokes a strong discriminated operant occasioned by its discrimi- We are often interested in explaining examples of
appears to act at a distance-—a temporal distance—
feeling or a vivid reminiscence of long ago. These native stimulus, but a complex series of environ- remembering in our everyday lives for which we
reaching forward in time',to guide our behavior
of a have no experimental data. In fact, we may have
today. Many people this notion no stranger
Every day we countless similar effect is to occasion the response. In explaining the almost no data at all;Usually, methodological
than that of gravity—action at a physical dis-
less striking experiences as we respond to the myr- occurrence of a discriminated operant, it is enough ethical constraints pie vent our acquiring sufficient
tance—a concept that liberated Renaissance scien-
iad sights, sounds, and smells with which we are to refer to the three-term contingencies that estab- control over our subjects to provide a cogent ex-
tists from the billiard-ball mechanics of the
bombarded. The stimulus reminds us of an event, lished the response class. In accounting for an perimental analysis; under these conditions the
ancients. However, the analogy is poor. There is no
an action, or an emotion. As we noted in Chapter instance of remembering, however, we must ex- best we can do is provide an interpretation.
lawful relationship between past events and cur-
8, memory phenomena of this sort exemplify the plain the interaction of many variables that, in all Some behavioral phenomena are closely analo-
rent performance on a memory task: The past is
discriminative and eliciting function of stimuli. likelihood, have never occurred together before. gous to experimental preparations that have been
fixed, and current behavior is variable. Sometimes
The selecting effect of our experiences alters envi- In some cases of remembering—as in the ex- analyzed in detail. When a friend responds "64" to
we speak of the past, and sometimes we don't;
ronment-behavior relations so that environ- of our —a discriminative the question "What is eight times eight?" it is easy
sometimes we clearly
are likely to evoJ|e feelings, is for is insuf- to the relevance of a pigeon pecking a disk in
vaguely; sometimes we think we remember
to in ways. ficient to evoke its discriminated the presence of a light. It seems clear that
clearly, only to have events prove us to be mis-
When an an response. When we a in "64" is a discriminated operant, presumably ac-
taken. We to the past to quired in elementary school when that response,
we of we zoology we easily explain our quixotic behavior, for is no func-
that the new relation endures over night before somehow elude us now, even though no other, was reinforced in the presence of the
tional between the two. Our task is to question. In fact, the analogy is so close that we are-
time, we of memory. When used in the nominal may be the explain current behavior as a function of current
sense, memory does not imply a special process or same. Often it takes hard work to "make the re- apt to forget that our explanation is an interpreta-
variables. It is here that the laws of behavior, tion. We have done no analysis; we have merely
activity; learning and memory are just different sponses come back." Here our task is to determine discovered and developed in the laboratory, can be
aspects of a single biobehavioral phenomenon: the the role of those activities that supplement the provided, after the fact, a plausible explanation for
invoked to explain our actions. Since such ac- a behavior. For all we know, our friend may never
about by the three-term contin- discriminative stimuli. counts are necessarily examples of interpretation
gency of environment, behavior, and reinforces Other examples are even more mysterious; -•have learned the multiplication tables at all, but has
rather experimental analysis, it would perhaps learned to in his head very rapidly. With more
When we speak of remembering, however, there appears to be no relevant discriminative be well to of dis-
is implied. When a re- stimulus at all: When a friend asks us "What did complex examples of behavior, it is even more-
tinction. evident account must be interpretive.
us of something, we are passive; you do last night?" we explain our response,
324
326 CHAPTER 12 Rememberins;
Of few, if in psychology he the subjects who had learned to speak often

the subject of more experimentation 60 request to count backward by threes, a complex errors in letters that are articulated similarly,
memory. However, owing to methodological performance that requires1 a particular kind of edu- We will not attempt to analyze further the vari-
difficulties, few experiments have yielded the kind bo 40 cational history, problem-solving skills, and a his- ables that influence uttering the correct letters at
of data necessary to support the molecular analyses u tory of interpreting and following arbitrary the time of the recall signal. Because there are so
that we favor. In our view, we understand behavior requests. Finally, a recall signal is given. many interacting variables during the retention
» 20
to the extent that we can account for it moment-to- The performance of a subject at this point is interval, we believe that every instance of remem-
mornent in time. Much can happen in a second or influenced at least as much by the host of interven- bering in the short-term memory procedure re-
two: Even the simplest experimental preparations ing events as by the nominal stimulus. Many ques- quires its own interpretation.
6 9 12 15 18
must be interpreted with care. Let us consider two tions confront us. Why should the nominal
elementary kinds of experiment that we introduced Recall interval (sec) stimulus exert any control at all? When we glance
in Chapter 8: Short-term memory procedures and at a set of random letters on a piece of paper, we Paired-Associate Memory Procedures
paired-associate procedures. We will see that a do not spontaneously say them 15 seconds later,
FIGURE 12.1 The relative frequency with which an
moment-to-moment account of a subject's behav- What is the role of the recall signal, and how does A second experimental paradigm we introduced in
item was recalled in a short-term memory procedure
ior in such experiments must be highly interpre- declined rapidly after a few seconds if rehearsal of the it empower the nominal stimulus to exert its effects Chapter 8 is the paired-associate memory task. A
tive. item was prevented. at this time? It is clear that we are confronted, not subject is presented with'pairs of stimuli—perhaps
Note: See also Peterson & Peterson, 1959. with a single stimulus and response class, but with two nonsense syllables, two unrelated words, or
a very complex sequence^ of interacting events that combinations of nonsense syllables and words.
Short-Term Memory Procedures evoke successful performance, if at all, partly be- The stimuli are usually presented sequentially.
When the first stimulus is presented, the subject is
cause of unanaiyzed experiences in the subject's
You will perhaps recall from Chapter 8 the typical to measure the declining influence of a given required to respond with the second. After the
past and during the retention interval.
procedure for studying short-term memory: A vis- stimulus over time. It asks how long a discrimina- subject responds., the second stimulus is presented
ual stimulus—perhaps three letters, such as As an illustration of the complexity, of the pro-
tive stimulus can continue to evoke a response to confirm or correct his response. For example,
MVK—is presented briefly. Immediately thereaf- cedure, consider the errors that subjects commonly when the nonsense syllable PEM is presented, the
without rehearsal, an activity which we can think
ter, the subject hears a number, say 384, and is make in the short-term memory task. As we noted correct response might, be big.. Performance on
of as presenting the stimulus over and over again.
required to count backwards by 35s, a task designed in Chapter 7, subjects often erroneously report tasks of this sort has been used to evaluate how
Answering this question could be an important
to • prevent rehearsal, After an interval that varies letters that rhyme with the target letters, but they retention is affected by prior learning tasks (proac-
contribution, analogous to determining the effect
from trial to trial, the subject is signaled to recall of the interstirnulus interval in classical condition- seldom erroneously report letters that are visually tive interference), subsequent learning tasks (retro-
the letters. Under these conditions a subject can ing procedures. However, when we examine the similar. For example, when the target letter is B, active interference), the rrieaningfulness of stimuli,
typically recall the letters correctly after delays of procedure moment-to-moment in time, we see that subjects are more likely to report having seen a V and many other variables.''
only a few seconds, with performance at 18 sec- the stimulus and response units are not as simple than an R. This finding confirms that the fi.nal At first glance, it appears that performance on
onds no better than chance.1 (See Figure 12.1.) as they seem. performance is affected, at least in part, by the task can be understood entirely in terms of the
Can performance in this procedure be ex- First, note what it means that the stimulus is not subject's own response to the stimulus, and not just three-term contingency. In the presence of PEM
in of a thlee-term contingency? an unfamiliar hieroglyphic. When the stimulus is by the nominal physical stimulus itself. Perform- we say the word big, and then the written word BIG
Clearly not. One term——the stimulus—was pre- presented, the subject responds to it; (at least, the ance in this depends partly - on unspecified is presented to us; this appears to be analogous to
sented once, No response was reinforced in its probability of a response increases). That's what events in the retention interval. Note our hy- a rat pressing a lever in the presence of a 1000 Hz
and it was not presented at the time of we mean when we say that a stimulus is familial*. pothetical sign-language expert might perform tone and having a pellet of food roll into a tray:
recall. Of course, accurate performance at any re- Most of us, for example, would read the letters; flawlessly, even after a prolonged retention inter- There is a well defined stimulus and a well defined
interval depends on three-term contingen- that is, we would say the letters to ourselves. The val, if he were to maintain his hands in position response; when the response occurs in the presence
cies in the subject's past; if the stimulus were a letters might evoke conditioned perceptual behav- throughout the distractor task. In any case, we of the stimulus it is reinforced. For the human
complex, unfamiliar hieroglyphic, subjects would ior. If the stimulus were CVT we might find our- would expect the proprioceptive feedback from subject, the reinforcement is simply seeing that the
be unable to reproduce it at all. Our ability to selves visualizing a cat or "feeling" a cut. Someone signing to be different from that of subvocal response is correct when the answer is revealed.
simply recognize the stimulus reveals the enduring gifted in sign language might make incipient or speech, with different implications for recall per- However, when we examine the contingency
effects of earlier conditioning. even complete signs in response to the stimulus. formance. Indeed, Bellugi, Klima, and Siple2 critically, we see that a much more complex inter-
However, the task was not designed to test the The subject, is next presented with an auditory found that errors made by deaf subjects in a mem- pretation is required. Let us consider the elements
endurance of past conditioning; it attempts, rather, stimulus (a number) and responds to that. Presum- ory task reflect confusions of signing: those deaf of the contingency in turn. The stimulus, we as-
328 12
sume,' is PEM. Is it a or it Remembering

serve discriminative functions? Is it a unitary Stimulus Subject's
Display Response big, to our response, big. That
stimulus—a member, of'a well defined stimulus onstrated in a study by Slamecka and Graf.4 Sub-
this similarity serves a -reinforcing function de-
class—or is it a complex stimulus composed of jects in the experimental group "generated" appro-
________ __fch. pends on a certain kind of history. Most educated
smaller units? Already we- have run into difficulty PEM "pern" priate responses after being given a rule (e.g.,
people long practice in having their "an-
with our analysis. Clearly it is not a-neutral stimu- "synonym"), a stimulus word (e.g., RAPID), and
swers" confirmed or refuted under similar circum-
lus. We read the stimulus, either as a syllable or as stances. the initial letter (e.g.,/) of a word that is related to
First Trial the stimulus word by the rule. Control subjects
three separate letters. In the terminology of Chap-. The above interpretation of the elements of the
ters 10 and 11, the stimulus is a textual stimulus were simply given the stimulus and response
two trials is plausible; it appears to explain how
controlling textual, or reading, responses. The words (e.g., RAPID-FAST). In cued (stimulus
correct performance in such an experiment could
stimulus is not neutral, but whether it serves as a word provided) and uncued tests of recall and
be maintained. However, it does not explain how
single stimulus or three stimuli surely varies from recognition, the experimental group performed
FIGURE 12o2 On the first trial of a paired-associate correct performance was ever acquired. Our dia-
subject to subject.-3 significantly better than the control group, a phe-
procedure the subject is presented sequentially with grams do not illustrate the acquisition of an envi-
Let us now consider the "response," On the first nomenon dubbed the generation effect.
two textual stimuli, the first of which will serve as the ronment-behavior relation, they illustrate the
trial, when the second stimulus, BIG, appears, we These results are consistent with, the foregoing
nominal stimulus in later trials transfer of such a relation. Nothing in our first
emit a second textual response, either overtly or Both stimuli occasion textual responses, the second of analysis. For the experimental group the response
diagram suggests that correct performance will
covertly. Our response, big, is not a response to the which has the same form as the required response in was at least partly under the direct control of the
occur on the second or later trials. In fact, we would
first stimulus, PEM; it is a response to the stimulus subsequent trials. stimulus word (e.g., jRAPID), while for the control
expect the stimulus BIQ- to block control of the
BIG. So far, our experiment consists of two sepa- group the response was presumably principally
response big by other stimuli; we would not expect
rate textual operants. This baseline performance is _ control to transfer to PEM. controlled by the textual stimulus (e.g., FAST).
clearly different from the case of the rat pressing a Only for the experimental group were the testing
In the laboratory, when we want to transfer
lever in the presence of a tone. Before the first conditions similar to the acquisition conditions.
control from one stimulus to another, we use a
reinforcer, a rat will usually press the lever at a The curious results of an experiment by- Tulv-
fading procedure. We gradually reduce the inten-
measurable rate, and, if it does not, the experi- Stimulus Subject's ing and Thomson5 can be interpreted in the same
sity of the controlling stimulus'and make the stimu-
menter can shape leverpressing by reinforcing suc- Display Response light. They found that under some conditions sub-
lus to be conditioned more conspicuous.
cessive approximations to the response. However, jects will recall items that they will not recognize
Presumably something of the kind is occurring
the baseline probability of saying 'big in the pres- as members of a learned list. Subjects first learned
here. Most people have learned to use informal
ence of PEM is negligible. But the memory experi-". responses to weakly associated stimulus words
fading procedures to learn facts in school or to
meiiter, unlike his colleagues in the animal (e.g., LADY-queen)* Nex^ they were asked to gen-
memorize such things as telephone numbers, po-
laboratory, does'not shape the-response; rather, he ' erate several associates ofVarious common words.
Later Trial etry, or grocery lists. First we read the item slowly,
simply presents- a textual stimulus already For example, a subject presented with KING might
important terms; then we skims then
occasions the response, as in generate queen, castle, knight, servant. In the
glance, then shut our eyes, so on, gradually
(.- recognition task, they were asked to scan their list
reducing our exposure to the nominal discrimina-
On later trials, when PEM is presented, we of generated responses and identify any they had
tive stimulus. It is apparent that successful per-
again read it (we emit the textual response pew?). If encountered in the paired-associate task—in this
formance on a paired-associate learning task
training has been successful, we then respond big case queen would be correct. Finally, they were
FIGURE 12,3 On later trials of a paired-associate depends on such techniques; thus, even in this
shortly after the stimulus PEM appears; big is an presented with the stimulus words of the paired-as-
I ask two textual stimuli are presented again apparently simple case, we can only understand
intraverbal response, guided either by the written The first, the nominal stimulus, occasions a textual re- sociate (e.g., LADY) tested for recall of
performance by considering the history of our sub-
stimulus PEM, or by our textual response, pern. sponse (usually covert); the stimulus and its textual re- the response items. In many cases, subjects would
jects. Current performance is a function, not just of
Finally, when the stimulus BIG appears, we emit sponse together occasion the target response "big." fail to recognize that some of the words they had
a nominal discriminative stimulus, but of the sub-
the textual response big. (See Figure 123.) Finally, the second textual stimulus is presented, control- ject's own behavior. generated had been presented in the earlier condi-
What, precisely, is the reinforcer? The stimulus ling its corresponding textual response, "big,"Reinforce- tion; however, when prompted with the stimulus
BIG is not the reinforcer; nothing in the experiment ment consists of the formal similarity of the two word, they would recall the correct response. These
responses of the subject. The paired-associate procedure Experimental evidence: The generation effect
has established it as such. Rather, reinforcement results seem strange until we consider that a re-
entails the acquisition of a discriminated operant—it does The importance of the relationship between the
consists of the formal similarity of our textual not illuminate or even illustrate recall procedures. sponse of a particular topography may be a mem-
operant emitted during training and the operant
ber of different response classes, depending on the
scheduled for reinforcement during testing is dem-
controlling variables. In this case, the textual re-
12
Remembering 531
is the re- at Often, everyone is uniquely with his or her own looks like, or recite our schedule, or repeat
queen. the probability of the response, but not enough for past, and reinforcement will usually follow a vari- sounds of the alphabet to prompt a forgotten name.
The foregoing examples illustrate that even it to be emitted. In network terms, an output unit ety of responses. It is not uncommon for people to We will refer to all such activity as
apparently simple examples of human behavior may be stimulated by other units without reaching "remember" their past in a flattering light, or even
its threshold of activation. There may be inhibitory behavior. Although the term strategy is widely
may require complex behavioral interpretations. to lie outright about their exploits. We will return
inputs from competing responses, or the excitatory used in the memory literature, in our view it con-
The tools of our interpretations—the units of to this point below in a discussion about whether
input may not be sufficient for the unit to fire. notes awareness and deliberation, and is conse-
analysis and the basic principles—require that we memories are "real."
quently too narrow to encompass all mnemonic
scrutinize examples in fine detail, moment-to-mo- The third and, final characteristic of a problem behavior.
ment in time. We will attempt the same kind of It is easy to see how math problems, mechani-
is that the response is not directly evoked by the At any moment we are bombarded with count-
fine-grained analysis of complex examples. We cal problems, logical problems, etc., fall under this
current constellation of stimuli. The question about less stimuli, many of which have both conditioned
return now to examples of behavior in which a definition; it may be less obvious that answering
our last novel does not directly occasion the and unconditioned effects. That is, owing to the
sufficient discriminative stimulus appears to be questions about the past and other instances of
response "A Tale of Two Cities," as these two
missing. remembering are also examples of problem solv- contingencies of natural selection and reinforce-
events have never occurred together in a three-term
ing. ment, these stimuli affect us in many ways. If every
contingency. (If the same question is repeated
Suppose that a friend asks "What was the last stimulus served every eliciting arid discriminitive
somewhat later, we would not regard it as a prob-
MEMORY AS PROBLEM SOLVING novel you have read?" and suppose further that the function possible given our ontogenetic and phy-
lem—you have already responded to the question
last novel you read was A Tale of Two Cities. logenetic history, our behavior would be chaotic.
As we noted above, the ease with which we answer once and been reinforced • for' it.) Thus, you are
Clearly the utterance "A Tale of Two Cities" is in faced with a problem wken your friend asks you a In fact, our behavior tends to be organized, fluid,
a question about our past is difficult to explain. We your repertoire. If the book were in your hand, you and systematic. In every response system, one re-
can assume that the question "What is the capital question about the last novel you have read; in fact,
could read the title as a sequence of textual re- you would be faced with a problem if you were sponse or set of responses tends to be prepotent and
of Pennsylvania?" is a discriminative stimulus (or sponses. If the book had a distinctive cover, you is emitted smoothly, without interference from
complex of discriminative stimuli) that most stu- asked any new question about your past.
could no doubt emit the title as a tact—a single competing responses. There are exceptions, of
dents have encountered in school or at home, Since remembering is a'Special of problem
occasioned by the physical of course; sometimes we falter, stumble, stop, start,,
a correct response to the question at a later time can solving, our interpretation will draw heavily from
the book. If someone were to mutter "It was the retract, a performance that suggests strong
' be understood as the enduring effect of a three-term that of Chapter 10. However, an analysis of re-
best of times, it was the worst of times," you might competing contingencies. But these are exceptions
contingency. However, we can respond correctly membering entails special difficulties; each exam-
respond, or be inclined to respond, "A Tale of Two that prove the rule—ordinarily our behavior seems
to questions about our past that we have never ple is idiosyncratic, much relevant behavior is
Cities!" as an intraverbal response. to be guided by dominant contingencies. However,
heard before, e.g., "Where were you on the evening usually covert, and corroboration and evaluation of
Second, the question signals a subtle social performance is often impossible. Thus, remember- the fact that we do not eitiit a response in a particu-
of March 12, 1993?" We also respond differently contingency: If you say the name of the novel, your lar context—because a competing response is.pre-
at different times to the same question, e.g., "What ing deserves special analysis.
friend will behave in a way that is slightly to your potent—does not mean that the response has no
did you do last night?" Our answers to such ques- advantage, e.g., he will stop repeating the question, in that context. As we saw in the discus-
cannot be to a single contingency. he might leave you alone, he might show an interest of priming in Chapter 95 a stimulus will
they are examples of problem solving. in your reading habits, he might be impressed with of
strengthen a number of responses, an outcome that •
In Chapter 10 we defined a problem as a situ- your erudition, and so on. Thus, uttering the target be demonstrated with a priming procedure.
ation in which conditions obtain: response is scheduled for reinforcement. Like most As with problem solving in general, remembering When we hear or read the word "straw," the incom-
1. A target response (or sequence of responses) such questions about your past, the contingency is is a process of marshaling supplementary stimuli patible responses "hay" and "sip"—and other re-
is in our repertoire; that is. there are some condi- weak; your friend probably no independent to augment the effects of the current context so that sponses, we must assume--—'Will both be
tions under which a of the required topog- knowledge of the answer, and you can. get away the target'response becomes stronger than compet- strengthened. Note that when we hear the word
raphy will occur. with saying almost anything. Indeed, if the last ing responses. We can do so in various ways. We "straw" we seldom actually say "hay" or "sip." The
book you was a trashy novel from a supermar- might manipulate our relationship to the external effect only appears in such measures of strength as
2. There are contextual discriminative stimuli ket display, -you are likely to "skip over it" and environment—we can consult a grocery list while the shorter time it takes to identify the word when
indicating that the target response is cur- a book that is more likely to impress. This shopping, or look in the dictionary for the correct it is presented.
scheduled for reinforcement. hints at a subtle difference between most formal spelling of a word, or scan the tool room for a Thus, one implication of the priming literature
3. Current discriminative stimuli do occa- (math problems, logical problems, and misplaced screwdriver. We can engage in covert or is that when we have a rich history with respect to
sion the response directly. More precisely, the tar- so on) and remembering. Most formal problems overt behavior that directly alters the probability of a stimulus—as we do with most everyday words,
get response is not stronger than competing solutions that can be verified by others; but behavior—we might imagine what our house objects, and events in our lives—-the presentation
332 12
Remembering 335
of will the probability of a wide checkout of the library, or opening a have a lab in the afternoon . . . it 4:30 ...
do not to explain the subjective
variety of responses. A second implication is that book, or standing at a supermarket or bookstore Last Monday I walked back home with Al. , .
impression that we are reliving the original expe-
the strengthening effect of stimuli is additive; that display. You may recite favorite authors and titles. we went out for corn dogs." This example illus-
rience. We are likely to feel that our memories are
is, if two stimuli separately increase the probability If you always read in bed, or in an easy chair, or on trates how successive responses prime progres-
more complex than simply emitting a target re-
of a response, the two stimuli together increase the the bus, you may imagine yourself in your favorite sively narrower ranges of responses. Citing the day
sponse, for the target response does not capture the
probability to a greater extent.6 This follows from pose, book in hand. You may review facts about of the week enables us to identify an activity we
rich detail of our experience of remembering some-
the priming effect in which a measure of response your schedule; e.g., "The only time I ever have a typically engage in on that'day. This may be
thing. The responses we emit to provide supple-
strength, such as speed, is increased when two chance to read is during vacations. Our last vaca- enough to remind us of a particular event, perhaps
as a conditioned perception (see Chapters 7 and 8). mentary stimulation do more than prime the target
stimuli are presented (the priming stimulus and the tion was spring break." The effect of each of these response; often the constellation of stimuli occa-
target stimulus), A third implication is that priming responses is to provide supplementary stimulation That event, in turn, may prime relevant responses.
sions a conditioned perception. We see (and per-
effects follow our own covert behavior. Recall that primes relevant responses, including, presum- Another widespread strategy when we are try-
haps hear, touch, taste, etc.) as we saw in the past.
from Chapter 9 that some priming effects (e.g., ably, the target response. The cumulative effect is ing to remember a name, a title, a place, or just a
word is to go through the alphabet, "trying out" We may see the lab on Monday afternoon at 4:30.
lion-stripes) were interpreted as the outcome of to strengthen a class of responses corresponding to This conditioned perception provides optimal
mediating covert responses (e.g., lion—tiger— book titles or book-related behavior more than each sound to see if it triggers the correct response.
When we see our acquaintance approaching us, we stimulation to prime conditioned perceptions of
stripes). competing responses. Eventually the target re- later events. Often there is a cascade of conditioned
Remembering is a problem-solving activity sponse itself becomes the prepotent response, and struggle to remember her name. Her physical ap-
pearance is an important variable that we might perceptions which we call a reminiscence. It is
that takes advantage of the three effects illustrated you emit it as the answer to the question. these conditioned perceptions that provide the un-
Note that there is nothing inevitable about your expect to remind us of her name, but for some
by priming studies. First, the nominal discrimina- mistakable feeling that we are reliving our experi-
responding with the correct answer. Your tech- reason it is insufficient, perhaps because compet-
tive stimuli—e.g., "What was the last novel you ences.
ing responses are strong, or because contextual
have read?"—are not sufficient to occasion the nique may strengthen "Wuthering Heights" more Conditioned perceptual behavior is usually
variables are different from those in which we first
target response, 'but that does-not mean that the than "A Tale of Two Cities." In the case of a math weak, perhaps because it is ordinarily incompatible
learned her name, or we never
stimuli are neutral. Each stimulus of the problem, are for provid- with the perceptual behavior guided by current
learned her name as a response to her physical
question alters the probability of a wide variety of ing supplementary stimuli; in an addition problem,
appearance- to begin1 with. (Our learning of names stimulation. To facilitate conditioned perceptions,
responses. As we noted in Chapter 11, verbal units for example, we break the problem into smaller is often .echoic behavior under the control of prior it is often necessary to-reduce the unconditioned
do not necessarily correspond to words or sen- parts, systematically modifying the problem until verbal stimuli: "Dave, I'd like you to meet my effects of current stimulation. When trying hard to
tences. A question of this sort might consist of we can read the answer as a textual response. In friend, Sandra." "Hello, Sandra. Pleased to meet remember something We are likely to try to block
several intraverbal units such as the frames "What remembering, however, few people employ codi- you." A few seconds later—after the echoic stimu- ' out stimuli by 'shutting our eyes, stopping up our
was the last X—?" "X— you have Y—" or tacts fied mnemonic strategies; consequently there is lus has receded in time—we have no idea what ears, looking at the ceiling, unfocusing our eyes,
such as "novel" or perhaps "last novel." We are not presumably much variability in performance from Sandra's name is, and we have to resort to devious commanding our friends to stop talking for a min-
in a position to assert what the units are, particu- person to person, and "correct" performance is by and embarrassing circumlocutions.) In this case, ute, turning away from the task at hand, and so on.
larly in a hypothetical example, for units of analy- no guaranteed. Nevertheless, some proce- her appearance does have an effect on us; we It follows from this account that the perceptual
sis on the particular history of our subjects. for providing supplementary stimulation her as familiar, we might feel her is behavior we experience in >a reminiscence
However, we can assume'that "novel" primes a widespread, we are often successful. "on the tip of our tongue," Going through the have been conditioned at the time of the original
wide variety of responses, including, perhaps, "A Many questions about our past require us to alphabet a second source of control Seeing the boojc A Tale of Two Cities was
Tale of Two Cities." report the events of a particular day. If someone supplements the physical cues.7 conditioned to contextual events; recalling the con-
As the target response has not been emitted, it us "Where were you the night before last? I text later in a recall strategy evokes the conditioned
is necessary to provide supplementary stimulation, called, but nobody was home," we are apt to recite perception. This suggests that perceptual behavior
either directly through reafference from covert be- the days of the week backward until we arrive at is continually being conditioned. It is absurd to
havior, from the environmental effects of overt the correct day. If today is Wednesday, we might suppose that the only perceptions conditioned are
behavior, or from the proprioceptive and extero- begin by saying "Wednesday . . . Tuesday . . . Conditioned perceptions play an important role in those that are likely to be useful in future recall
ceptive stimulation arising from overt behavior. Monday . . . The day before yesterday was Mon- interpretation of remembering. When we are • strategies. On the other hand, not all conditioned
You may, for example, look at your bookcase and day," In many cultures people often have regular asked about the events of a particular day, we must perceptions are genuine; that is, we can imagine
scan the titles. If your bookcase is not in view, you schedules, and stating the day of the week will engage in various mnemonic procedures such as experiences that never happened, and we some-
may visualize it and covertly scan, i.e., visualize usually prime relevant responses. For example, reciting the days of the week, recounting our times--find ourselves remembering events vividly
by book. You may imagine standing at the "Let's see, Mondays I go to school late . . . then I schedules, and so on. However, such procedures only to find out that we were mistaken.
334
Remembering
The are — us the of a
conditioned perceptions acquaintance— with the tar- Ed? . . . Or . . . Let's see, Ed . . . "Ed," has by both the
current perceptual under the control get response—we reply that Ms is Ed Kotski, Ted . . . Ned . . . Todd?" Under such conditions, a subset of the mnemonic responses.
of a constellation of current variables. They are The target response may follow the initial discrimi- we continue to emit mnemonic responses; the tar- Second, the target response primes a wide va-
past experiences that have stored. We engage native stimuli almost immediately or after a pro- get response does not bring about the changes in riety of other responses. Recalling Ed's name may
in the behavior anew. It may be true that the con- longed period of mnemonic behavior. When the behavior characteristic of successful recall. On remind us that he was captain of the chess team, or
ditioned perceptions we experience today are simi- mnemonic activity is covert, we'are likely to be other occasions we confidently assert an answer
of the amusing incident of the flat tire on Interstate
lar, in some sense, to the perceptual responses we relatively inactive; in order to reduce the prob- and terminate mnemonic behavior, only to find that
81. We may see him indistinctly "in our mind's
engaged in yesterday, but they are evoked by variability of competing behavior we tend to stop we are wrong. Clearly there is no necessary and
eye." Some of these responses have doubtless been
ables in our present environment and thus have the conversing, to orient aw ay from objects of interest, sufficient property distinctive of target responses.
same status as all of our other behavior. When we primed by our self-prompting mnemonic behavior.
to gaze fixedly at the wall or sky, and so on. Thus Ordinarily the target response is reinforced,
relive our past, our behavior is no less real than it The target response may consequently cause a
the target response serves a special role in termi- signaling that the contingency has been met. If our
was in the past. sudden cascade of related responses, many of
nating mnemonic activity satisfying the initial friend responds, "That's it! Ed . . . Ed Kotski," we
Sometimes we seem to remember incorrectly. which are strong relative to the. supplementary
contingency. will not engage in further mnemonic activity. But
("I'm positive you told me to meet you here at three stimuli and perhaps evert to the initial question.
While the target response serves this special often we are aware at the time we emit our response
o'clock!" "No! I said four!") However, our behav- role, and is therefore distinctive to an observer of that it is correct—we utter it with special force, and Thus, .the strength of the target response rela-
ior is never a mistake. A reminiscence may be our behavior, it is not clear how it affects us the feel a release of tension or a,sense of confident tive to the constellation of stimuli provided by
different in some way from our behavior at an way it does. How does it serve to alter the cast of satisfaction before the. Tiominal reinforcer can be mnemonic responses and the initial question, along
earlier time, but it is not an error. Current variables our behavior, to terminate mnemonic responses, to delivered. There are variables, then, that affect how with the set of related responses occasioned by the
are different from past variables, and our behavior reorient us to ongoing activities, to free our fixed we emit the target .response and whether we recog- target response, enable us to recognize the target
is an inexorable outcome of these current variables, gaze? We recognize the target response as such, nize it as "correct." response as "correct," We emit it "as the answer"
It is not remarkable that our behavior is different; we it with special emphasis. How do we terminate problem-solving activity,
First, we can often discriminate the strength of
that is what we would expect. What is remarkable do so?
is that our behavior of remembering so often results our with respect to its controlling vari-
It may be difficult to appreciate that this is a ables. We know when a response is tentative, when
in behavior that would have been appropriate to formidable question: When we remember some-
past variables as well. The fact that we are so often it is forceful, when itjis "on the tip of our tongue,"
thing, it is obvious to us. But why is it obvious? MNEMONIC.
"right" is all the more surprising when we consider and so on. We can even say that we were "on the
What distinguishes the target response from all of ACQUISITION
that the general context in which we remember is point of saying something" when we were inter-
the other responses in the stream of behavior? Once rupted. Measures of latency and amplitude—and
often quite different from the context of our origi- So far, we have considered only mnemonic proce-
again, it may be helpful to consider other examples their covert accompaniments—are available to us
nal experiences. Most adults have become skilled dures that we engage in at the time of recall. We
of problem solving. For arithmetic problems for as discriminative stimuli. The target response will
mnemonists, able to quickly and effortlessly sup- have shown that without recall procedures we
pi)/ themselves with the supplementary stimuli which we have learned codified procedures, the typically be primed slightly by the discrimi-
answer is known by its ordinal and physical rela- would be helpless to answer novel questions about
necessary to native (e.g.,, the question) as well as by events. However, such procedures would
a variety of circumstances. tionship to other responses. For example, when we
many of the mnemonic responses. Speaking be ineffective if we did not also engage in
large numbers with a pencil and paper, we can
loosely, the target response is appropriate to a mnemonic procedures when environment-behav-
the answer as a textual response to the bottom
variety of relevant stimuli, including the question. ior relations are first acquired. For example, when
row of numbers after we have summed the leftmost
of The mnemonic responses themselves are usually we are going to take a quiz on Friday, we will often
column of digits.. There is nothing distinctive about
evoked by a much narrower range of stimuli, and study Thursday night. "Studying^ is an example of
We have argued that remembering is a special case the target, response—indeed, our answer may well
most are completely inappropriate to, or very an acquisition procedure—it facilitates future re-
of problem solving, that when faced with a contin- be wrong. It is only because we have learned a
procedure that we are able to emit the response "as weakly primed by, the question. For example, if, call, commonly by strengthening behavior that will
gency that requires us to behave with respect to among other mnemonic behavior, we recite the -
stimuli or events no longer present, we engage in the answer." feature in a later recall procedure. We will next
What are the analogous properties of the ^cor- of the alphabet to prompt a forgotten name, consider both general acquisition procedures, such
activities that supplement current stim-
rect" response in remembering? We should note, we are emitting a long intraverbal chain in which as rehearsal, and specific, codified strategies, such
uli. Thus, in the stream of behavior, an instance of
remembering is commonly well defined. It begins at the outset, that we sometimes fail to recognize response is largely determined by the preced- as those that have been shown to be particularly
with discriminative signaling such a con- the response even after we it. "Was his ing response. None of these responses is strong helpful in remembering vocabulary terms or se-
relative to the initial question. The target response. quences of events.
336 12
Remembering 337
Rehearsal When we first an word in

German class or an unfamiliar term in a
is an acquisition procedure that we Chunking: Units of response vary in size, and this is in our on immediate recall tasks.
eeuroanatomy class, we must sound it out syllable people can remember about five to nine numbers, or words from a list when tested immediately. For
monly employ when it is clear that retention inter- by syllable; when learning a dance routine or a example, if the following 27 letters were read to you at the of one each second, you would probably find it difficult
vals will be brief. When we are entrusted to deliver magic 'trick, we first step through it slowly and to recall more than nine:
a message, or wish to dial an unfamiliar phone awkwardly. With rehearsal these words or move-
number, or want to remember to stop at the post RIYEOIRFSBPUIOEINRDCT-PLNITI
ments become fluent. Even a long message or
office on the way to work, we are likely to employ speech can become fluent, as intraverbal chains are Each letter is a unit of behavior, an echoic response in our repertoire. However, if letters are arranged into three-
rehearsal. Rehearsal is effective, at the very least, letter syllables, each syllable would be an echoic unit. You could probably recall five to nine of the following syllables
established. The task of remembering a response and reconstruct many more than nine of the letters in the list above.
in bridging or reducing temporal gaps. A number
chain is thus greatly simplified, as recalling a single
in a phone book can serve as an effective stimulus LIT BIL TIB PER RUP IDE NIF SON INN TBE
link provides a mnemonic stimulus that may be
for dialing the number if we are looking at it, but
sufficient to evoke subsequent links in the chain. Similarly, if the syllables were arranged to form a phrase, you could surely recall the entire phrase, and perhaps
when we put the book down it becomes ineffective half a dozen more like it:
The integration of discrete responses into unitary
almost immediately, unless we rehearse the num-
ber: First we respond to the number as a textual chains is an example of what, in the memory litera-
INCORRUPTIBILITY PERSONIFIED
stimulus. Our textual response then serves as a ture, is called "chunking." If we are given a set of
stimulus for an echoic response of the same topog- unrelated items—say, random letters or digits-—we From the phrase you could reconstruct the entire list of 27 letters. Thus, the amount of verbal material that we
are unlikely to immediately recall more than a half can recall in such a task depends, not on the physical dimensions of the stimuli, but on our responses to the stimuli.
raphy. Each echoic response can serve as a stimu-
lus for subsequent echoic responses, overt or dozen or so.8 If the letters form words in our
covert, in a series that can bridge considerable repertoire, however, we can recall about a half
temporal gaps. dozen words "and hence many more letters. If the
The rehearsed response often has the same to- words form simple sentences, we can recall several
However, we should note that mere repetition
of those, and hence still more letters. (See panel on necessarily the case when we rehearse in different
pography as the target response. For example, a of a response need not insure future recall,9 A contexts and at various intervals. For example, we
message has the same form when it is rehearsed as page 337.) Of course a sentence is not a chain of response of a particular topography evoked by one
letters, but recalling a sentence would provide a might study for an exam in the library then quiz
when it is delivered. Consequently, rehearsal fa- stimulus is a different operant from a response of
stimulus from which we could determine a series ourselves later that day in our room. This is more
cilitates future recall of the target response even the same topography under the control of a second
of individual letters. In general, recall of individ- than simply rehearsing target responses, for in our
when the temporal gap has not been significantly stimulus. Repeating echoic responses evoked by
ual responses is facilitated if they can be inte- room we must engage ill mnemonic procedures to
reduced. In many cases, the response required in a prior verbal stimuli may be of little use at the time
grated into a larger pattern that can be recalled emit the responses at all> Verbal stimuli are effec-
recall contingency is a verbal response, even if the of recall when the verbal model is absent and an
as a unit. tive in evoking echoic responses only for a minute
original behavior or event was not verbal. Rehears- intraverbal response is required. Sanford10 re-
An additional effect of rehearsal is to bring the or two. If we rehearse at longer intervals, we must
al of the event can strengthen the verbal behavior ported that he read aloud the same set of prayers to
under the control of a variety of recruit supplementary stimuli In general, the
will be required later. For example, we might Ms family over 5000 times—about once a day for
stimuli. We might learn someone's name at a that elapses between \ the acquisition of the
be asked to recall the items on a table. Here, the 25 years—but he never learned, to recite them.
friend's house, mention the person the next day in response and the. rehearsal of the response, the
responses scheduled for reinforcement might not "from memory." No doubt lie read them fluently at
a phone conversation, and hail her in. towa the fewer shared contextual stimuli are the
actually occur, overtly or covertly, at the time of the end of 25 years, but recitation requires control,
original exposure to the items. Upon seeing an following week. We are likely to remember her stimuli are required. Rehears-
by textual stimuli, but by intraverbal stimuli.
name in the future, for there are many stimuli that mnemonic behavior and target responses at
orange on a table we might salivate or think of In the absence of fading procedures, we
serve to prime the response. The more contexts and greater intervals is likely both to main-
lunch, but we might not emit the tact "orange," control by the written to
by other stimuli. a high of successful performance and to
However, if we have reason to rehearse the in which we emit a response, the more stimuli we
bring performance under control of a wide variety
on the table, as we would if we anticipated a recall can recruit at the time of recall to evoke the re- If rehearsal is effective partly because it in-
of stimuli. Moreover, it approaches more and more
test, we would almost certainly respond verbally to sponse. Our self-prompting procedures and other creases the number of contextual events that can
closely the conditions under which the response is
the orange, perhaps making it more likely that we mnemonic devices are more likely to be successful evoke the response, simple iteration of a response
ultimately likely to be required. The superiority of
will be able to respond, verbally when asked about if there- are a variety of events that will evoke the in a single context is likely to be a less effective
temporally distributed practice over massed prac-
the items on the table later. target response. Rehearsal insures that responding procedure than more complex kinds of rehearsal in
tice can be interpreted in this light: Typically,
Rehearsal helps to integrate chains of distinct is extended in time, increasing the number of ante- which we practice, not just the target response
researchers in verbal-learning experiments have
responses into one or more unitary responses, cedent events that can later prime the response. itself, but mnemonic procedures as well. This is
that recall performance is better when trials
338 CHAPTER
Remembering
or stimulus are in. transmitted, but its form will be different. Our
sequentially.11 version of the story may be with distortions
Imagery
omissions, for our perceptual do not
stand in a one-to-one relationship to the words in a ^
narrative. Reading a story, in contrast to hearing it,
may facilitate verbal recall because we are re- The War of the Ghosts
The "use of imagery" is widely-acknowledged to
be an effective acquisition mnemonic. However, sponding verbally as we read, but a single reading
is unlikely to establish long intraverbal chains, as
imagery is difficult to define and difficult to inves-
Professor Sanford's prayer illustrates. escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log Now canoes came un
tigate experimentally, since it cannot be studied saw one canoe commg up to them. ^^ f, ™ LTe "en
independently of other variables.12 Nevertheless, In a now-classic study of the recall of narrative ' «*
it is a real behavioral phenomenon. If we cannot material, Bartlett14 presented subjects with a short
exert experimental control over it, we must rely story and later asked them to, reproduce it. Not ô ft^t^^
'Arrows are in the canoe," they said
heavily on interpretation in our discussion. As a surprisingly, the subjects' renditions were dis-
d
first approximation, we can define imagery as con- torted and incomplete. Their stories were clearly ° "Ot k"OW I *- gone. But .you," he.aid,
ditioned perceptual behavior. However, "the use" guided by their perceptual responses to the narra- So one of the young men went, but the other returned home
of imagery implies something more than passive tive, not by their textual responses. (See page 339.)
conditioned perceptions. Sometimes visualizing is In a study by Reder,15 subjects read stories arid
active, constructive and "goal directed," as when were then asked, at various retention intervals,
feel sick, but they s,ajd he had been shot -Now he thought. Oh, they are ghosts!" He did not
we count the windows of our house "in our mind's whether certain target sentences had appeared in
eye."13 Thus the use of imagery appears to be like the stories and whether the sentences were true,
other problem-solving behavior: It is guided partly given the stories. Recognition of the sentences was
by the stimuli defining a problem, and partly by poor relative to truth judgments, particularly at
other (often covert) responses that provide supple- retention intervals of 20 minutes or more. It is safe
mentary stimuli. It terminates when a particular to assume that recall of-the sentences would have
been, much worse. It is worth noting reaction (Bartlett, 1932, p. 65)
target response has been emitted—-that is, when the
goal has been reached. For present purposes, then, times to sentences from the stories were shorter
we can define imagery as conditioned perceptual than to other sentences, a priming effect that sug- - J. «„., ™,.e TTO
behavior and the use of imagery as perceptual gests some control by the original textual re- have been guided by their own responses-perceptual verbal emotion^, T J ren
<Mons appear to
A
problem-solving behavior—perceptual behavior sponses. ThefoUowingperformance, at a 1 5-minute retenK Jetai' "al: P
^^ ysical
~
that occurs when a problem contingency is in ef- Imagery is an effective procedure for recalling
fect. It terminates when the target behavior has lists of unrelated items, particularly when it is used The Ghosts
emitted—the problem is solved—or when deliberately, i.e., as an explicit mnemonic proce-
contingencies become dure. For example, to recall the items on a grocer}/
Imagery is particularly effective for remember- list it is usually helpful to imagine the items inter-
stories, lists, to bring on a camping trip, in a scene or in a sequence tells a story. *
we have no, ot
or other set of items. Narratives Absurd images or stories are easily discriminated
themselves to imagery, and we find ourselves from, other images and stories, and are therefore They answered: "There are arrows in the canoe "
following a story or a poem by visualizing the likely to be particularly effective. We might imag- o the men went, and they fought the people, and tnen he heard them saying. "An Indian is kll ,ed, let us
events as they unfold. Our behavior when we ine a press conference in which we see the presi™ So he returned to Egulac, and told them he knew they were Ghosts
the story is thus often perceptual rather than verbal. dent wearing glasses made of bagels, standing on
When we repeat the story, it is highly unlikely that a soap box, at a podium made from an orange crate, men were
we will do so verbatim. We have not acquired a set clutching a microphone made of a can of tomato night he was convulsed, «* '» *e
of intraverbal chains; rather, we have acquired soup, reading from slices of bread rather than note The people said:
conditioned perceptual behavior which can guide cards; a critic is shouting "Baloney!" while a pho- "He is dead."
(Bartlett, 1932, p. 87)
our verbal responses. The gist of the story will be tographer calls out "Say cheese!"
34§ 12
of works, in part, by wishes to the of the 100 Remembering

relationships, so United might list according to times. For example, the digits 3,5, 1
response serves as a for the next. Visual geographic region, beginning with Maine and New 3'51" which a long-standing in discriminated) way
imagery may work in an way. It appears Hampshire and working west to the Pacific 23
world record for the mile run. In another study, objects. Our car keys are visualized
to establish so Hawaii. This would a 24 served up with onions on a hamburger bun; our
Bower Clark instructed subjects to weave
recalling one as a prompt for others. An recall procedure of using a real or imagined map umbrella is fending off a hailstorm of shoes;
of unrelated words into stories. In a recall test,
experiment by Bower16 appears to confirm this of the United States to prompt the state names in our briefcase is being carried off by squirrels to a
these subjects were able to recall nearly all of the
view. He found that recall in a paired-associate task order; the state name would, in turn, prompt the hollow tree; and so on. At the time of recall we can
120 words presented in the experiment. Control
was superior for subjects who were instructed to name of the corresponding senator. generate the numbers easily as an intraverbal chain.
subjects who were instructed merely to rehearse
form compound images of the two words interact- Each number provides intraverbal and echoic stim-
Similarly, if a heterogeneous list of words is the words recalled, on average, only 13% of the
ing, compared with subjects who were instructed words. uli that evoke the corresponding rhyme. The rhym-
presented in a laboratory task, recall would 'be
to form two separate images of the two words. facilitated if the items were reorganized into ing word serves in turn as a supplementary
There are a variety of codified mnemonic pro- stimulus for a particular target response.
Imagery also facilitates recall by providing one classes, e.g., living organisms, geographical cedures that exemplify elaboration. These are gen-
or more additional modalities to be tapped by places, structures, abstract nouns, words beginning A third codified' mnemonic is known as
eral procedures that have been explicitly cultivated keyword mnemonic, a procedure designed to fa-
mnemonic recall procedures.17 It is commonly with "M," etc.21 In many cases, identifying the and widely publicized. The most venerable proce-
found that, in the learning of verbal material in class name, or even a single member of the class, cilitate acquisition of vocabulary in foreign lan-
dure is the method of loci, which was described by guages. Each foreign word is paired with an
laboratory settings, concrete words such as auto- would tend to prime other members of the class. Cicero over 2,000 years ago and attributed by him
mobile and sailboat are remembered better than Moreover, if items have been organized into English word of similar form; the meaning of the
to Greek poets of several centuries earlier. The English word is then visualized interacting with the
abstract words such as truth and thought.18 The classes, one can use systematic recall procedures method of loci takes Advantage of the ease with
imagery need not, of course, be restricted to the that are particularly effective. Some classes, such meaning of the foreign word. Jour, the French
which we move about familiar surroundings. Each word for day, might remind us of jury; we then
visual modality. Some words or phrases, such as as state names, digits, letters, body parts, colors, item to be remembered is visualized in a particular
"coffee" or "chocolate chip cookies," can be imag- and so on, permit mnemonic procedures that ex- might imagine a jury locked in a chamber for many
location in a familial" setting such as our,home. If days. At the time of recall, jour provides a formal
ined in several sense modalities, facilitating a wide haustively generate elements of the class; the name we are trying to remember on a grocery list.
variety of recall procedures. We can visualize the of an element in the target set is a particularly foi jury, which in turn serves to occasion
we picture ourselves walking about our home, day.
brewed, feel it scald our tongue, stimulus, since it is usu- placing the items' in distinctive places. The hot The effectiveness of elaboration mnemonic
it, taste it, hear it percolate, even hear the jingle ally easier to recognize an item than to recall it.
dogs go in the mailbox, the bag of onions is hung procedures has been', demonstrated experimen-
froirLthe television commercial. A wide variety of
from the front door knob, the carrots are put in a tally25' as well as anecdotally. Professional
supplementary stimuli would serve to prompt the
vase on the coffee table, and so on. In recalling the mnemonists routinely use such procedures to
target response. Generally, imagery has been found Elaboration items, we visualize ourselves retracing our steps astonish audiences, aiid many students who at-
to be a more effective acquisition procedure than
rote rehearsal. For example, Bower19 found that and finding the items in their various places. The tempt to employ these jînemonics report success.
In general, the more we think about something, the
subjects in an imagery condition recalled more likely we are to it,22 As we method of loci is particularly effective because it
than twice as as subjects in a specifies at the time of acquisition the
above, if a wide variety of reminds us of a
condition. However, thfe effect may or a response, mne- will be, It then to
on the of the to be monic at the of recall are to elements of the proce- Procedures
searchers2^ for the to be An important acquisition dure. It exploits imagery and novelty, it be
of in the of verbal procedure, then, is to explicitly verbalize or visu- as often as needed. We to recall a name or a word
Another well-known procedure is called the only to have it "pop into heads" effortlessly an
rial. alize the relationship between a target response
peg-word Like the method of loci. It hour later when we have "forgotten all about it."
high-probability responses in our repertoire. Con-
specifies a recall procedure in advance and ar- Events of this sort seem to belie the utility of
sider the example of a subject in a laboratory task
ranges for target responses to be evoked by stimuli mnemonic procedures. How are we to explain
Organization who was required to recall a series of unrelated them?
digits. With prolonged practice he increased his generated during recall. It requires first learning a
When the to be is performance from about seven to as many as 80 set of rhymes for the numbers one through ten (and We must not forget that recall procedures do
in some way, an effective mnemonic procedure is digits. He was an avid runner, and among his beyond if necessary): "One is a bun, two is a shoe, not lead us inexorably to the target response. They
to reorganize it to accentuate relationships mnemonic was an elaboration procedure three is a tree, four is a door," and so on. Thus each are more like blind groping than directed searches:
its various A in which of to familiar Of necessity, we don't know what we're looking
is with a common concrete object.
The to be are visualized inter- for. We use mnemonic procedures have
been, most strongly reinforced in the
338 12
Remembering
or are out In transmitted, but its form will be different. Our
sequentially.11 of the story may be with
omissions, for our perceptual responses do
stand in a one-to-one relationship to the words in a
Imagery narrative. Reading a story, in contrast to hearing It,
may facilitate verbal recall because we are re- The War of the Ghosts
The "use of imagery" is widely-acknowledged to
sponding verbally as we read, but a single reading
be an effective acquisition mnemonic. However,
is unlikely to establish long intraverbal chains,-as
imagery is difficult to define and difficult to inves-
Professor Sanford's prayer illustrates.
n
tigate experimentally, since it cannot be studied
independently of other variables.12 Nevertheless, In a now-classic study of the recall of narrative
material, Bartlett14 presented subjects with a short
"olse °fpMk'- ana
it is a real behavioral phenomenon. If we cannot
exert experimental control over it, we must rely story and later asked them to. reproduce it. Not 'Arrows are in the canoe," they said
heavily on interpretation in our discussion. As a surprisingly, the subjects' renditions were dis-
torted and incomplete. Their stories were clearly gone. But you," he.a]d,
first approximation, we can define imagery as con-
ditioned perceptual behavior. However, "the use" guided by their perceptual responses to the narra- So one of the young men went, but the other returned home
of imagery implies something more than passive tive, not by their textual responses. (See page 339.)
In a study by Reder,15 subjects read stories and down to the
conditioned perceptions. Sometimes visualizing is warriors
were then asked, at various retention intervals, say: "Quick, let us go home; that Indzan has been hit "Now h i ^"^
active, constructive and "goal directed," as when ^^
feel sick, but they said he had been sho" *°Ught: °h' ghosts He did
we count the windows of our house "in our mind's whether certain target sentences had appeared in
eye."13 Thus the use of imagery appears to be like the stories and whether the sentences were true,
other problem-solving behavior: It is guided partly given the stories. Recognition of the sentences was
by the stimuli defining a problem, and partly by poor relative to truth judgments, particularly at
other (often covert) responses that provide supple- retention intervals of 20 minutes or more. It is safe
mentary stimuli. It terminates when a particular to assume that recall of the sentences would have
been much worse. It is worth noting that reaction (Bartlett, 1932, p. 65)
target response has been emitted—that is, when the
goal has been reached. For present purposes, then, times to sentences from the stories were shorter
b e f the
we can define imagery as conditioned perceptual
behavior and the use of imagery as perceptual
than to other sentences, a priming effect that sug-
gests some control by the original textual re-
sponses.
have been gulded by the, own responses
The follovv,ng performance, at a 1
vi H
° to the ong.nal story.
problem-solving behavior-—perceptual behavior "«
that occurs when a problem contingency is in ef- Imagery is an effective procedure for recalling
fect. It terminates when the target behavior has lists of unrelated items, particularly when it is used The Ghosts
emitted—the problem is solved—or when deliberately, i.e., as an explicit mnemonic proce-
other contingencies become dominant. dure. For to recall the on a grocer}/
is list it is usually to imagine the inter-
ing stories, lists, things to bring on a camping trip, in a or in a sequence a story. > MyiD* "°"r ***** *> "« know where We are, and we have not got
or any other set of items. Narratives Absurd or stories are easily discriminated
themselves to imagery, we find ourselves from images and stories, and are therefore They answered: "There are arrows in the canoe "
following a story or a by visualizing the likely to be particularly effective. We might imag- retu™. " P]- «"> *«> «« <-rd them saylng, "^ Indian 1S ki!ied, let us
events as they unfold. Our behavior when we ine a conference in which we see the presi-
So he returned to Egulac, and told them he knew they were Ghosts
the story is thus often perceptual rather than verbal. dent wearing glasses made of bagels, standing on
When we repeat the story, it is highly unlikely that a soap box, at a podiurn made from an orange crate, . ' . "d many men Were
we will do so verbatim. We have not acquired a set clutching a microphone made of a can of tomato nlght he was convulsed, and
of intraverbal chains; rather, we have acquired soup, reading from slices of bread rather than note The people said:
conditioned perceptual behavior which can guide cards; a critic is shouting "Baloney!" while a pho- "He is dead."
(Bartlett, 1932, p. 87)
our verbal responses. The gist of the story will be tographer calls out "Say cheese!"
340 12
Remembering
of works, In by to the of the 100
relationships, so United might list to For example, the digits 3,5, 1
response serves as a for the In (easily discriminated)
geographic region, beginning with Maine and New 3'51" which a long-standing
Imagery may work In an analogous way. It Hampshire working west to the Pacific world record for 23
mile run. In another study, Our car keys are visualized
to establish so Bower and Clark24 instructed subjects to weave up onions on a hamburger bun; our
Hawaii. This would a umbrella is seen fending off a hailstorm of
recalling one as a prompt for others. An recall procedure of using a real or imagined map lists of unrelated words into stories. In a recall test,
our briefcase is being, carried off by squirrels to a
experiment by Bower16 appears to confirm this of the United States to prompt the state names in these subjects were able to recall nearly all of the
hollow tree; and so on. At the time of recall we can
view. He found that recall in a paired-associate task order; the state name would, in turn, prompt the 120 words presented in the experiment. Control
was superior for subjects who were instructed to generate the numbers easily as an intraverbal chain.
name of the corresponding- senator. subjects who were Instructed merely to rehearse
form compound images of the two words interact- Each number provides intraverbal and echoic stim-
Similarly, if a heterogeneous list of words is the words recalled, on average, only 13% of the uli that evoke the corresponding rhyme. The rhym-
ing, compared with subjects who were instructed presented in a laboratory task, recall would 'be words.
to form two separate images of the two words. ing word serves in turn as a supplementary
facilitated if. the items were- reorganized into There are a variety of codified mnemonic pro- stimulus for a particular target response.
Imagery also facilitates recall by providing one classes, e.g., living organisms, geographical cedures that exemplify elaboration. These are gen- A third codified- mnemonic is known as the
or more additional modalities to be tapped by places, structures, abstract nouns, words beginning eral procedures that have been explicitly cultivated keyword mnemonic, a procedure designed to fa-
mnemonic recall procedures.17 It is commonly with "M," etc.21 In many cases, identifying the and widely publicized. The most venerable proce- cilitate acquisition of vocabulary in foreign lan-
found that, in the learning of verbal material in class name, or even a single member of the class, dure is the method pf loci, which was described by guages. Each foreign word is paired with an
laboratory settings, concrete words such as auto- would tend to prime other members of the class. Cicero over 2,000 years ago and attributed by him English word of similar form; the meaning of the
mobile and sailboat are remembered better than Moreover, if items have been organized- into to Greek poets of several centuries earlier. The English word is then visualized interacting with the
abstract words such as truth and thought.18 The classes, one can use systematic recall procedures method of loci takes \advantage of the ease with meaning" of the foreign word. Jour, the French
imagery need not, of course, be restricted to the that are particularly effective. Some classes, such which we move about familiar surroundings. Each word for day, might remind us of jury; we then
visual modality. Some words or phrases, such as as state names, digits, letters,, body parts, colors, item to be remembered is visualized in a particular might imagine a jury locked in a chamber for many
"coffee" or "chocolate chip cookies," can be imag- and so. on, permit mnemonic procedures that ex- location in a familiar setting such as our home. If days. At the time of recall, jour provides a formal
ined in several sense modalities, facilitating a wide haustively generate elements of the class; the we are trying to on a grocery list, prompt for jury, in serves to occasion
variety of recall procedures. We can visualize the of an element in the target set is a particularly we picture ourselves walking about our home, day.
brewed, it scald our tongue, smell stimulus, since it is usu- placing the items' in distinctive places. The hot
it, taste it, hear it percolate, even hear the jingle The effectiveness of elaboration mnemonic
ally to an item than to recall it. dogs go in the mailbox, the bag of onions is hung
from.the television commercial. A wide variety of procedures -has been-demonstrated experimen-
supplementary stimuli would serve to prompt the
from the front door knob, the carrots are put in a tally25- as well as anecdotally. Professional
vase on the coffee table, and so on. In recalling the mnemonists routinely use such procedures to
target response. Generally, imagery has been found Elaboration items, we visualize ourselves retracing our steps astonish audiences, and many students who at-
to be a more effective acquisition procedure than
and finding the items in their various places. The tempt to employ these mnemonics report success.
rote rehearsal. For example, Bower19 found that In general, the more we think about something, the
method of loci is particularly effective because it
subjects in an imagery condition recalled more likely we are to it.22 As we
specifies at the time of acquisition what the
twice as as subjects in a above, if a wide variety of reminds us of a
procedure will be. It then to of
condition. However, the effect may or a response,
on the of the to be Re- at the of are strong responses to elements of the recall proce-
searchers20 for the likely to be successful An important dure. It exploits imagery and novelty, it be
as as needed. We to a or a word
of In the of procedure, then, is to explicitly verbalize or visu- only to have it '"pop into our heads" effortlessly an
rial. alize the relationship between a target response Another well-known procedure is the
hour later we have ""forgotten all about it."
high-probability responses in our repertoire. Con- Like the method of loci, it
specifies a recall procedure in advance and ar- Events of this sort seem to belle the utility of
sider the example of a subject in a laboratory task mnemonic procedures. How are we to explain
Organization who was required to recall a series of unrelated ranges for target, responses to be evoked by stimuli them?
digits. With prolonged practice he Increased his generated during recall. It requires first learning a
the to be Is set of rhymes for the numbers one through ten (and We must not forget that recall procedures do
performance from about seven to as many as 80 not lead us inexorably to the target response. They
In some way, an effective mnemonic procedure is digits. He was an avid runner, and among his beyond if necessary): "One is a bun, two is a shoe,
three is a tree, four is a door," so on. Thus each are more like blind groping than directed searches:
to reorganize it to relationships among mnemonic strategies was an elaboration, procedure Of necessity, we don't know what we're looking
its A who in which of to familiar is with a common concrete object.
for-. We use procedures have
The to be are inter-
most strongly reinforced in the past
12
similar circumstances, is no mnemonic procedures are prepotent over compet- of the past, but cannot it when who find themselves
that they will be the effective for the ing behavior indicates that there are often powerful about it. We now turn to the of how own behavior or even that of their parents.
at hand. Moreover, recall procedures are likely to contingencies in effect for remembering certain mnemonic skills'are acquired. Memory research with children reveals the ex-
prime responses related to the target response as kinds of events. We apparently learn to identify
pected trend: Young children typically have very
well as the target response itself. These responses those classes of event which we must later recall,
will compete with the target response and may be OF primitive skills, but by adolescence, most children
and we engage in the mnemonic behaviors dis-
prepotent. We find ourselves saying "Todd" in- use a wide range of mnemonic procedures. A study
cussed above. That these special procedures are
stead of "Ed." Further mnemonic behavior may by Istomena29 illustrates differences in the use of
acquired at all is testimony to the difficulty of many
provide supplementary stimuli that only serve to Remembering encompasses a variety of skills that a variety of mnemonic procedures in 3~, 4-, and
recall tasks. It appears that some of our experiences
evoke the competing response more strongly. We are by no means universal Not only do children 5-year-old children. Children participated in a
are distinctive enough and interrelated enough that
may be unable to stop emitting the competing differ from adults, but individuals differ from one game in which they played a number of different
we can remember them without employing special
response even though we "realize that it is incor- another according to culture and level of education roles. One child was required to go to an adjoining
acquisition procedures. Other experiences, unre-
rect." The more we repeat the competing response, as well. Generally non-schooled subjects perform room to a "store" to 6<buy" five items, ostensibly
lated to anything else, need to be elaborated with
the more it becomes integrated with other strong worse than their educated counterparts in typical for the puipose of feeding the others, An experi-
acquisition strategies so that recall procedures can 26
responses evoked by the recall context; the recall laboratory memory tasks. Much of the discrep- menter told the child what to buy, and, sent, him on'
work. For example, we can recall trivial events at
mnemonic provides rehearsal and elaboration pro- ancy appears to be due to differences in the use of his way. The number of items recalled increased,
a friend's wedding with ease, but are helpless to
cedures for strengthening the competing response! rehearsal and organizational mnemonic proce- as a rale, with the age of the child. An analysis of
recall the names of the twelve cranial nerves on an
Our recall procedure has led us into a blind alley; exam, despite our most anguished efforts. There dures,27 When tasks are varied to make organiza- the actual behavior of the children suggests that the
we must back out and start afresh. tional procedures more explicit, the differences are increase was a function of the use of acquisition
are many things we talk about in our day-to-day
. Giving up and1 turning to another activity is lives, and talking about, things is an implicit elabo- reduced. The discrepancy may arise in part because and recall strategies. Three-year-olds engaged in
effective partly because it reduces the strength of the meaningless kinds of memory tests employed little, if any, mnemonic acquisition or recall proce-
ration procedure. We rehearse, talk about, and
particular competing responses. When we return to in laboratory tasks are not commonly encountered dures. Typically a child would set out for the store
recall important events over and over again. Per-
the problem in another context, the initial condi- 28
outside of school. In school, memorization' is without waiting for the experimenter to finish''tell-
if we were to as often
tions may control a different sequence of mne- an explicit goal, and recall techniques may ing him what to buy. Qnce at the store, the child
with our friends, we would recall them effortlessly
monic responses which quickly evoke the target be taught explicitly or implicitly. would improvise, announcing, for example, that
too.
response. Some new contexts may themselves pro- However, much implicit training undoubtedly candy was required. Thus, competing behavior
If our account is correct, children will be unable
vide enough relevant supplementary stimuli that occurs in the home. Parents often model the use of was strong at the time of acquisition, and the be-
to remember the past until they acquire behavior
the response is emitted directly, i.e., without self- recall procedures by providing young children havior at the time, of recall was strongly controlled
prompting procedures. For example, if Ed was a that generates supplementary stimuli. They will be by the current setting.
skilled at remembering the past only when they with supplementary stimuli when they are faced
skilled piano player, a context that included a piano Four-year-olds, as a rule, stopped what they
have acquired a full range of acquisition and recall with a recall task: "Tell Grandma what we saw this
might by itself evoke his name. were doing and looked at the experimenter when
mnemonic procedures. This is not to say that chil- afternoon. . . Do you remember? We went in the
car . . . There was a barn . « . You ran. up to the the list was presented. That is, competing re-
dren never experience conditioned perceptions or
sponses were terminated, and an orienting re-
respond as if absent stimuli were present; children fence , . . Yes, cows! We saw cows." Parents natu-
A sponse was made which maximized control by the
be reminded of past events and respond appro- rally these when children provide
list stimuli and minimized control by competing
Acquisition procedures and recall procedures com- priately. We can say to a child "Do you remember them, for themselves.
stimuli. These children then typically rushed to the
another. Acquisition procedures the giraffe we saw at the zoo last week?" and the Many recall procedures are undoubtedly ac- adjoining room, carefully skirting encounters with
strengthen target behavior with respect to a variety child will perhaps visualize the giraffe and its quired fortuitously. Recall tasks often involve the "guards," and blurted out as much of the message
of stimuli, some of which are likely to be provided surroundings as his strongest response to the verbal whole family, and parents commonly prompt as they could. That is, the time interval between the'
as supplementary stimuli by recall procedures. stimulus "giraffe." However, if we ask "What did another, modeling mnemonic procedures for the presentation of the target stimulus (the experi-
Clearly this is a complex and flexible performance we do last week?" the child may be unable to children. When searching for a mislaid checkbook menter's list) and the recall stimulus (the counter
must be gradually shaped. respond that we went to the zoo and saw a giraffe; one parent might say to the other, "When did you -of the store) was minimized, and stimuli control-
The acquisition mnemonics that we have re- the question does not evoke that response directly, last have it? , . . Retrace your steps . . ; What did competing responses were avoided.
viewed require that we behave in special ways and the child may not have acquired the requisite you do when you first came in the house?" and so There were exceptions to the rule. One
today so that we will be reinforced tomorrow. problem-solving skills to provide the supplemen- on. These supplementary stimuli, affect the speaker the items as they were presented and
Moreover, they take time and effort. That these tary stimuli necessary to evoke it. The child can be everyone within earshot., including the chil- the experimenter to repeat several of the
344 12
Another the loudly as not to had long with a variety of recall

were presented. Clearly this is an important children in the use of particular mnemonic Children were required to. learn 21 terms in a. tasks; our mnemonic procedures are often inte-
advance. What was scheduled for reinforcement procedures. For example, Flavell, Beach, and. paired-associate paradigm. Those in the elabora- grated units that are occasioned by typical features
was the behavior of emitting the list, not the behav- Chinsky30 used lip-reading to evaluate the use of tion group were asked questions that required them of familiar problems. We can quickly and effort-
ior of listening to it. Repeating items establishes or rehearsal in 5-, 7-, and 10-year-old children in a to weave the into a story. For example, if the lessly recall what we did today, whom we saw,
strengthens, albeit in the wrong setting, the very picture-recall task. Relatively few 5-year-olds ap- terms were soap-jacket, subjects, might be asked, what we said. Under these conditions we are some-
behavior scheduled for reinforcement. Repeating peared to rehearse at all, while nearly all of the "Why is the soap hiding in the jacket?" These times unaware that we are engaging in any special
the items loudly strengthens any intraverbal con- 10-year-olds rehearsed. Further research with sub- children recalled an average of 14 items, strikingly mnemonic procedures at all; that is, we are unable
trol by one response on later responses. Once one jects ranging from 7-year-olds to adults found dif- more than subjects in a control group who just to describe our own,mnemonic behavior. On other
response was recalled, other responses would have ferences in the nature of the rehearsal procedure. repeated the stimulus and response terms and pre- occasions, when the task is unfamiliar, relevant
a higher probability of being recalled. 7-year-olds tended to simply repeat the most re- sumably did not engage in other mnemonic proce- supplementary responses may be weak. Under
Five- and six-year-olds engaged in more elabo- cently presented item, while older subjects tended dures; subjects in this condition recalled only two these conditions we are -likely to respond verbally
rate strategies, both at acquisition and recall. When to rehearse groups of words, thus establishing items, on average. to our own covert behavior. We become aware of
the list was presented the}' typically would: some intraverbal control among target responses. Butterfield, Wambold, and Belmont36 taught a our mnemonic behavior; furthermore, our verbal
Ornstein, Naus, and Liberty31 presented sub- rehearsal procedure to mentally retarded children responses help guide later mnemonic activity. This
1. Orient toward the speaker and stop competing and greatly improved their performance on a short- evaluation of one's own mnemonic behavior and
jects of various ages with words randomly pre-
activity. term memory task. Subjects were presented with a its effect on subsequent behavior has been called
sented from four categories. An effective
2. Repeat items, either in a whisper, aloud, or acquisition procedure is to rehearse category mem- sequence of six items and asked to identify in metamemory.37
just by moving their lips. Repetitions were re- bers together; this strengthens intraverbal control which position a target item occurred; they control-
- quested. among items, and between items and the category led the rate at which items were presented by
3. Rehearse the whole list immediately. name, making the category name a particularly pressing a button, which allowed the experiment- of
effective recall cue. Again, only older children (13 ers to assess when they were rehearsing items. Mnemonic Behavior
4. Rehearse silently on their way to the store (as
years) to an organizational proce- Adults with experience in this procedure typically
shown by the fact halfway A discussion of our awareness of mnemonic pro-
back to confirm the last few items.) dure. Moely, Olson, Halwes, and FlavelP2 found pause and.rehearse the first three items in the series,
then quickly view the jlast three items. When the cedures, of probability of successful recall, and of
similar results for a picture-recall task in which the
5. Elaborate on the items (as shown by the fact target item is presented, they first recall the last other features of remembering raises the general
pictures could be arranged in categories during the
that recall errors were often semantic in nature— three items; if the target was not among them, they problem of self-awareness. How is it that we are
study phase of the experiment.
for example, one child recalled "macaroni" instead able to describe €0vert events—our thoughts, feel-
Kreutzer, Leonard, and Flavell33 investigated recall the rehearsed items. This procedure exploits
of "spaghetti"). ings, intentions, and so on? As Skinner38 points
the use of external stimuli as prompts. They asked both the distinctiveness of responses to recently
out, "In setting up the type bf verbal operant called
At the store, recall strategies were used: children of various ages to generate mnemonic presented stimuli and the relatively enduring ef-
the tact, the verbal cojnm-iinity characteristically
procedures for remembering to attend a skating fects of rehearsal. When the strategy was
1.
a given response', in the presence of a
party. Younger children to suggest manipu- to the performance improved
loudly, thus of This only-be done if the stimu-
lating environmental e.g., by getting out the considerably, only for the first three items in
items. *• lus acts upon both speaker and reinforcing commu-
skates and putting them in a conspicuous place. the However, when they were given detailed nity." This poses no problem when we learn to
2. A single item was sometimes repeated again Older children were more likely to suggest verbal instructions on both the acquisition procedure (re- describe the external world, but 5^/f-awareness
again, for the —writing a note, a parent to remind hearsal) the recall procedure (recalling the sensitivity to a private world. This is a
3. They by screw- them—and covert first), performance formidable problem for which proposes a
up their eyes, looking down or to side, in im- 35% coirectto 85% unique solution. He identifies four ways in which
avoiding eye contact with others. proving performance on recall tasks by teaching correct, a verbal community can shape verbal behavior
children to engage in recall and acquisition proce- This study illustrates the, complexity of per-, guided by covert events ?^ (See panel on page 346.)
4. There were long pauses during which, pre- formance on a recall task. It is often not enough to
sumably, covert mediating responses could occur. dures, or by choosing a task that induced, them to
in such procedures.3^ For example, Tur- a stock procedure such as rehearsal or
This study illustrates improvement in re- nure, Buium, and Thurlow35 demonstrated that the elaboration; one must sometimes employ a combi- 1. Some events have both private and public
is with specific behav- poor recall performance of young children can be nation of acquisition and recall procedures that are dimensions. For example, if we prick our finger
ior or procedures, even in preschoolers. attributed to failure to employ mnemonic proce- effective for a particular problem. Most adults have there is a tactile stimulus that is private and a visual
346 12
Remembering 347
ior is metaphorical that a of in silence- There is a powerful social

We have a to describe the external world, and the verbal community reinforces adherence a public event might be a prepotent response to a contingency requiring that we emit the name or
to and punishes deviations from the common standard. The boy who cried "Wolf!" was ostracized because no wolf private event even if-the two events only a
was present, and Paul Revere was honored because, indeed, the British were coming. Presumably more humdrum other relevant verbal behavior. Our responses are
relatively small number of features, since compet- likely to be guided by covert events: "Let's see,
contingencies account for the precision with which most of us describe the world. But how do we learn to describe ing verbal behavior evoked by the private event is
our private world within the skin when no second observer can shape our verbal behavior? Skinner suggests four ways. sixth grade . . . I can't remember , . . Oh, wait
likely to be weak.
Let us consider them in the light of a single example: A child who has fallen asleep with his arm hooked awkwardly I can picture her now , ., she was old; she used to
behind him. When he wakes he finds that his arm is "still asleep." How does the child learn to describe this peculiar 4. An overt response has private as well as public wear dowdy dresses and rubber-soled shoes
sensation? stimulus properties. Both the speaker and a listener Tahey' rings a bell . . . or 'Lahey' . . . I think she
1. A public stimulus may be typically correlated with the private events. An adult may have noticed the child's can hear a verbal response uttered, but only the was Irish . . . Her name's on the tip of my
awkward position and asks, "Is your arm asleep?" The adult has no access to the private sensation, but a speaker can feel the proprioceptive feedback from tongue . . . " This temporizing patter satisfies the
posture that appears to cut off circulation to a limb is public. The term "asleep" may then be acquired by the the tongue, Iips5 and throat. The magnitude of a social contingency and also serves as powerful
child, to whom both public and private stimuli are available. In other cases, "tickle" is paired with the brush response can diminish to the point where it is no supplementary stimulation. If the answer is impor-
of a feather, "hurt" with a pin prick, "burn" with contact with a lighted match, and so on. longer observed by the listener, but the private tant, our questioner may press us for a more com-
2. Private events may evoke distinctive public behavior. The child may hold his arm inertly and massage it with stimulation may be the same, except in magnitude, plete account of our mnemonic behavior. Thus, we
his free hand. Here the adult notices the collateral behavior and infers that the child's arm is asleep. In other as for the overt response. Responses shaped-in the describe, and hence become aware of, our mne-
cases, a frown suggests "angry," laughter suggests "happy," a stagger suggests "dizzy," pressing the temples presence of overt behavior may be emitted even monic behavior partly because of social contingen-
suggests "headache," and so on. when the behavior has receded to the covert level. cies and partly because such self-descriptive
3. The private event may be similar to some property of a public event. The child may say, as circulation returns, Verbal behavior, for example, is shaped as overt behavior has been reinforced by its effect on recall.
"It feels like pins and needles!" Here the child's vocabulary has already been shaped by the verbal community behavior, but it can occur covertly; we have no We can report what we have remembered, what we
and no further shaping occurs here. In other cases, the child might describe his feelings as "fluttery," or more trouble reporting what we said to ourselves think we are about to remember, and even those
"depressed," or "jumpy," and so on. than what we said to others. things that we are sure we cannot remember. These
4. Some behavior may be public on some occasions and of such diminished magnitude on others that only the self-reports and the contingencies from which they
The verbal community has an interest in can serve to evoke subsequent mnemonic
is able to detect it. Thus, the child may report, "I am trying to move my arm!" under the control of
proprioceptive stimuli usually accompanied by the movement of his arm. In other cases, we often report covert events, since, they often reveal the effect behavior; thus, metamemory itself embraces a set
speech, presumably under the control of events that accompany overt speech. of historical variables .-that are'-out of reach. For of important mnemonic procedures.
example, we might ask a guest "Are you hungry?"
None of the four ways that we acquire a self-descriptive repertoire guarantees precision. It is ironic that the world
rather than collecting data on the number of calo-
within our skin, the world to which we have such intimate and privileged access, should be so difficult to describe
precisely. ries he has consumed and the time since his last
meal. Thus there are powerful contingencies that ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA AND
shape self-descriptive verbal behavior. However, MNEMONIC BEHAVIOR \
Skinner notes that none of the four ways in which We have seen that remembering is a complex,
private events can be shaped by the verbal commu- unreliable, and often difficult task, even in those
nity guarantees the precision of control possible for with unimpaired nervous systems. It is not surpris-
selves later, even the is the only external, manipulable stimuli. Thus, self-descrip- ing that persons who have suffered brain injury
stimulus—the pin the skin, the drop of
tion is necessarily somewhat imprecise, An impli- often show deficits in remembering.. Since
blood—that is public. 'That hurts!" is a relevant stimulus.
cation of Skinner's analysis is that it is the verbal remembering is a complex behavior requiring the
be shaped by the verbal community 3. Private events may some conspicuous community that teaches us to "know ourselves," interaction of multiple stimulus and response
be evoked by both stimuli. The community's properties in common with public events. Al- that, ironically, we cannot describe ourselves events—including proprioceptive stimulation and
response is evoked by only the public stimulus, but though there is only partial overlap, the response with the same precision that we can describe the reafference—we can be confident that the neural
our behavior can be evoked by either one. to the public event is evoked by the private event external world.
2. Private events sometimes evoke typical overt as well. When we say we feel "agitated" we may activity underlying any instance of remembering is
Responding verbal!}/ to one's own covert be- widely distributed. Usually the events that cause
behavior. If we suddenly jerk our arm away from be feeling rapidly changing emotions, like the con- havior is, itself, an effective mnemonic procedure
a dresser, an observer might reply "Oh, you hit tents of a blender; when we say that we are "ebul- damage to the nervous system, such as a blow to
that helps select other appropriate mnemonic be- the head, loss of oxygen to the brain, and even
your funny bone!" If we hold our jaw and groan, lient" we may feel "bubbly" inside. Skinner calls havior. For example, when asked for the name of
an observer is likely to comment "You have a this transfer of response "metaphorical extension," surgical procedures, have widespread effects
a book, an actor, or our sixth-grade teacher, we may unique, to each victim. Consequently we cannot
toothache." We can expressions our- notes that much of our self-descriptive behav- find that no response is strong; but we can't just expect, to find simple relationships between brain
348 12
Remembering
Nevertheless, ex-
perimental analyses of brain lesions in nonhumans, The would fail to respond appropriately to eyes or stare into space, fixing his gaze, on one point-
Mirror novel complexes of stimuli such as faces or places.
in conjunction with case studies and post mortem when the experiment was over, he would ask that we
analyses of brain trauma in humans, point to an Polysensory units established before the destruc- pause while he went over the material in his mind to
tion of the hippocampus might or might not survive see if he had retained it. Thereupon, without another
important role for the hippocampus in remember-
the trauma, depending on the extent of the injuries. moment'spause, he would reproduce the series that
ing. had been read, to him . . . He could reproduce a
Those units that survived would presumably still
In Chapter 9 we discussed the effect of hippo- mediate recognition of faces, places, and other series in reverse order just as simply as from start
carnpal lesions on awareness, specifically on ver- complex events.; Moreover, those polysensory to finish . .. It was of no consequence to him whether
bal responses requiring polysensory integration. the series I gave him contained meaningful words or
units which had arisen from earlier acquisition nonsense syllables . . . Some of the experiments
Here we will extend the discussion to include what mnemonics might also remain intact, to be tapped designed, to test his retention were performed, (with-
we have learned about acquisition and recall pro- by recall procedures. out his being given any warning) 15 or 16years after
cedures. Bilateral damage to the hippocampus ap- The role of the hippocampus in the proposed the session in which he had originally recalled the
pears to be sufficient (but not necessary) to cause stimulus-selection network, provides a plausible words. Yet invariably they were successful.4^
severe anterograde amnesia. As we noted in Chap- interpretation of the amnesia data in light of the
ter 9, subjects with this disorder can usually recall present discussion of acquisition and recall proce- How are we to interpret these remarkable per-
events that occurred before their injury but cannot dures. The hippocampus may serve other relevant formances? It is tempting to simply assert that S.
remember—i.e., are completely unaware of— roles as well. It receives projections from all re- "has a good memory'9 or, better, a "photographic
gions of sensory association cortex, as well as from memory." However, this provides a label for what
events following the injury. One subject, whose
the motor cortex of the" frontal lobe, and is ideally we already know, not an explanation. We are not
hippocampus was deliberately lesioned to cure a FIGURE 12.4 The mirror-tracing task
suited to play a role in the rich interplay of re- entirely ignorant of relevant facts: He evidently
severe case of epilepsy, has been intensively stud- In the mirror-tracing task, the subject must follow a
sponses and stimuli in mnemonic procedures. engaged in acquisition mnemonics, for he required
ied, since apart from his amnesia, he seems to be printed pattern, such as a star, with a pencil line, a pause of three to four seconds between items,
normal. He can carry on a conversation, recall guided only by the image in a mirror. The subject is
during which he reduced competition other
events from the distant past, and repeat verbal prevented from directly viewing his performance by
an opaque shield. The task is surprisingly difficult, at stimuli, as indicated by the abstracted gaze men-
utterances. He has some problem-solving skills MNEMONIC tioned above.' Moreover, S. reported using the
first, as the strongest response at any point tends to
and can do arithmetic problems. Moreover, he can produce a line going in the wrong direction. With method of loci in order to establish ordinal rela-
emit echoic chains, but if he is interrupted he will Some people can recall events—even trivial and
practice most people improve considerably, as new tions among items. S. also engaged in some routine
be unable to recall the rehearsed response. Each arbitrary events—in remarkable detail and over
discriminative responses are acquired. recall procedures; Luria'notes that when recalling
new day is novel to him. He can't name people that Source: Carlson, N. (1984). Psychology: The Science of long retention intervals. Some of these people have- a list learned years before, S. would sit with Ms
he has met since the operation that caused his Behavior. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. simply practiced and developed ordinary mne- eyes closed, pause, and then begin to speak:
monic procedures to the point that their perform-
injury, he can't find his way around new surround-
ance on typical memory tasks is extraordinary. In "Yes, yes , . . This was a\series you gave me once
ings, he never gets bored with the same maga-
at however, when we were in your apartment.., You were sitting
or the same jokes, (fie can, however, learn by a very of are not to fit the facts,, A man at the table and'I in the rocking chair . . . You were
visual discriminations and retain acquired motor thus out of reach of recall mnemonic procedures. known to science simply as S. was studied over-a wearing a gray suit cindyou looked at me like this ...
such as a mirror-drawing task.40 (See Figure period of years by the Soviet psychologist A. R. Now, then, I can see you saying . , ," And with that
In 7 we a stimulus-selection
12.4.) It appears that new environment-behavior network in which the hippocampus integrates Luria, who S.'s astonishing recall per- •he would, reel off the scries precisely as I had given
relations can be established and maintained. More- polysensory input in the sensory association cor- depended, in part, on abnormal percep- it to him at the earlier session. If one takes into
over, it that he can still engage in recall tual behavior, Let us briefly illustrate his account that S. had by then become a well-known
tex. If this system were destroyed, polysensory mnemonist, who had to remember hundreds and
mnemonic procedures, since he can generate the units controlled by concurrent stimuli could not be performance, in Luria?s words:
thousands of series* the feat seems even more re-
supplementary stimuli necessary to discuss the dis- established. The relationship among events nor- markable.
/ gave S. a series of words, then numbers, then
past. However, it seems that acquisition pro- mally established by acquisition mnemonics letters, reading them to him slowly or presenting
cedures—either explicit mnemonic procedures or would no longer be exemplified in the network? them to him in written form . . . I increased the However, it appears that S.'s mnemonic proce-
everyday verbal exchanges that implicitly serve the and the subject would suffer impairment in remem- number of elements in each series, giving him as dures were considerably more effective for him
purpose—-are ineffective for him. The re- bering new experiences. Moreover, concurrent many as thirty, fifty, or even seventy words or num- than they are for most people. An important piece
sponses acquired since his operation remain con- stimuli in the environment would not be integrated. bers, but this, too, presented no problem for him . . . of the puzzle is that $. experienced an unusual
Usually during an experiment he would, close his
of or multiple perceptual re-
12
to a For S., every a chaotic Tasks are simple the response—moments ago no the history is lost to us.
apparently evoked perceptions of light, color, for most of us were an arduous ordeal for S. His is stronger than countless other responses—emerges ses of behavior, physiology, and genetics have
touch, and taste. Consider his response to a loud. a rare case and will perhaps remain so; it may be as the prepotent response. The target response oc- provided us with elementary principles units
low tone: that contingencies of natural selection have fa- casions corroboratory related behavior, and we of analysis. In interpreting complex behavior we
vored those who experience synesthesia only as a emit it with special emphasis; we say that we must infer-a plausible history exploiting these prin-
Presented with a tone pitched at 50 cycles per second vague and fleeting phenomenon. "recognize that it is correct." ciples and units. Each example is unique and re-
and an amplitude of 100 decibels, S. saw a brown Some events are important,-'and interesting to quires a unique interpretation. If such interpreta-
strip against a dark background that had red, us; we discuss them, argue about them, daydream tions seem discouragingly tentative, we must
tongue-like edges. The sense of taste he experienced remind ourselves that, while the past has left its
CONCLUSION about them, and rehearse them. Such events are
was like that of sweet and sour borscht, a sensation
that gripped his entire tongue. particularly easy to recall, for relevant behavior is stamp on our behavior, ephemeral events, crucial
Most of our everyday behavior is fluid and coordi- strong and can be 'primed by a vast variety of to our analysis, ha,ve been lost forever.
For S. the most trivial stimulus evoked unique nated. At any moment an observer of our behavior events. We eventually employ such procedures to Principles of selection have provided remark-
and complex multimodal responses. No doubt rou- might conclude that we are "doing something"— facilitate recall of events that are less interesting to ably parsimonious explanations of complexity in
tine acquisition procedures such as elaboration and mowing the lawn, studying chemistry, chatting us, but that we are likely to need to remember some nature. Selectionism remains controversial—it
imagery resulted in larger, integrated responses with a friend. The apparent unity of our behavior day: schoolwork, traffic laws, dental appoint- tends to undermine more baroque theories of com-
that were both very distinctive and very complex belies the fact that, in a complex world, countless ments, and so on. Acquisition procedures and re- plexity, and hence is often resisted. However, we
indeed. The supplementary stimuli supplied by competing responses are also strong. When recall procedures complement one another to find the simplicity, power and apparent scope of
recall mnemonics were also presumably complex. sponses are mutually incompatible, the strongest, produce, in the mature individual, remarkably flu- selectionist principles to be extraordinarily elegant
We must suppose that the likelihood that a feature or prepotent, response will emerge, to be appraised ent mnemonic behavior. and exciting. The role of selection in the evolution
of the recall stimulus would prime at least one by our observer as "what we are doing/' Our ob- Our friends and family often ask us about our of physical structures is now .beyond dispute, but
feature of the target response would be quite high server will fail to detect that the prevailing condi- thoughts and feelings, pleasures and pains, inten- we are among those who think that its scope is far
for S. Thus his remarkable performances appear to tions have also altered the probability of a wide tions and memories. Through the efforts of this wider. We have attempted to sketch an outline of
arise from the interaction of skilled, but ordinary, variety of other behavior. Our behavior may appear we repertoire of ver- the role of in some of
mnemonic procedures with extraordinary percep- to be a linear sequence of responses, but it is better bal behavior under the control of private events. behavior; we. hope we have encouraged you to
tual behavior. We can only speculate about the thought of as a bubbling stew: Just below the We become increasingly aware of the variables wield the same interpretive tools to supplement our
origins of S. ? s synesthesia. We are all sensitive to surface competing responses are simmering, only account in the light of your own experiences.
controlling our behavior, and increasingly able to
poly sensory events, and most people report some to appear when a slight change of conditions alters
describe subtle behavior and predict future behav-
degree of synesthesia: The smell of ginger evokes the prevailing contingencies. When a response oc-
ior. Such verbal behavior alters the probability of .'
an image of our grandmother's kitchen, curs it, too, becomes an important controlling vari-
other behavior in our repertoire. As our verbal
Beethoven's Sixth evokes a woodland scene, and able that alters the probability of related behavior. Technical Terms
responses often precede and alter later behavior,
so on. S. apparently represents one extreme on a A prepotent class of behavior tends to perpetuate
we feel increasingly that we control and direct OUT effect
continuum. As we noted in Chapter 7, sensitivity itself—once we have mowing the lawn,
conditions are for continuing to do so. own behavior, though -the verbal responses are, mnemonic behavior
to polyseiisory events i§ adaptive is a joint themselves, presumably controlled by earlier
product of phylogenetic ontogenetic contin- Thus a of behavior can be prolonged, ob- prepotent response
scuring the wealth of competing behavior. events. Most adults can describe their own mne-
gencies of selection. However, evoked perceptual method of loci
monic behavior and predict the likelihood of recall-
experiences be if they When we are a event, the peg-word mnemonic
ing a target response. No doubt this helps shape and
with perceptual responses directly elicited by ex- question establishes a dominant contingency, but keyword
effective mnemonic procedures suitable to
events. While S.'s synesthesia relevant behavior is typically weak. It is under metamemory
tasks, and contributes to the feeling
enabled him to remember things easily, it exacted conditions we engage in those mnemonic private events
we are in control of a "memory capacity."
a heavy price in other domains. It was difficult for activities we call remembering. In the absence of a synesthesia
him to read a book or carry on a conversation dominant pattern of responding, subtle self- In analyzing mnemonic behavior we are con-
without kaleidoscopic perceptual responses com- prompting behavior is sufficient to selectively strained by the nature of our subject matter. Re- '
peting with one another. Worse, everything re- strengthen, among the pandemonium of competing membering is one of the most complex of human
activities and, like all complex behavior, it is a Text Questions
minded him of something else; a passage or phrase responses, those that are relevant to the prevailing
in one book would remind him of an identical contingency. Each successive response selectively product of a long, varied history of selection. We 1. "Translate the following statement into behav-
phrase in another book, and soon the plot would strengthens other relevant behavior so that, over can inspect the current products of selection, but ioral terms: Some memories are automatic whereas
352 12
Remembering
be by cognitive 13. See Skinner, 1953, Chapter 17 for a of 25. See Atkinson & Raugh, 1975; Bower, 1970:
esses. these points. Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, I960; Roediger, 1980.
13. What are of the advantages and disad-
2. Why does the text claim that it is a "remark- 14. Bardett, 1932. • 26. Cole, Gay, Click, & Sharp, 1971; Fahrmeier,
vantages of experiencing multiple perceptual re- 15. Reder, 1982.
able performance" to respond correctly when a 1975; Hall, 1972.
.sponses to simple stimuli? Do you think that 16. Bower, 1972.
friend asks, "What did you do last night?" Try to 27. Cole, Gay, Glick, & Sharp, 1971; Wagner, 1974,
typical human responses to stimuli are optimal? 17. Cf. Paivio, 1971. Paivio proposed a "dual coding 1978.
identify your own behavior when asked the follow- •
ing question: What were you doing at 4:30 PM two 14. Most people find it difficult to discuss mem- hypothesis," namely, that concrete terms can be recalled 28. Rogoff&Mistry, 1985.
weeks ago yesterday? ory without alluding to "storage." What is stored? relatively easily because we can respond to them ver- 29. Istomena, 1975.
In what sense do neural structures represent behav- bally as well as perceptually and hence have a greater 30. Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1,966.
3. In studies of the generation effect, why do 31. Ornstein, Naus, & Liberty, 1975.
ior? stock of effective recall responses.
subjects perform better if they are required to gen- 18. E.g., Bevan & Steger, 1971; Paivio, 1969. 32. Moely, Olson, Halwes, & Flavell, 1969.
erate the response word than if they are simply 15. Imagine a computer file comprising ten state- 19. Bower, 1972. 33. Kreutzer, Leonard,: and Flavell, 1975.
given the response word? How does this explana- ments, one of which is "The strawberries will be 20. E.g., Denis, 1982. 34. Belmont & Butterfbld, 1977.
tion bear on the results of the experiment by ripe in a few weeks." It seems legitimate to say that •21. E.g.,Mandler, 1967. 35. Turnure, Buium, &Thurlow, 1976.
Tulving and Thompson? the statements are stored in the computer. Do you 22. The information processing theorists Craik & 36. Butterfield, Warnbold, & Belmont, 1973.
think it is possible to program the computer reli- 37. Flavell, 1971; Flavell & Wellman, 1977.
4. In what respect is remembering an example of Lockhart (1972) refer to "levels of processing" to ex-
38... Skinner, 1957,p.l3Q.
problem solving? What memory phenomena are ably to "retrieve" the target statement when asked plain probability of recall. Things we process "deeply" 39. Skinner, 1957, pp. 130-134.
not examples of problem solving? a novel but relevant question, such as "Which are easily remembered; mere iteration of a target re- 40. Carlson, 1991/ * '
statement would be of interest to a gourmand?" or sponse is "shallow" and leads to poor recall. 41. Luria, 1980, p. 383.
5. What is meant by the term prepotent re- "Which statement is about delayed gratification?" 23.. Chase & Ericsson, 1982. 42. Luria, 1980, p. 3g4.
sponsel What is the relevance of the term to the Does the storage metaphor help you solve this 24. Bower & Clark, 1969. 43. Luria, 1980, p. 38.5.
interpretation of mnemonic behavior? problem or do you need to resort to supplementary
6. How does the literature on priming facilitate "mnemonic behavior"?
interpretation of recall? an ex-
of your own.
7. Comment on the following statement: An im- ENDNOTES
age of the accident was stored in his brain, but
1. Peterson & Peterson, 1959.
when he testified at the trial, he must have suffered
2. Bellugi, Klima, & Siple, 1975.
a retrieval failure, for his memory of the incident 3. See Branch, 1977 for a discussion of the impor-
was mistaken. tance of identifying empirical units of analysis in mem-
8. Why is it a "formidable question" how we ory research. His paper provides a readable and cogent
recognize a target response? What are some ways argument against the conceptual carelessness that per-
in which we might do so? vades most discussions of memory. Branch was perhaps
the first behaviorist to point out that the field of memory,
9. What is the between acquisition as traditionally studied, is not. a conceptually coherent
recall procedures? Identify and subject. (See Palmer, 1991 for related arguments.)
briefly procedures. 4. Slamecka& Graf, 1978.
10. Describe the in the use of 5. Tulving & Thomson, 1973.
6. See Skinner, 1957, Chapter 9 for an
by in the discussion of these.points.
study. 7. Skinner, 1957 called such stimuli formal prompts,
1 1. Identify the ways in which the verbal because they have the same form as part of the target
community can shape "self-awareness" or verbal response.
behavior descriptive of private events, 8. E.g., Miller, 1956.
9. Cf. Craik & Watkins, 1973.
12. What is meant by synesthesia, and how does 10. Sanford, 1917/1982.
it help explain the unusual mnemonic performance 1 1. E.g., Melton, 1967; Underwood, 1961,
of Luria's subject? 12. See Reese, 1977 for discussion.
Glossary
a plays an. e.g., to the occurrence of

GLOSSARY tant role in speech production; see Fig. 9.8. a a light together is reinforced, but not
'different perceptual re- responding to the tone or the light alone.
sponses evoked by slight physical differences a view of perceiving which
stimuli that function as re- verbal operants guided by relation- at phoneme boundaries. holds that, environmental stimuli are inadequate
inforcers as a result of being paired with other ships among other verbal operants. categorical responding an abrupt change in re- to fully specify the environment, and that in-
reinforcers, i.e., those learned during the life- automatic chaining the emergence of a se-- sponse strength, even though the stimuli are ferred mental processes are required for the
time of the organism. (See conditioned rein- quence of responses with functional unity, in changing gradually. organism to "construct" an accurate repre-
forcers and higher-order conditioning.) which each response provides stimuli that classical conditioning the technique of studying sentation of the world from those impoverished
activation pattern a widespread pattern of neu- guide subsequent responses. learning by presenting an environmental event stimuli. (See direct perception.)
ral activity in the brain, initiated by stimuli aversive eiicitor a stimulus that evokes with- followed by an eliciting stimulus. discrimination a differential train-
applied to the receptors of an experienced drawal, or escape, responses. comparative approach comparison of ing procedure in which the same stimulus
learner. babbling the unsystematic emission of a wide behavior with that of other species. guides one response in one stimulus context
activity-dependent mechanisms mechanisms variety of speech sounds by human infants. comparison stimuli the stimuli that guide the and a different response IB a second context.
whereby the strengthening of connections dur- backward chaining a technique in which the learner's response options in the matching-to- contextual stimuli or context stimuli that ac-
ing neural development depends on the coacti- components of a behavioral sequence are added sample procedure. company the training stimuli but are not ma-
vation of neighboring or adjacent neurons. in reverse order to that in which they will compound stimulus .'an environment that in- nipulated by the experimenter.
affordance the concept whereby the observer is ultimately occur. cludes separable stimulus components, such as contingency a relation in which the occurrence
said to perceive the behavior a stimulus permits base-rate neglect overvaluation of a stimulus a light and a tone. of one event depends on the occurrence of
or affords, in addition to the stimulus itself. believed to be characteristic of an infrequent computer simulation the use of a computer to another event.
alexia the loss of the ability to read. event. model relations among real-world events, such contingency-shaped behavior behavior pro-
an impairment in which the environ- behavioral chaining the formation of a se- as those between the environment and the be- duced by1 differential reinforcement.
ment can no longer evoke verbal behavior with quence of environment-behavior relations in havior of an organism.
reinforcement the presentation of
respect to past stimuli. which each relation is maintained by the dis- an operant proce- the reinforcing stimulus after each occurrence
the loss of the ability to name objects. criminative stimulus produced by the preced- dure in which th6re are two simultaneously of the unconditioned stimulus in the classical
anterograde amnesia the inability to recall ing response. available response options, each of which con- procedure, or after each occurrence of the re-
events that occurred before the brain was dam- behavioral discrepancy a difference between sists of successive stimuli, with the reinforcer sponse in the operant,.procedure.
ongoing and elicited behavior. presented after the final stimulus.
corpus callosum a ver^/ large bundle of axons
aphasias speech disorders resulting from brain behavioral engineering the technology of concurrent schedules procedures in which
that connects the right and left hemispheres of
damage. changing behavior by altering the contempo- more than one response is scheduled for rein-
the brain.
.appetitive elicitor a stimulus that evokes an ap- rary environment, forcement.
stimuli that-function as selected environment-behav-
proach response; i.e., a response that brings the mixture a combination of pre-
reinforcers in procedures as a result of ior relations alter the environment and
learner into contact the stimulus. viously selected behaviors occurs in envi-
having paired with other reinforcers. thereby subsequent selection,
behavioral in movements con- ronments similar to in which selection
trolled by verbal by brain dam- originally occurred. the evoked by see
age, on limitations, the conditioned stimulus in the classical proce- cross-modal generalization guidance of the
in the matching-to-sarnple resulting from natural selection, on the out- dure. same response by the same stimulus across
procedure, a contextual discrimination in come of behavioral selection by reinforcement. the stimulus which comes more one sensory modality (e.g., sight and
which the sample and comparison stimuli bear (See taste aversion.) to evoke behavior as a result of being paired touch), without specific reinforcement of the '
no physical similiarity to one another. blindsight a condition resulting from brain dam- with the eliciting stimulus in the classical pro- second relation.
autobiographical memories episodic memories age, in which the patient behaves nonverbally cedure. facilitation of the target
in which the guiding stimulus includes- oneself as if he can see, but speaks as if he cannot see. a discrimination task in response when the priming and stimuli
as a salient event; e.g., recalling what you said blocking the phenomenon in which an earlier which responding to a simultaneous compound are in different sensory modalities.
to someone at a gathering, in contrast to recall- stimulus paired with an elicitor prevents learn- stimulus and responding to the separate com- studies in which differ-
ing who was at the gathering. ing with a later stimulus. ponents of the compound are differentially re- ent individuals of different ages are observed.
354
356 GLOSSARY Glossary
the for in a as back- an environment-behavior re- a fixed period of has

memory research. wards by 3's, used to interfere with, recall per- lation in which recall is guided, by many of the the previous reinforced response,
formance during memory research. particular stimuli.in whose presence selection, a contingency during
a graphic record of respond-
laboratory procedures originally occurred, such as the location where which a response produces a reinforcer only
ing in which responses are cumulated over
that produce interfering interactions among dif- you last met a friend, after a fixed number of responses have occurred
time, and each response produces an increase
in the curve with the passage of time, ferent environment-behavior relations. a type of functional class in since the previous reinforced response.
dopamine a neuromodulator whose presence in which selection processes, directly affecting flashbulb memories instances of episodic mem-
theory the view that environment-behav-
a synapse results in long-lasting increases in the one member of a stimulus or response class ory in which the detailed circumstances sur-
ior relations weaken with the mere passage of
ability of the presynaptic neuron to activate the have similar effects on all members of that rounding some dramatic event (such as
time.
postsynaptic neuron, and which is released by class; produced by multiple contextual dis- learning of President Kennedy's assassination)
deprivation a reduction in the organism's con- criminations. are recalled.
tact with a stimulus below the level that would neurons in the VTA, among other brain re-
gions. escape a withdrawal response. interpretation' the use of a formal sys-
occur if it had unlimited access to the stimulus. tem such as logic or mathematics to systematize
echoic responses vocal responses whose sound excitatory neurotransmitters chemical sub-
derived relations environment-behavior rela- the processes held to account for complex phe-
is similar to those that one has heard; i.e., stances that, when released by a presynaptic
tions that were strengthened by a training pro- nomena; differs from the use of formal systems
repetitions of words spoken by another. neuron, tend to activate the postsynaptic neu-
cedure even though they were not directly in cognitive psychology and artificial intelli-
reinforced. ecologically valid observations observations ron.
obtained in the environments in which behavior gence, in which the processes do npt result from
a change in the strength of an envi- experimental analysis • , the process whereby the experimental analysis.
originated and now normally occurs. antecedents of a phenomenon are manipulated
ronment-behavior relation produced when the fovea the area in the center of the retina where
reinforcing stimulus that was used to select the effects the enhanced differences in re- or controlled and their effects are measured. the visual receptors are most densely concen-
relation is later modified in some way; e.g., a sponding that occur near the boundaries be- Experimental analysis in biobehavioral science
tween regions of differential reinforcement in trated, and -where-the light from a fixated object
change in the strength of food-reinforced lever- seeks to achieve'orderly-and precise functional falls.
pressing when the food is later independently a differential training procedure, relations from observations of single organ-
a pair of fine wires, insulated from one isms. This idealized set of conditions is ap- lobe. ; the region of the cerebral cortex
paired with shock. located at the front of the brain; see Fig. 9.8.
another except at their tips, that is inserted into proximated as closely as permitted b}' available
approach examination of be- function words words denoting relationships
a brain region to stimulate neurons or monitor scientific knowledge and technology. Not all
havior over the life history of the individual. among other words, phrases, and clauses, such
their activity. experiments meet the demands of experimental
listening procedure a laboratory pro- analysis (e.g., most experiments with human as articles, conjunctions, and prepositions.
eliciting function the ability of an environ-
cedure in which different messages are simul- mental stimulus to reliably evoke behavior. subjects) and not all experimental analyses are functional class a range of stimuli that may dif-
taneously presented to both of the listener's experiments (e.g., some observations in astron- fer physically but ha ve\ similar uses and control
eliciting stimuli or elicitors stimuli that reliably
ears through stereophonic earphones. omy). common responses; e.g., members of the class
evoke behavior as a result of natural selection.
differential training procedure a training pro- toy may differ in appearance, but are all used in
orderly rela- the weakening of the guidance of a
cedure in which the is to dif- play,
tions between environmental and behavioral previously reinforced response by a stimulus
ferent environments in which when the response occurs in the presence of that the tendency to neglect
events, resulting from either natural selection
different consequences, stimulus but is no longer reinforced. secondary properties or uncommon uses of a
or selection by reinforcement.
the view environmental familiar object.
orderly a discrimination training procedure
stimuli fully specify the environment, (See a characteristic of stimulus
relations between environmental events, the begins by using substantially different training
constructionism.) classes produced by selection: indicates that no
perception of which results from either stimuli, which are progressively and gradually single feature need be present in a complex
an environmental selection or selection by reinforcement. changed to their final and more similar values, stimulus to evoke the behavior guided by the
stimulus that has come to guide or control environmental chaining the formation of a se- feed-forward networks neural networks in complex stimulus.
responding through individual selection. quence of environment-behavior relations in which the activity of a unit cao only be influ-" see re-
a range of stimuli which each relation is maintained by dis- by the activity of earlier or "upstream" lation.
bear some physical similarity to one an- criminative stimulus following, but not neces- units. a phenomenon in which sub-
other and control common responses; e.g., sarily produced by, the preceding response; the fixed-Interval (FI) a contingency dur- jects who had, when given certain information,
members of the class dog have similar physical result of a serial compound conditioning pro- ing which a response produces a reinforcer only "generated" the response to the stimulus word
characteristics. cedure.
Glossary
performed on the a by e.g., the response "67" to the in problem solving, a strat-
jects trained in the paired-associate following a moving object (usually its mother) "64...6S...66...". egy of minimizing the difference between the
procedure. shortly after being hatched. Japanese phonetic written symbols. present situation and the target situation.
engineering the technology that makes changes of word form that mark case, Japanese pictorial written symbols, set the tendency to approach a problem
it possible to alter the genetic processes which gender, number, tense, person, mood, or voice; keyword a mnemonic acquisition in a way that, has proven successful in the past,
have resulted from natural selection. e.g., the terminal "s" that denotes plurality in procedure for foreign vocabulary, in which even if another approach would be more fruit-
gletmate an excitatory, amino acid neurotrans- nouns. each foreign word is paired with an English ful under present circumstances.
mitter. information processing the approach to the word of similar form and then the two mean- metamemory the evaluation of one's own mne-
grating a visual stimulus made up of parallel study of behavior in which the structures and ings are visualized interacting with one an- monic behavior and its effect on subsequent
bands of light and dark, used to study the recep- processes of digital computers are used as a other. behavior.
tive fields of cortical cells. metaphor for inferred structures and processes device in traditional lin- of a mnemonic acquisition proce-
grammatical frame a verbal operant containing thought to intervene between the environment guistics, the innate capacity that enables a child dure in which each item to be remembered is
one or more variable elements, such as and behavior. to extract the relevant elements of universal visualized in a particular location in a familiar
"Where's the—X—?" inhibitory neurons neurons that reduce the ac- grammar from the speech he hears. setting.
habituation the weakening of an unlearned en- tivity of the neurons on which they synapse. larynx the upper part of the windpipe, containing methodological behaviorism the approach to
vironment-behavior relation when the environ- inhibitory neurotransmitter a chemical sub- the vocal cords; see Fig. 11.1. the study of behavior which holds that scien-
mental event is repeatedly presented without stance that, when released by an inhibitory latent learning facilitation of performance in a tific psychology should restrict its attention to
consequence. neuron, makes it less likely that the postsynap- learning task following unreinforced exposure observed behavior which can be measured di-
hemispheres the right and left halves of the tic neuron will be activated by its excitatory to the learning environment. rectly.
brain. inputs. nuclei in the thalamus behavior overt or covert activity that
higher-order conditioning environment-be- unit an element of an adaptive neural net- that receive stimulation 'from retinal ganglion produces supplementary stimuli which facili-
havior relations selected when acquired elici- work, simulating the activity of a neuron or cells and transmit stimulation to the visual cor- tate remembering.
tors are as reinforcers in group of an environ- tex. 'artificial and highly simpli-
procedures. mental event. inhibition of the cells respond- fied experimental situations, such as the rabbit
Mppoeampal amnesia retrograde amnesia pro- conditioning the technique of ing to light from the center of a visual stimulus nictitating-membrahe preparation, which
duced by interruption of pathways between the studying learning by presenting an eliciting by the cells responding to light from the sides clearly reveal the effects of the variables being
sensory association cortex and the hippocam- stimulus after a behavioral event. of the stimulus. studied.
pus. intermittent reinforcement the presentation of in conventional treatments of language, principle a principle, such as the match-
Identity matching in the matching-to-sarnple a reinforcing stimulus after fewer than 100% of a repository where words and their meanings ing principle, that describes the relation be-
procedure, a contextual discrimination in the occurrences of the unconditioned stimulus are stored. tween two variables that are defined over a
which the response is reinforced if the compari- in the classical procedure, or after fewer than studies in which the same relatively long time interval.
son stimulus is the as the stimulus, 100% of the occurrences of the response in the individuals are observed over time, a principle, such as the re-
a stimulus as a of the operant procedure, a stimulus presented within a inforcement principle, that describes the rela-
prior selection of perceptual invariants or regu- activation of the ventral few ms of the sample stimulus in a modification tion between two variables that are defined
larities, guides behavior inconsistent with the tegmental area by feedback from neural circuits of the matching-to-sample procedure. over a relatively brief time interval.
"objective" values of the array; e.g., in the in the frontal lobes rather than more directly by principle the principle which states motivating the general effect of depri-
illusion resulting from lateral inhibition, the environmental stimuli; dependent on prior that, during a concurrent schedule, the relative vation on the strength and type of an organ-
organism sees the white space at the intersec- learning. frequency of responding on an alternative ism's reaction to a range of stimuli other than
tion of four black squares as darker than the interpretation see scientific interpretation matches the relative frequency of reinforcers those of which it has been deprived.
white space between two black squares. times (IRTs) the lengths of time produced by responding on that alternative. or motivator a stimulus
behavior similar to that guided by occurring between measured responses, such as a laboratory that functions to establish other stimuli as rein-
certain stimuli, evoked by stimuli not physi- keypecks or leveipresses, in an operant proce- procedure for studying contextual discrimina- . forcers or punishers,
cally similar to those that usually guide per- dure. tions, in which the learner's response to a corn- a in which a priming
ceiving; i.e., behaving "as if* the absent stimuli response a verbal response guided parison stimulus is reinforced or not, stimulus is presented, followed by a visually
are perceived. by a non-identical spoken or written stimulus; depending on the value of the sample stimulus. presented target word is to be aloud.
360 GLOSSARY
Glossary 361
the principle that summarizes a in the ability of indi-
chemical compounds, the of the
the processes which, by influencing the charac- vidual stimuli to evoke a conditioned response
in the visual receptors, are to retention of later learning by earlier learning.
teristics that affect the survivability of off- they have been presented in a simultane- visible light.
spring, give rise to biological diversity. and ous compound followed by the same elicitor the stimulus presented follow-
the integration of combinations ing the target stimuli in the serial-recognition
organization. that each had been paired with previously.
of environmental cues that specify one's loca- procedure.
nerve cells. • , or overgeneralization the tion in relation to them.
extension of grammatical rules to instances not a typical input pattern for a stimulus
neuropsychological approach examination of polymodal association cortex cortical cells that
reinforced by the verbal community, such as class; i.e., the most typical combination of the
the effects of neural damage on behavior, par- are activated by inputs from different sensory
the treatment of irregular verbs as if they were environmental features that were present dur-
ticularly in humans. channels from multiple sensory modalities e.g.,
regular; e.g., "I goed" rather than "I went." ing selection, but not necessarily one of the
neurotransmitters chemical compounds that al- auditory and tactile as well as visual stimuli.
paired-associate learning a laboratory proce- specific patterns used in training the network.
low a neuron to affect the functioning of the polysensory invariants relations between envi-
neurons on which it synapses. dure for studying retention, in which pairs of punishing or punisher an elicitor that
ronmental events in different sensory channels reduces the strength of the operant that pro-
fallacy using the name of a phenome- words are sequentially presented to the subject,
that are constant over evolutionary time. duces it.
non as if it were an explanation for the phe- parallel processing the simultaneous activation
polysensory regularities relations between en- punishment an operant procedure in which an
nomenon. of many units in the brain.
vironmental events in different sensory chan- environment-behavior relation is followed by
nondiffereetial training procedure a training parallel transmission the overlapping of pho- nels that change over evolutionary time, but are
nemes in fluent speech. an elicitor that reduces the strength of the rela-
procedure in which the learner is exposed to relatively constant within an individual's life- tion. '
only a single environment. parietal lobe the region of the cerebral cortex time. '\
observing responses acquired environment-be- located between the frontal and occipital lobes behaviorism the approach to the study
postsynaptic neuron ' the neuron receiving the of behavior developed mainly by B. F. Skinner,
havior relations whose primary function is to of the brain; see Fig. 9,8. stimulation.
affect the sensing of stimuli, which then function partial reinforcement see intermittent rein- which holds that the science of behavior em-
response the strongest, or most prob- braces all behavior, both private events and
as conditioned reinforcers for those relations. forcement. able, a set of competing resonses,. publicly observed behavior, and a common
the of the cortex a characteristic of environ-
the neuron transmitting the set of principles should be identified through
located at the rear of the brain; see Fig. 9.8. ment-behavior relations, and of the input-out- stimulation. experimental analysis of observed events.
conditioning see instrumental condi- put relations of adaptive networks that simulate
primacy effect the higher retention of the earlier (Contrast with methodological behaviorism
tioning. them, in which the final expression of the rela-
stimuli in the serial-recognition procedure. and information processing.)
operants responses that are less reliably evoked tion is influenced by the particular sequence of
selecting events that produced it. to facilitate the performance of the target reafference -alterations in the activity of units in
by stimuli than respondents, or for which the response in the priming procedure,
peg-word mnemonic a mnemonic acquisition the sensory component of an activation pattern
stimulus is not well specified.
procedure in which numbers are paired with priming procedure a laboratory procedure for by activity in the mdtor component, through
optic chiasm the region where half of the axons studying the effect of an earlier stimulus on recurrent connections. •
in the optic nerve cross to the other side of the common concrete objects that rhyme with
them, and then each item to be remembered is responding to a stimulus immedi- the higher retention of the
brain. ately thereafter.
visualized interacting in some easily discrimi- stimuli in the serial-recognition procedure.
the neural pathway from the
nated way with one of the objects, the whose on the region of the visual field from
to the optic chiasm. responding is in the
relations between envi- which light activates a, given cortical cell.
the neural pathway from the procedure.
chiasm to the lateral geniculate nuclei. ronmental events that are constant over evolu- connections pathways that permit the
tionary time. principle of the principle activity of later or "downstream" units in a
interpretation a laboratory simula- that summarizes the selecting of the in-
tion in which an organism is provided with the relations between envi- neural network to influence earlier units.
ronmental events that change over evolutionary dividual environment. a reliable environment-behavior relation
selection history that experimental-analytic
principles indicate is sufficient to produce an time, but are relatively constant within an indi- principle of reinforcement the principle of be- that is largely the result of natural selection.
vidual's lifetime, havioral selection. the relation demonstrated
environment-behavior relation.
an element of an adaptive neural see to - the inner world of the individual; when a subject who has learned identity match-
network, simulating the activity of a neuron or pharynx the cavity behind the nose and mouth; i.e., the stimuli originating within the skin, to ing with one set of stimuli (A-A) matches a
group of neurons that mediate a behavioral see Fig. 11.1. which each person has unique access. different set of stimuli (B-B) without additional
event. speech sounds. the enhancement of the training; i.e., generalization of identity match-
retention of later learning by earlier learning. ing from one set of stimuli to another.
GLOSSARY Glossary
or an by in. the
stimulus to environment- verbal stimuli such as definitions or instruc- procedure, the the tions.
behavior relations. tions. of correct recognition to the nuclei in the hind-
behavior determined by pre~ eye movements or rapid eye position of the target stimuli. brain, containing cells that respond differen-
viously selected environment-behavior rela- movements which fixate on the fovea objects serial processing the sequential activation of tially to visual stimuli, especially movement,
tions, but for which the present environment detected in the periphery of the visual field, units in the brain. superstitious. behavior an environment-behav-
does not contain stimuli sufficient to guide the sample stimulus the stimulus that provides the serial-recognition procedure ' a laboratory pro- ior relation that has arisen without true depend-
behavior now scheduled for reinforcement. context in the matching-to-sample procedure. cedure for studying retention, in which the encies between the behavior and eliciting
(See reminding.) schedule of reinforcement a complete descrip- learner is asked to recognize whether a probe stimuli.
reminding the provision of stimuli that, as a tion of the environmental and behavioral con- stimulus appeared in the sequence of target symbolic matching see arbitrary
result of past selections, directly guide the be- ditions present when a response is followed by stimuli presented earlier. symmetric relation the relation - demonstrated
havior currently scheduled for reinforcement; a reinforcer; e.g., a specification of the number shadowing attending to the auditory stimuli pre- when, after contextual discrimination training
i.e., the present environment reminds the of responses emitted or the amount of time sented to one ear during a dichotic listening (A-B task), the subject responds to the sample
learner of responses selected in past environ- elapsed between reinforced responses. procedure, and emitting echoic responses to and comparison stimuli as if they were inter-
ments. (See remembering.) scientific interpretation the process whereby those stimuli. changeable (B-A task).
resistance to extinction the persistence of an principles derived from experimental analysis shaping gradual changes in a response-reinfor- synapse the gap between one neuron and another
environment-behavior relation after the are used to account for observations that, them- cer contingency to select environment-behav- into which neurotransmitters are released.
reinforcing stimulus has been omitted; charac- selves, cannot be subjected to experimental ior relations whose\ component responses
teristic of relations that have been intermit- synaptic efficacy the effectiveness with which
analysis. Most complex behavior, especially progressively approximate some criterion re- one neuron activates another.
tently reinforced. human behavior, is the province of the inter- sponse topography.
respondent conditioning see classical condi- pretative rather than the experimental-analytic synesthesia multiple perceptual responses to a
frequency the number of stripes per de- single stimulus, such as perceptions of color
tioning. aspects of biobehavioral science. gree of visual angle in a grating. taste,, (as well as sound, to an
respondents responses are reliably evoked secondary see
impaired perform- stimulus.
by a specific stimulus, such as airpuff-evoked forcers.
blinking. ance resulting from differences in the internal tact a discriminated verbal operant in which the
semantic memory an environment-behavior re- context (e.g., because of drugs) during acquisi-
response class a range of behaviors not necessar- guiding stimulus is some nonverbal property or
lation in which recall is guided by a relatively tion and retention.
ily confined to the specific responses that were object.
narrow range of stimuli, particularly when, the
previously selected by reinforcers in that envi- behavior includes verbal responses; e.g., stimulus class a range of guiding stimuli whose ^ target response in the\ priming procedure, the
ronment. knowledge of a fact, such as a person's name. members are not restricted to the specific stim- response evoked by th'b target stimulus.
response-selection network the component of a uli present when the environment-behavior rein the serial-recognition proce-
sensitive periods circumscribed time periods in
selection network that selects connections lation was selected. dure, the sequence of stimuli initially presented
an organism's development, to which the effect
which mediate environment-behavior rela- of the individual environment on the selection the process by which to the subject.
tions. 6- of sensory polysensory invariants is re- unreliable environmental and behavioral in the priming procedure, the
the emergence of other responses stricted. events are eliminated from selected environ- stimulus to which the subject responds.
during the extinction of a dominant response. the alteration of responding to a ment-behavior relations. aversion an environment-behavi or relation
a network of complexly interconnected range of other stimuli as a result of the presen- the process by which in which a taste or smell that has been accom-
receptors and neurons that cover the back inte- tation of a stimulus, particularly an intense responding comes to be guided by a range of panied by nausea is subsequently avoided by
rior surface of the eyeball, stimulus, stimuli similar, but not limited, to the original the organism.
retroactive facilitation the enhancement of the sensory channel a neural circuit that is activated selecting environment. temporal contiguity the occurrence of two
retention of earlier learning by later learning. by one aspect of environmental stimulation, stimulus generalization gradient the curve events with a very short time interval between
retroactive interference the impairment of the such as variation in color or motion. showing the variation in strength of responding ' them.
retention of earlier learning by later learning. a classical pro- as a function of the value of the stimulus dimen- ' the regions of the cerebral cortex
retrograde amnesia the inability to recall events cedure in which two or more stimuli are suc- sion. located at the sides of the brain; see Fig. 9.8.
that have occurred since the brain was dam- cessively presented before a reflexive eliciting network the component of a responses verbal responses guided by
aged. stimulus; see environmental chaining. selection network that selects connections written or printed words; i.e., reading.
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NAME INDEX. Chambers, B. E, L, 208
Changeux, J. P., 66
Darwin, C., 3, 4, 17, 18. 20, 24, 28, 29,
30,31,86, 109, 117, 123
Epstein, R., 149, 284, 290, 295
Ericsson, K. A., 353
Charles, E. R.. 210 Davenport, R. K., 151 Erwin, F. R., 65
Chase, P.M., 281,295 Davies, A., 176 Estes, W. K., 30, 64, 120, 123, 234
Chase, T, N., 174 Davies, G. M... 236 Ettinger, G,, 151
Chase, W. G.. 353 Davies, P. W., 88 Etzel, B. C., 88, 122
Abelson, R. P., 265 Baxley,N., 151 . Brainard, M. S., 208 Cherry, E. C., 174 Davis, H. T., 88 Evans, R., 265
Abrams, T. W., 65 Baylor, D. A., 206 Braine, M. D. S., 322 Chinsky, J. M., 353 Davis, M., 62, 124
Ackley, D.. 149 Beach, D. R., 353 Brake, A. J., 66 Chomsky, N., 321 Dawkins, R., 30, 149 Pahrmeier, E. D., 353
Aeredolo, L. P., 208 Bear, M., 206, 234 Branch, M. N., 121, 294, 352 Church, R. M., 124 Day, W., 28 Fallen, J. H., 65,209
Adams, B. J., 151 Becklen, R., 175 Bransford, J. D., 29, 176 Clark, M. C., 353 . De Valois, K. K., 206, 208, 210 Fantino, E., 123, 174
Alavosius, M. P., 120 Beecher, S. R., 321 Braunling-McMorrow, D., 151 Clarke, S,, 67 De Valois, R. L., 206, 207, 208, 210 - Farah, M. J., 149, 267
Alberts, J. R., 208 Bell, E. T., 295 Breland, K., 121 Cleary, I, 151 deVilliers, P. A., 123 Fariello, G. R., 208
Albrecht, D. G., 207 Bellugi, U.. 267, 352 Breland, M., 121 Clifton, R. K., 62, 174 Deadwyler, S. A., 67, 209 Farmer, J., 64, 295
Allan, L.G., 210 Belluzzi, J. D., 65, 209 Brennan, P., 67 Cline, H, T.. 66 Deaux, E. B., 63 Faust. D., 174
Ailport, D. A., 175, 176, 266 Belrnont, J. M., 353 Broadbent, D. E., 29, 174, 175 Cohen, L. R., 151 DeBold, R. C., 63 Feniello, K. B., 151
Amaral, D. G., 209, 210, 268 Beninger, R. J., 67 Broerse, J., 266 Cohen, N. J., 120, 235, 236, 267., 268 Debski, D., 66 Ferguson, C. A., 322
Ambros-Ingerson, J., 207, 209, 210 Benjamin, R. M., 88 Brooks, D. N., 268 Cohen, S. L., 121 Delaney, S. M., 266 Ferster, C. B., 119, 121, 123
Amsel. A., 119 Benson, D. A., 175 Brooks, L., 150 Coldren, J. T., 207 Delfs,J. M., 121 Ferster, D., 200
Anderson, J. A., 67, 150, 151, 235, 236 Berendzen, N., 124 Brown, A. K., 282, 295 Cole,B. K., 123 Delhaye-Bouchaud, N., 66 Feyer, A., 121
Anderson, J. R., 29, 30, 235, 236, 263, Berger, T. W., 121 Brown, I. D., 176 Cole. J.L., 295 Denis, M., 353 Fields, L., 151
264 Berkeley, G., 29 Brown, J, A., 236 Cole, M., 353 \ • • Dennett, D. C., 30, 63 Findley, J. D., 295
Anderson, K.,. 175 Berko, J., 312, 322 Brown, J. L., 150 Coleman, S.R., 63,64, 65 Desimone, R., 175, 210 ' Fishman, H., 63, 120
Anderson, O. D., 120, 235 Berry, S. D., 121 Brown, J. W., 210, 267 Collingridge, G. L., 67 Desmond, N. L., 67, 120 Fisk, A- D., 176
Andronis, P.. T., 294 Berryman, R., 150 Brown, R., 235, 317, 322 Collins, J. P., 88 Deutsch, D., 175 Flavell, J. H,, 353 >
Annau, Z., 295 Bersch, P. J., 121 Brown, T. H., 67 Colombo, J., 207 \ Deutsch, J. A., 175 Foard, C., 321
Antonis, B., 176 Berthoz, A., 207 Brownstein, A. J., 295 Colonnier, M., 207 . Devaney, J. M., 151 Foss, D. J., 265, 321
Antonitis, J. J., 295 Best, M. R., 65 Bruce, C., 210 Colwill, R. M., 64, 122, 123' DeVine, P. G., 235 Fox, P. T., 264 '
Arbuckie, J. L., 124 Sevan. W., 353 Bruner, J. S., 205 Conrad, R., 28, 265 Diamond, R., 268 Franklin, S., 124
Archibald, Y., 321 Bhatt,R. S., 150 Bruno, L. J. J., 267 Constantine-Paton, M., 66 Dick, M., 207 Franks, J. J., 29, 176,235
Aris, R., 88 Bickel, W. K., 88, 122 Brunswik, E.. 205 Cook, R, G., 236 Dickerson, R. E., 29 Frazier, L., 265
Aron, M., 63 Bicker, W. K., 30 Bruyer, R., 210, 267 Cooper, E. E., 268 Dickinson, A., 64, 122, 123 Frazier, T. W., 174
Asanuma, C M 67, 266 Biederman, L, 209, 268 Buiuni, N., 353 Cooper, G, F., 2065 208 DiLollo, V., 175 Freedman. J. L., 265, 266 ;
Ascher, P.. 66 Bielajew, C., 67, 121 Burgos, J, E., 30, 66, 67, 120, 150, 209 Cooper, L. A., 266 Dinsmoor, J. A., 121, 174 Freud., S., 5, 26, 28, 174
Ashcraft, M. H.. 265, 322 Bienkowski, M., 265 Burka, N,, 65 Corballis, M. C.. 88 • Disterhoft, J, F., 63 Prey, U., 66
Ashe, J. H., 65 Bienstock, E. L., 206 Burke, W. D., 30 Corbitt, J. D., 63 Ditchburn, R. W., 207 Friberg, L.. 266
!
Aslin, R. N., 206, 207, 208 Billy, A. J., 65 Burkhard, B., 124 Coriell, A. S., 175 Domjan, M., 65 Friedhoff, A. J., 174
Atak, J., 120 Bilodeau, L. 236 Burton, G., 210 Corkin, S., 268 Donahoe, J. W., 28, 29. 30, 62, 63, 64, Friedlander, M. J.; 206
Atkinson, R. C, 28, 236, 353 Birch, H. G., 284, 289, 295 Butter, C. M., 88 Cornsweet, J. C., 207 65, 66. 67, 88, 120, 122, 123, 124, Friedman, A., 176
Atwater, J. D., 207 Birtwistle, J., 236 Butterfield, E. C., 353 Cornsweet, T. N., 207 149, 150, 208, 209, 236, 264, 265, Friedman, R. P., 267
Aucella, A. F,, 151 Bisiach, E., 267 Byrne, J. H., 65 Corteen, R. S., 175 267, 268, 294 Friedrich, F. L, 265
Averbach, E., 175 Bittetto, V. E., 174 Costall. A. P., 205 Donegan, N. H., 29, 64, 67 Fros^ B. J., 207
Ay res, J. J. B., 120, 122 Bjork, R. A., 236 Cable, C., 150 Cotman, C. W.,66, 119 Donoghue. J. P., 207 Fry.W. T., 295
Biake, R., 210 Cacheiro, H., 64 Cotte, D., 120 Dowd. J. M., 174 Fuentes, L, 63
Baars, B. J., 30 Blakeley, E., 294, 295 Caharack, G., 176 Cotter, V. W., 151 Dube, W. V., 150, 151 Fugate-Wentzek, L. A., 206
Baddeley, A, D., 28, 29, 266, 268 Blakemore, C., 206, 207, 208 Cameron, R. F., 321 Cowley. B. J.. 151 Dumais, S. T., 176 Fujita, K., 208
Bading, H., 66 Blass, E. M., 63 Campbell, D.T., 18, 30, 87, 205, 206, Cox. ¥., 65 Dunker, K., 295 Fusella,'-V., 266
Baer, D. M., 120, 267 Blaustein, J., 123 294 Craik, F. 1. M., 29, 236, 352, 353 Dunn, D.. 175 Faster, J. M., 264, 266
Bagshaw, M., 295 Blaxton, T. A,, 264 Campbell, F. W., 207, 208 Crammond, D. J., 235 Dunn, R., 121, 123
Bahrick, H. P.. 235 Bliss, T. V, P., 67, 120 Campbell, G., 207 Crassini, B., 266 Dupree, A..H., 123 Galambos. R., 175
Bahrick, P. C., 235, 236 Block, A. H., 295 Capaldi, E, J.. 119 Cresson, O., Jr., 151 Durso, F. T., 265 Galanter, E., 353
Bailly, Y., 66 Blough, D, S., 88, 175, 208, 295, 102, Carello, C., 206 Crick. F, H. C., 209, 266 Galef.B. G.,65
Bakler. N.. 121 321 Carew, T. J., 65 Crowder. R. G., 29, 235, 236 Eccardt, T., 321 Galizio, M., 295
Balaz, M. A., 64 Blough, P. M., 208 Carlson. N. R., 300. 321. 353 Crowley, M, A., 64. 88, 124 Eckerman, D. A., 124 Galiistel, C. R., 264
Baldwin, B. A,, 210 Bobrow, D. G.. 64. 175 Carlton, P, L,, 295 Gumming, W. W., 88, 150 Edelman, G. M., 66, 207 Gandelnian. R.. 65
Balota, T, A., 265, 266 Bohannon, J. N., 235 Carmona, A., 65 Cunitz, A. R., 236 Eeeland, B., 208 Garcia, E., 121'
Balsam, P. D., 64, 174, 175, 236 Bolles, R. C, 124 Caronite, S. C., 121 Cunningham, S., 151 EM, L. C, 175 Garcia, J,, 65
Banks, M. S., 174. 207, 208 Boot he, R. G., 208 Carpenter, P. A., 267 Currier, R. D,, 321 Eich, J.M., 263 Gardiner, J. H.. 236
Barker, L. M., 65 Boring, E. G,, 27, 266 Carr, T. H,, 264, 265, 266 Cutting, J., 321 Eichenbaum, H., 209, 268 Gardner, B. T., 321
Barnes. C. A., 209 Bower, G. H., 64, 174. 236. 265, 353 Carrigan, P., 151 Eickbush, D, G., 30 Gardner, R, A., 321
Barnes, J. M., 236 Bowlby, J., 62 Case, D. A,, 174 D'Agostino, P. R., 265 Eickelboom, R., 63 Garraghty, P. E., 208, 210
Barnes, T., 151 Bowler, P. J., 28, 62 Casey, A. C., 123 D'Amato, M. R., 151 Eisenbere, D., 210. 267 Garrett, M. F., 175
Barnhardl. T. M, 264, 266 Bowles, N. L., 265 Catania, A. C., 121, 295 Dafoe,C. G., 176 EldredgeTN., 30 , Gaskill, S. J., 176
Baron, A., 295 Boyes-Braem, P., 149 Cegarvske, C. F., 63 Dasenbach, D., 264, 266 Elliott, J. M., 235 Gay, J., 353
Bartlett, F, C,, 88, 338, 339. 353 Bozarth, M. A., 65 Cerella,J., 151 Dallenbach, K. H,, 235 Elman, J. L., 265 Gazzaniga, M. S., 176, 267
Barto, A. G., 67, 120, 150, 151 Brady, J. D., 295 Cermak, L. S,, 267 Dallery.L, 123 Emmet, J., 120 Geffen, G., 175
Baum, W. M, 123 Brady, J. H., 151 Chajczyk, D., 175 Damasio, A. R., 206, 268 Engberg, L, A., 122 Gelman, R. , 208
394
396 Name Index 397
Gelperin, A., 64 Haag, R., 295 Honzik, C, H.. 210 Kamin, L. J.. 64. 174 Kucharski, D., 65 Looney, T, A., 151
Georgopoulos, A. P.. 235, 267 Haerer,A. R, 321 Horel, J. A., 267 Kandel, E. R., 65, 66 Kuril, P. K., 151,208.321 Lorch, R. F,. 265
Gerall, A. A.. 65 Hager, J. L., 30 Horton, D. L., 151 Katz,L. C, 264 Kulis, J. W., 174 Lookas, E., 151
Gerler. D., 235 Harm, J. €)„ 208 Huang, Y. Y., 66 Kaufmann, A., 295 Kulik, P., 235 Loveland, D. H., 123, 150
Geschwind, N., 88, 151, 235, 267, 321 Hakes, D. T.. 321 Hubel, D. H.. 175, 206. 207, 210, 264 Keele, S.W., 150 Kulikowski, J. J., 208 Lowe, C. F., 295
Gewirtz, J. L., 121 Hall, G., 64, 206 Hull, C. L., 122, 208, 235 Keenan, B., 294 Kuperschmidt, J,, 63 Lowe. p. G.. 175
Giard, M. H., 267 Hall, J. W., 353 Hull, D. L., 30 Keenan,J. M.,267 Kurz, E. M., 208 Lowei, S., 206
Gibbon, J., 174 Hall, W. G., 63, 65 Hume, D., 29 Kehoe, E. J., 63, 120, 121, 208 Lubow, R. E., 174
Gibbs, C. M., 119, 121 Halwes, T. G., 353 HummeL J. E., 209 Keith, J. R., 66 LaBerge, D., 207 Lucas, G. A., 64
Gibson, E. J., 175, 206, 207. 208 Hamilton, B., 123 Humphrey, L., 266 Kelleher, R. T.. 121, 122, 124, 174, 295 Lachner, J. R., 175 Luce, R. D., 265
Gibson.!. J., 29,149,179,184,205,206, Hanlon, C., 322 Hunt, K, 176 Keller, A., 67 Lachter, G. D., 123 Luria,A.R., 210, 321,353
210,267 Hanson, G., 122 Hunt, R. R., 235 Keller, F. S.. 121 LaClaire, T. L., 208 Lurito, J. T., 267
Giles, C., 209 Hanson, H. M., 88 Hurlburt, A. C., 210 Keller, J. B., 206, 207, 209 Laird, J. E., 263 Luzzatti, C., 267
Gillund. G., 263 Harasi, F. L. 206 Huthings, M. E., 208 Kelley,A. E., 121 Lai, R., 206 Lyford, G. L., 209
Gimpl, M. P., 65, 121 Harlow, H. F., 150 Kellogg, W. A., 265 Lane, H. L., 321 Lynch, G., 207, 209, 210
Gingrich, K. J., 65 Harris, A. H., 295 ladecola, C., 88 Kelso, S. R., 67 Lansnian, M., 176
Ginsberg, B. L., 207 Harris, C. E., 207 lannuzzi, R., 88 Kendall, S, B., 88 Lanza, R., 295 MacDonaid,J, F., 66, 321
Ginsburg, A. P., 208 Harris, K. S., 321 Imperato, A., 65 Kendrick, D. F., 236 Lashley, K. S., 150 MacDonall, J. S., 88
Glanzer, M., 236 Harrison, R. H., 88 Intons-Peterson, M. J., 266 Kendrick,K. M., 210 Latham, S. B., 119 Mace, W. M., 205
Glass, A. L., 265, 321 Hartline, H. K., 208 Iriki, A., 67 Kennedy, C., 206 Lattal, K. A., 120, 124 MacFarlane, D. A., 151
Gleick, J., 30 Harvey, J. A., 65, 121 Irion, A. L., 235 Kennel, K., 321 Lauerer, G., 29 Machado, A., 295
Gleitman, H., 175 Harzem, P., 149, 295 Istomena, Z. M., 353 Keppel, G., 236 Laughlin, S. E., 65, 209 MacKay, D., 175
Glenberg, A., 236 Hashimoto, Y., 206 Ito. M., 65 Ketner, R. E., 235 Lavond, D. G., 65 Mackay, H. A., 151
Click, J. A., 353 Hawkins, R. D.. 65 Itzkoff, S. W., 63 Kettlewell, H. B. D., 30 Lawson, J., 321 Mackintosh, N. J., 29, 64, 88, 119, 123,
Glickman, S. E., 65 Hayes, C, 321 Kety, S. S., 67, 209 Layng, T. V. J,, 294 124, 174 ,
Gluck, M. A., 67, 174 Hayes, L. J., 151 Jacobs, K. M., 207 Keverne, E. B., 67 Lazar, R., 151 Macquire, R. W., 151
Goeders, N. E., 121 Hayes, S. C, 121, 151,295 Jacobs. R. A., 150 Keys, W., 175, 264 Lazarus, J. H., 321 Madison, D. V., 67
Goldberg, M. E., 175 Hayman, C. A., 265 Jacoby, L. L,, 235, 236, 265 Killeen, P. R., 123 LeDoux, J. E., 88, 267 Maffei, L-, 207
Goldiamond, I., 121, 149, 264 Healy, A. F., 265 Jagadeesh, B..206 Kimura, D., 321 Lee, Y., 209 Maier, N. R. F., 295
Goldsmith, L. R., 235 Hearst, E., 124 James, C. T.. 236 Kinchla, R. A., 174 LeFrancois, J. R., 295 Malenka, R. C, 67
Goldstein, M. H., Jr., 175 Hebb, D. O., 67, 235 James, W. T., 120, 235 King, H. J., 208 Legris, J. A., 124 Malott, R. W., 150
Gollub, L., 122, 295 Hefferline, R. F., 267, 294 Jansson. G., 210 Kinsboume, M., 176 Lehrman. D. S., 30, 62 Malpass, R. S., 235
Gombrich, E. H., 208 Heffner, H, E., 175 Jan-ad, L. E,, 209 Kintsch, W., 64, 122,265 Lehtio,P.,210 Malpeii. J. G., 210
Gonon, M. A., 267 Heidman, T., 66 Jarvis, C.-D., 206 Kirshenbaum. D. S.. 120 Le'iman, J. M., 265 Mandell, C., 120
Gordon, B., 206 Heilman,'K. M., 267 Jarvis, M. J., 151 Kirshnit, C., 295 . Lenneberg, E. H., 321 Mandler, G., 88, 353'
.Gormezano.I.,63,64,66.119, 121,208 Hein, A. V., 208, 210 Jeannerod. M., 210 Kitai, S. T., 209 Leonard, C., 353
Gottlieb, M. D., 206 Kjeldegaard, P. M., 151 Leonard. D. W., 120 Maratsos. M., 322
Heinnemann, E. G., 88 Jenkins, H. M., 64, 88 Marcel, A. J.. 175, 266
Gould, C. G., 63 Held, R., 208, 210 Jenkins, J. G., 235 Kleinman, D., 88 Leventhal, A. G., 208 Marchant, H. G., Ill, 64
Gould, J. L., 63 Hendry, D. P., 121 Jenkins, J. J., 29, 151,235 Klima, E. S., 352 . Levinthal. C. F., 63, 120
Gould. S. J., 30 Klopf, A. H., 67 Levison, J., 208 Marcucella, H.; 88
Henik, A., 175, 265 Jensen, L. H., 65 Marder, E., 66
Gower, E., 208 Henson, C. O., 175 Jitsumori, M., 236 Knapp, A. G., 150 Levy, W. B., 67, 120
Graesser, A. C., 265 Knauss, K. S., 150 Lew, M. F., 63 Margolin. D. L, 63, 120,321
Herbert, A., 66 Johanson, I. B., 63 Mariana, J,, 66
Graf, P., 265, 352 Hernandez, L., 65 Johansson, G., 210 Knudsen, E. L, 208 Lewandowsky, S., 120, 236
Graham, N., 207 Herrnstein, R. J., 65, 123, 124, 150 Knudsen, P. F., 208 Lewin,R., 29, 321 Maricq,\A- V., 66
John, E. R., 88 Marks, G-., 176
Granger, R., 207, 209, 210 Hicks, R. E., 176 Johnson, D. M., 149 Kocsis, J. D., 209 Lewis, J., 175
Granrud, C. E., 210 Hienz, R. D., 124, 175 Koelling, R. A.. 65 Leyland. C. M.. 64 Marmor,'G. S-, 267
Johnson, M. K., 265 Marr,M. J., 124, 149
Grant, D. A., 65 Higons, S. T., 30 Johnson, R. E., 236 Kofman. O.. 121 Li, H., 29
Grantham, D. W., 176 Hind, J. E., 88 Joncich. G., 30 Kohlenberg, B. S,, 151 Liberman, A. M., 321 Marrs,D.P., 120
Grau. J. W., 174 Hinde, R. A,. 30 Jones, E, E., 28 Kohler, W., 288,.294, 295 Liberty, C.; 353 Marshall. B. S., 63
Graur, D., 29 Hineline, P. N.. 174 Jones, G. M., 207 Kohonen, T., 210 Liddell, H. S., 120,235 Marshall, J., 30, 175
Gray, C. M., 206, 209 Hinson, J. M.. 123, 124 Jones, J. E., 63 Koichi, O., 64 Lieberman, P., 321 Marshall-Goodell, B., 66, 121
Gray, W. D., 149 Hinton, G. E., 63,67,149,209,235,236. Jonides, J., 175 Kolata. G.. 63 Lipkens, R., 151 Martin, E., 236
Green, G., 151 265 Jordan, M. L, 321 Kolb, B., 87, 151,321 Lipsitt, L. P.. 62, 63 Martin, J.M., 123
Green,!., 175 Hirsch, H. V. B., 208 Joyce, J. H., 295 Kolers, P. A., 29, 225, 236 Lisberger, S. G., 207 Massey. J. T., 267
Greenberg, M. E., 66 Hirst, W., 175, 176, 268 Juergensen, M. R., 65 Konig, P., 209 Litman, M,, 149 Masson, M. E. J., 265
Greeno, J. G., 236 Hocherman, S., 175 Julesz, B., 206, 207 Konorski, J., 64. 122 Little, A, H., 63 Matthews, B. A., 295
Gregory, R. L., 208 Hoebel, B. G., 65, 67,121 Julius, D., 66 Kop, P. F. M., 151 Littman, D., 175 Matthijs, W., 151
Grice, G. R., 64 Hoeler, F. K.. 120 Jusczyk, K. P., 321 Kopp, J., 321 Livingstone, M. S.. 206, 210, 264 Mattingly, I. G., 321
Griffith, B.C., 321 Hoff, M. E., 67 Korn,Z., 121,295 Lockhart, R. S., 29, 353 Matzel, L. D., 64, 122, 174
Grosch, J., 64, 121 Hoffman, H. S., 205, 321 Kaas, J. H., 206, 210 Kossan.N. E.. 150 Loftus, E. F., 265, 266 Maxwell, T., 209
Gross, C. G., 210 Hollis, K., 63 Kaba, H., 67 Kosslyn, S. M., 149, 208, 266 Logan, F. A., 64, 121 Maynard-Smith, J., 149
Grossberg. S., 67 Holmes, P. W.. 150 Kahneman. D., 174, 175, 176 Kowlowitz, V., 124 Logie, R. H., 266 Mayr,R. 18.29, 30, 174
Groves, P.M., 62 Holt, P. E., 120 Kakolewski, J. W.. 65 Krebs, J. R., 123 Logothetis, N. K., 210 Maimanjan, D. S., 150
Guan, X. M., 65 Holtzman, J. D., 176 Kalaska, J. F., 235 Kremer,E. F., 122 Logue. A. W.. 121 Mazur, J. E.,64, 124
Guthrie, E. R., 122 Holyoak, K. J., 265, 321 Kalat. J. W., 65 Kreutzer, M. A,, 353 LoLordo, V. M., 88 McAuley, K., 120
Guthrie, S., 207 Honeycutt, W. S., 208 Kalish, H. L, 87 Krieckhaus, E. E., 122. 208, 209, 268 L0mo, T., 67, 120 McBride. W, J., 65
Gutsin, P., 64 Honig, W. K., 174 Kalmar. D,, 176 Kritchevsky, M.. 267 Long, J. B., 121 McCarrell, N. S., 29
Guttman, N.. 87 Honore, T., 65 Kamil, A. C., 88
Name Index 399
McClelland, J. L.. 64.675 208, 235, 265. Morris, E, K,. 30 Overton. D, A,, 236 Prochiantz. A., 66 Rosvold, H, E.. 88 Sharp, D. W., 353
322 Morris, R. G, M., 208 Owsley, C., 210 Pryor, K. W., 295 Rothbart, R., 265 Shatz, C J., 206, 207
McCloskey, M., 120, 235 Morrone, C,, 207 Psotka, J., 236 Routh, D., 321 Shaw, R. E.. 205
McCormack, D. A., 65 Morrongiello, B. A.., 63, 174 Page, S., 295 Rovee, C. K.. 63 Sheffield, F. D., 64, 65, 122
McCorquodaie, K., 28, 321 Morrow, D. G., 265 Paivio. A., 265, 353 Quadfasel, F. A., 234, 321 Rovee, D. T., 63 Shepard. R- N., 208, 266
McDaniel, M. A., 265 Morse, W, H,, 28, 65, 87, 123, 124 Pallas, S. L., 208 Quipn,K. J.,63 Rovee-Collier, C. K., 63 Shark, H-, 208
McDowell, J. J., 30 Morton, J., 265 Palmer, D. C., 29, 30. 65, 66, 67, 120, Rozin, P., 75, 268 Sherry, D. F., 29
McFarlane, V., 121 Moses, J. L., 121 122. 149, 150. 209, 236, 264. 294, Raaijmakers, J. G. W., 29, 263 Rubin, D. C., 29 Shettieworth. S, J., 65
McGeoch, J. A., 235 Movshon, J. A., 208 321,322,352 Rabacchi, S., 66 Rubin, L., 295 Shiffrin, R. M., 28, 29. 174, 175, 176,
McGuigan, F. J., 266 Moyer, R. S., 266 Panksepp, J., 65 Rabinowitz. H. S., 295 Rudolph, R. L., 88 236, 263,266
McGurk, H., 321 Mross, E. F., 265 Panter, A. T., 235 Rachiin, H., 121. 124 Rudy, J. W., 64. 66, 209, 236, 268 Shirnamura, A, P., 209. 265, 268
Mcllvane. E. K., 150 Mueller, K. L., 174 Papadopoulos, G. C., 65 Raichle, M. E., 264 Ruff,H. A.,'151,208 Shimoff, E., 295
McKoon, G., 265, 266 Munro, P. W.. 206, 208 Papert, S. A., 28, 208, 269 Rajaram, V., 206 Rumbaugh, D. M., 321 Shimokochi, M.. 88
McNamara. T. P., 265 Munt,E.D., 121 Parkinson, J. K., 268 Ramoa, A. S., 207 Rumelhart, D, E., 64, 67. 149, 207, 208, Shimp, C. P., 123, 124
McNaughton, B. L., 209 Murdock, B. B., Jr., 263 Parnevelas, J. G., 65 Rand, T. C, 321 209, 235, 264, 265, 322 Shinoaara, M., 206
Mechner, F., 295 Murray, E., 268 Parsons, L. M., 267 Rasmussen, M., 209 Rupert, A., 175 Shipley. M. T., 63
Medin, D. L., 149 Myers, J. L., 121 Patterson, M. M., 63' Ratcliff, R., 236, 265, 266 Russell, I. S., 151 Shizgal, P., 67, 121
Meehl, P. E., 28, 174 Myers, N. A., 121 Pattle, P., 66 Ratliff, F., 208 Shyan, M- R., 236
Melton, A. W., 352 Myers, R. M., 66 Pavleko, T. A., 207 Ratner, A. M., 205 Sacks, O.. 174, 210, 267 Siddall, J. W., 150
Meltzoff, A. N., 151,208 Pavlides, C.. 67 Raugh, M. R., 353 Sagi, D., 207 Sidman, M., 30, 88, 123, 140, 150.-151
Meridith, M. A., 208 Nachman, M., 65 Pavlov, L P., 28, 38, 40, 41, 95, 121 Rauschecker, J. P., 209 Saervolden, T., 295 Siegel, S., 63,210,236
Mervfs, C. B., 88, 149 Nachmias, J., 207 Pear, J. J., 64, 124 Rauzin, R., 151 Sahley, C., 64 Sieroff, E., 210
Merzenich, M. M., 206, 209 Nadel, L., 208, 268 Pearce, J. M., 64 Rawlins, J. N. R., 209 Sakitt, B., 175 Silberberg, A., 123
Mesiter, M., 206 Nakayama, K., 207 Peinado, A., 264 Rayner. K., 265 Salamone, J. D., 66 Sillito, A. M., 207
Metzler, J., 266 Napier, R. M., 121 Perani, D., 267 Real, P. G., 88 Salapatek, P., 174, 207, 208 Silverman, M. S,, 207
Meyer, D. E., 265 Narens, L., 235 Perkins, C. C, Jr., 174 Reason, J., 174 Salmon. D. P.. 151 Simmeihag, V. L.. 64; 295
Michael,!. L., 210, 323 Naus, M. J., 353 Peronnet, F., 267 Reaves, C. C., 176 •\ Salter.M. W.,'66 Simon, H. A., 295
Michaels, C. F., 206 Navon, D., 176 Pesetsky, D.', 321 Reder, L, M., 353 Saltzman, L J., 121 Simpson, G. B., 265
Miezin. F. M., 264 Neely,J. H., 264, 265,266 Petersen, S. E., 175, 176, 264 Reese. H. W., 353 Sanders, M. D., 30, 175 Simpson, G. G., 30
Migler, B., 88 Neisser, U., 29, 174, 175, 176, 206 Peterson, A. S., 66 Reeve, K. F., 150 Sandini, G., 207 Singer, W., 206, 209
Mignard, M., 210 Neiworth, J. J., 236 Peterson, L. R., 28, 236, 352 Reeve. L., 150 Sands, S. F., 236 Siple,P.,352
Millard,W. J.,64 Nelson, R. O., 151 Peterson, M. A., 266 Reeves. A.. 176 Sanford, E. C., 352 Siqueland. E. R., 62
Miilenson, J. R., 88 Nelson, T. O., 235, 265 Peterson, M. J., 28, 236, 352 Reinhoid, D. B., 174 Santi, A., 151 Skinner. B. F., 6. 7, 13, 18., 28. 29. 30,
Miller, G. A,, 352, 353 Neuner, A,. 29 Peterson, M, R,, 208, 321 Reis, D. J.. 88 • • Santiago, H. C., 236 38. 62. 63. 64, 65, 87. 95, 109, 119,
Miller, J. D., 321 Neuringer. A., 64, 121. 295 Peterson, N., 205 Repp. B. H., 321 Sasanuma, S., 321 120, 121. 122, 123, 124, 149, 150,
Miller. J. T., 174 Nevin, J. A., 88, 120. 122 Petrides, M., 267 Rescorla. R. A.. 64, 88,' 121. 122, 123. Saunders, R, R., 150 151, 174, 175, 235, 263, 264, 265,
Miller, K. D., 206, 208, 209 Newell, A., 29, 236, 263, 295 Pettigrew, J. D., 206, 208, 209 150,174,175,208 Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., 321 267, 294, 295, 313, 319, 321, 322,
Miller, N. E., 62, 64, 65 Newman, S., 151 Pfautz. P. L., 64 Revusky, S. H., 65 Scaife, M., 207 345, 352, 353
Miller, R. R., 64, 122, 174 Nicoll, R. A., 67 Phelps, E., 235 Reynolds, P., 176 Schachtman, T. R.. 64, 122, 174 Slamecka, N. J., 352
Miller, T. M., 63 Nisbett, R. E., 28 Pick, H. L., Jr.. 208 Reynolds, W. F,, 150 Schacter, D. L., 29, 236, 265. 266, 268 Slobiii, D. L., 322
Milner, B., 268 Nitsch, K. E., 29 Pillemer, D. B., 235 Richardson, W. K., 122 Schapiro, R., 208 Slovic, P.. 174
Milner, P.. 65 Norman, D. A., 29, 64, 174, 175, 236 Pinker, S., 322 Richardson-Klavehn, A., 236 Schiff, B. B., 65 SmithAD. A.. 265
Mimura, K.. 208 Notterman, J. M,, 295 Pirchio, M., 207 Richelle, M., 62 Schiller, P. H.. 210, 295 Smith, E. E.. 149
Mineka, S., 123 Novak, L., 66 Pisoni, D. B., 321 Richmond, B, J., 207 Schindler, C. W., 122 Smith. J. E., 121
Minsky, M. L., 28, 207, 268 Nowlan, S., 63, 149 Platt, J. R., 123 Riggs, L. A., 207 Schlaggar, B. L., 208 Smith, J. M., 62
Mintun, M. A., 264 Ploog, B. O., 174 Rilling. M. E., 88, 150, 208 Schlinger, H., 294, 295 Smith, L.. B., 206, 207, 208, 321
MischeKW., 121 O'Brien, T., 174 Pollatsek, A.. 210 Rivera, J. J., 236 Schlosberg, H., 236 Smith, M. C.. 63
Mishkin, M., 88, 151, 206, 210. 264. O'Keefe.J.. 208 Pollen. D. A., 207 Roberslon, A., 121 Schmidt, S. R., 235 Smith, N. V., 322
267,269 O'Leary, D. D. M., 208 Poison, M. C., 176 Roberts, W. A., 123, 150 Schneider, W., 176. 266 Smith, S, M., 236
Mistry, J., 353 O'Mara. H., 151 Poison, P. G., 236 Robinson. D. L.. 175. 264 Schneiderman, N., 63 Smith, S. T.. 321
Mitchell, D. E., 208 O'Neill, B. J., 265 Pomerantz, J. P., 266 Robinson, J. H., 67, 209 Schnur, P., 174 Smolensky, P., 28, 67, 149, 209, 235,
Miyaoka, M., 206 O'Reilly, J., 295 Pons.T. P., 210 Robson. J. G., 207 Schoenfeld. W. N... 64. 121, 123. 2,95 236. 263, 265
Moely, B. E., 353 Obrist. P. A.. 65 Poole. R.. 29 Roe, A. W.. 208 Schvaneveldt. R, W., 265 Smythe. W. E., 29
Moerk, E. L., 322 Oja. E., 210 Poon. L, W,, 265 Roedieer, H. L., Ill, 29. 236, 264, 265. Schwartz, A. B., 235 Saodgrass, J. G., 235
Monaghan, D. T,, 66, 119 Olds, J., 65 Popper. K.. 30. 263 353 Schwartz, B., 295 Saow,C.E.. 150,322
Montgomery, A., 64 Olson. F. A.. 353 Posner. M. L, 150. 174, 175, 176, 210, Rogers, CM., 151 Scott, J. P., Jr., 175 Sayder, A- Z., 264
Montgomery, G., 264 Olton, D. S., 209 264. 265 ' Rogoff, B., 353 Segal, S. J., 266 Sayder, C. R. R., 265
Moody, D. B., 321 Ommaya, A. K., 210 Postman, L.. 235, 236 Roland, P. E., 266 Segarra, J, M,, 234, 32.1 Sober, E., 30, 123
Moonen, C, T. W., 30 Onifer. W'., 265 Potter, M. C. 266 Rompre, P. P., 67, 121 Seidenberg. M, S., 265 Sokoloff. L., 206
Moore, D. R., 208 Ono. K., 88 Poulson, C. L., 150 Ronner^S. F., 207 Sejnowski, T.. J,, 67, 264 Solomon, R. L.. 63, 64, 65. 122, 123
Moore, J. W., 64 • Optican, L. M., 207 Poulton, E. C., 176 Rosch. E.. 149 Self ridge, O.; 150 Spear, N. E.. 120
Moran, N. J., 175 Ornstein, P. A., 353 Premack, D., 321 Rose. J. E., 88 Seligman, M. E.'P., 30., 65 Spelke, E-, 151, 176, 206, 208
Moran, T. H., 63 Osgood, C. E., 151, 210, 234 Pribrarru K. H., 353 Rose, S. A., 151,208 •Serna,R. W.. 151 Spence, P. P., 236
Moray, N. P., 174, 175, 176 Ostry. D., 176 Prince, A.. 322 Rosenbaum, D. A., 264 Sewall, W. B., 88 Spence, 1C. W., 121, 174
Morgan, C. L.. 63 Otto. T., 209, 268 Pritchard, F. H., 174 Rosenblum, P. S,, 263 Sexton, M. A., 175 Sperling. G., 28, 176
Morgan, M.. 122, 208, 209, 268 Overmier, J. B., 122 Pritehatt, D., 175 Rosenfarb. L, 121, 295 Shaffer, L, H., 176 Sperry. R. W., 267
Rosenfeld, H. M., 267 Shank, R. C,, 265 Spillman, L., 206
Rosner. B.. 321 Shapiro, M. M., 64, 122 Spinelli, D. R. 208
408
Spivey, J.E., 119 Trapold, M. A., 122 Werner, J. S., 206

Spradlin, J. E., 150
Squire. L. R., 175, 2085 209, 235, 265,
Trehub, A., 209
Triesman, A. M., 174, 175, 176
Wessells, M. G.. 28, 29, 63, 64, 65,
122, 123, 124, 265, 267, 294
SUBJECT INDEX
267,268 Trowill, J. A., 65, 67 West, M. O., 67, 209
Staats. A. W., 174 Tulving, E., 29, 235, 236, 265, 352 Wetherill, G, w!, 30
Staddon, J. E. R., 64, 122, 123, 124, 295 Turner, L. H., 65 Whishaw, L Q., 87, 151, 321
Starkey, P., 208 Turnure, J.. 353
Stauber, K. A., 295 Turvey, M.' T., 175, 205, 210, 321 White, B.L., 174,208 Acquired reinforcement, 45, 54. 95— Awareness, 183, 190, 251, 256 Circular reasoning, 9
Stebbins, W. C.,321 Tversky, A., 174 White, S. H., 235 106, 1.21 neural processes, 23, 256 Class- See Response class and Stimulus
Steger, J. A., 352 Whitehead, B. A., 209 classical procedure, 95 self-awareness, 345—347 class
Stein, B. E., 206, 208 Ullman, S., 207 Whitely, A, M., 210 complex behavior, 101, 103 Classical procedure, 38
Stein, L., 65, 209 Underwood, B. J., 29, 235, 236, 352 Whittlinger, R. P., 235 delay of reinforcers, 99 Babbling, 303 See also Conditioning
Stemmer, N., 322 Underwood, G., 176 Wible, C. G., 235 elicitation, 95 Bahrick. H., 216 example, 38
Stenman, U., 175 Ungerleider, L. G.. 210, 264 Wickens, C., 176 human behavior, 45 Bartlett,F. C.,338 simulation of, 57-58
Stephens, D. W., 123 Urcuioli, P. J., 150 Wiekens, D. D., 236 neural processes, 97 Base-rate neglect, 158 Cognitive neuroscience, 29
Stern, S., 124 Widrow, B., 67 operant procedure, 96 Beach, D. R., 344 Cognitive processes, 8, 263
Stetter, K. O., 29 Valenstein, E. S., 65, 267 Wiesel, T. N., 206, 207 problem solving, 285 Behavioral chaining, 104, 263 Colburm Zerah, 293
Steuwer, R. H., 88 van der Mark, F., 206 Williams. B. A., 88, 121, 123, 124 Acquisition procedures in memory, 335 Behavioral contrast, 88 Cole, J. L.,280
Steward, O., 67, 120 Van Hoesen, G. W., 268 Williams, D. R., 65 Action at a distance, 325 Behavioral discrepancy, 47—49, 122 Col will, R. M., 108
Stickney, K. A., 64 van Hof, M. W., 206 Williams, G. C., 63 Activation pattern, 240 See also Reinforcement Communication, 85
Stiles-Davis, J., 267 Van Houten, R., 88 Williams, H., 65 inhibition, 242 Behavioral engineering, 25 Comparative approach, 22
Stoddard, L. T., 150, 151 van Willigen, F., 120 Williams, R. J., 67, 209 measurement, 240 , Behavioral mixing, 73, 79, 88, 113, 122 Competence/performance distinction,
Stoffregen, T. A., 175 Vaughan, M. E., 323 priming. 243 Behavioral momentum, 120 308
Stokes, T. F., 120, 234 Willner, J., 208
Vaughn, W., Jr., 124, 151 Willson-Monis, M., 151 Activity-dependent mechanism, 182 Behavioral selection, 31, 37, 123. See Complexity, 83
Stone. G. O.. 209 Verhave. T., 150 ACT-model, 263 Reinforcement and behavior, 2, 20, 101
Strorner, R., 151 Vickery. C., 123 Wilson, E. O., 30
Winograd, E., 235 Adaptive network, 57, 164, 276 Behavior stream, 64 in evolutionary biology, 14, 16
Strong, G. W., 209 Vogel, R.. 295 See Neural network , Bellugi, U., 327 and reinforcement history, 106
Stroop, J. R., 174, 175 Volpe, A. 268 Wise, R. A., 65 Belmont, J. M., 345 Compound stimulus, 47
Witcher, E. S., 122 interference, 167
Stryker, M. P., 206, 207, 208, 209 vom Saal, W., 64 neuroscience, 165 Berko, J., 312 Computer simulation, 57, 88. 149, 189,
Sugimori, M., 209 von der Marlsburg, C., 207, 209 Witherspoon, D., 265 Afferent neural interaction, 235 Binding problem, 67, 209, 264 , 207
Sundberg, M. L., 323 von Hofsten, C., 210 Witte, R. S., 64, 122 Affordance, 149, 210 Binocular cells, 206 Concept, 125, 129,236
Sunderland, R. J., 208 von Wright, J. M., 175 Wixted, J., 174 Alexia, 309 Biobehavioral approach, 10 "Conceptual" nervous system, 28
Suppes, P. C, 29 Wolfe, I B., 121 Alternative-response procedure, 124 • difference from inferred-process. 12— Concurrent schedules, 97, 103, 110
Sur,'M.,208 Wachter, J., 150 Wolff, P. H., 174,208 American Sign Language, 297, 318 13 in attending, 154
Sussman, H. M., 210 Wachtershauser, G., 29 Wong, R. O, L., 206 Amnesia, hippocampal, 260, 267-268 Biological constraints, 30, 52 Concurrent-chain procedure, 103
Sutherland. N. S., 174, 268 Wagner, A. R., 29. 64, 67, 88, 122, 174, Wood,B., 175 Anatomy of vocal tract, 297 Birch, H. G., 284, 289 Conditional discriminations, 150
Sutton, R. S., 67, 120, 150, 151 175 Woodbury, C. B., 208 Annau, Z., 279 :
Blindsight, 23, 182 Se£ Contextual discrimination
Svinicki, J. G., 174 Wagner, D. A.. 353 Woodruff, G., 321 Blocking. 48, 64, 107, 157, 236 Conditioned emotional responses, 63
Swanson, L. W,, 65 Anomia, 311
Waldrop, M. M., 29 Woolsey, C. N., 88 Anterograde amnesia, 261, 347 Blough, D. S., 302 Conditioned perceptions, 333, 338
Swindale, N. V., 264 Wallman, J., 206 Bogart, Humphrey, 324 Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers,
Swinney, D. A., 265 Wright, A. A.. 88, 151, 206, 236 Aphasia, 299, 309
Walter, C., 321 Appetitive elicitor, 114 Bower, G. H., 48, 340 43,45
Switkes, E., 207 Walters, E. T., 65 Wurtz, R. H., 175
Wyckoff, L. B., Jr., 174 Apraxia, 70 British empiricism, 29 See alô Acquired reinforcement
Wambold, C., 353 Arbitrary matching, 141 Broca's area, 312 Conditioned response, 42
Tailby, W., 150 Wang, L.-Y., 66 Wynne, C. K., 151
Tanenhaus, M. K., 265 Wynne, L., 123 Archimedes, 270 Brown, A., 282 Conditioned stimulus, 41
Ware, C., 208 Artificial intelligence, 128 Brown, R., 317 Conditioned suppression, 64
Tang, Y., 88 Warren, R. M., 321
Tartell, R. H.. 63, 120 Yamane, S., 210 Artificial language, 312 Bmner, J., 178 Conditioning
Warren. R. P., 321 Buium, N., 344 biological constraints, 53
Taub, E., 210 Warrington, E. K., 30, 175, 210, 268 Yarbus, A. L., 207 Associationism, 29, 122
Ten-ace, H. S.. 88, 150, 176 Attending Butterfield, E. C.., 345 delay of reinforcement. 43
Warzak,W. J., 122 Yeomans, J. S., 121 biobehavioral approach, 153 failures of, 53
Teuber, H. L., 210, 267, 268 Washburn, M. F., 28 Yonas, A., 175, 208, 210
Tharan, M., 266 Watanabe, S., 151 concurrent schedules, 166 Campbell, D. T,, 18 neural niechanisms, 54—57
Yosel Solomon, H., 210 and context, 161 Campbell, F. W., 207 prior connections, 42
Thomas, D. R., 121, 122. 174 Watkins, J. E., 29 Young, M, P., 210
ThomasJ. R., 124 Watkins, M. J. 236, 352 discrimination, 155 Carlson. N. R., 300 response interactions. 42, 107
Young, R., 88 effect of experience, 169 Carlton, P. L.,280 superstition, 46
Thompson, D. M., 352 Watson, J.B. 4, 28' Yund, E. W., 207
Thompson, M. E., 88 Waugh, N. C. 28, 236 heightened, 159 Categorical perception, 301 temporal relations, 40-41, 100
Thompson, R. F,, 62, 63,65, 67, 88, 121 Yuste, R., 264 limits on, 171 Categorical responding, 83—85 Con fi sura 1 conditioning, 122, 196, 197,
Weichselgartner. E. 176
Thompson, T., 151 Weimer, W. B., 321 and sensing, 155 Cause and effect, 69 208
Thomson, D. M., 235, 236 Weiner,!., 174 Zaback, L. A., 267 Attention. See Attending Cellular mechanisms, 66 Consciousness, 28
Thomdike, E. L., 30, 38, 63. 277, 294 Weinstein, F. A,, 267 Zeiler, M, D., 64 Autobiographical memories, 216, 235 Cerebellum, 281 See also Awareness
Thurlow. M.. 353 Weiskrantz, L., 30. 175. 206, 268 Zettle,R. D., 121,295 • Autoclitics, 311 Chained schedules, 287 Constructionism, 179. 201
Timber-lake, W., 64, 123 Weiss, C., 63 Zhang, Y., 64 Automatic chaining, 284 Chaining Context or contextual stimulus, 77, 160.
Tinbergen, N., 30 Weiss, K. M.. 122 Zimler, J., 267 Automatic processing, 266 behavioral, 104 214, 220
Tobin.'E. A.. 207 Weiss, S. J., 88, 122 Zimmer-Hart, C. L., 122 Automatic reinforcement, 319 environmental, 100 attending, 153
Tolman,E. C, 87, 210 Weisstein, N., 207 Zipser, D., 207, 209, 264 Autoshaping procedure, 64 Chaos theory, 30 Contextual discrimination, 140
Tornie, A,, 175, 236 Welker, R. L., 120, 122 Ziriax, J. M., 123 Averaging, 21, 123 Chase, P. N,, 281 Contingency-shaped behavior, 131, 215
Townsend, J. T., 29, 265 Wellman, H. M., 353 Zola-Morgan, S., 268 Aversive elicitor, 114, 115 Chimpanzees, 287, 297 Continuous reinforcement, 91
Tranel, D., 206, 268 Werbos, P., 67 Zoloth, D. B., 321 Avoidance response, 124 Chiiisky, J. M., 344 ' Control group, 64
401
402
Corpus callosum, 257 Environment-behavior relations, 68, 91, Gray, A., 123 Interresponse time,- 79 Mnemonic behavior, 331 Optimally, 69, 123
Counterselections, 24 212 Guidance of behavior, 68. See Discrimi- Interstimulus interval, 40 acquisition, 343 Orderliness, 69
Covert behavior, 8, 275, 335, 338 Environment-environment relations, nation Intraverbal responses, 271, 311, 329. detrimental effects on recall, 341 O'Reilly, J., 280
Creativity, 79, 88 177 337, 340 exceptional, 349 Organization, 340
verbal behavior, 298, 307-312 effects of, 200 Haag,R., 280 • Invertebrates, 65, 66 Model preparation, 40 Ornstein. P. A., 344
Critical period, 194 Episodic memory, 214, 235 Habituation, 36, 124 IRT. See Interresponse time Modularity. 299, 304 Orwell, G., 25
Cross-modal generalization, 146 Epstein. R., 284, 290 Halwes, T. G., 344 Istomena, Z. M., 343 Moely, B. E., 344 Output unit, 58
Cue, 213. See Discriminative stimulus Equivalence class, 139-147, 200 Hamilton, William, 293 Moerk, E.,317 Over-expectation, 106
Cued-recall procedure, 230 basic relations, 144 Hanlon, C, 317 Jordan, M. L, 306 Molar-molecular issue, 113, 326, 330 0vergeneralization, Overregulariza-
derived relation, 142 Hebb, D., 66, 235 limitations of molar, 113 tion, 312
internal reinforcement, 145 Heightened attention, 174 Kamin, L. J., 47, 48 Monoamines, 67
Darwin, C., 3, 4, 17, 18, 20, 24, 31, 86. significance, 143 Hermstein, R. J,, 111 Motivation, 33, 119 faired-associate learning, 219 236
109, 117, 123 Kanji symbols, 300
Escape response, 124 Higher-order conditioning, 95 Kana symbols, 300 Motor theory of thinking, 266 327-329
Declarative memory, 268 Essentialism, 65 Higher-order units, 209 Multiple causation, 265 parallel processing, 248
Delay of reinforcement, 43 Kehoe, E. J., 100
Evolution, 123 Hinton, G,, 249 Kennel, K., 298 Multiple guidance. See Discrimination parallel transmission, 304
Delta rule, 150 pre-adaptation, 37 Hippocampal lesions, 348 partial reinforcement. See Intermittent
Dennett, D. 63 Key-word mnemonic, 341
species differences, 86 Hippocampus, 86, 120, 209, 259 Kierkegaard, S, A., 26 Naming task, 244 reinforcement
Deprivation, 35 Exclusive-OR problem, 28 Hirst, W., 169 Natural selection. 14, 24, 29, 89 112 path-dependent phenomena, 135
Detectability threshold, 251, 266 - King, M. L., 25
Experimental analysis, 6, 125 Historical science, limitations of, 17,25 Klima,E. S., 327 123 patterning, 196, 208
Devaluation, 108 Extinction, 88, 89, 92, 124, 280 Hitler , A., 25 and shaping, 117 Pavlov, I. P., 38, 40, 41, 95
DeValois, K. K., 207 Kohler. Wolfgang, 288
intermittency, 91 Hubel, D. H., 207 Kolb, B., 3007310 Naus, M. J., 344 peg-word mnemonic, 341
DeValois, R. L., 207 neural processes, 93 Hull, C., 235 Neandertal man, 16 perceiving, 177, 205
Development Korsakoff s amnesia, 267
Human behavior, guidance of, 45, 85 Kreutzer, M. A., 344 Neisser, U., 169, 184,205 awareness, 190
activity-dependent, 182 Human evolution, 15 Neural mechanisms invariants, 177, 179, 184, 191, 193,
neural, 66, 192 Facial perception, 202
Fading, 136, 150, 170, 175 Huxley , T. H., 24 of learning, 54 194
Developmental approach, 21 Language acquisition device, 316 of reinforcement, 65, 121 regularities, 177, 194, 196
cross-sectional studies, 21 See also Shaping Larynx, 297 Neural network, 57
Falsifiability, 263 Identity matching, 140 Latent learning, 199 Perception. See Perceiving
longitudinal studies, 21 Illusions, 190 See also Adaptive network perceptual learning, 200
Dichotic listening, 162, 175 Feed-forward network, 249 Lateralization of brain function, 299 implications, 199
Fermat, Pierre, 293 Imagery, 338 Law of Effect, 63 Persistence. See Extinction
Differential training, 75. See Discrimi- Imagining, 252, 266 overview of selection network, 237 pET~scan, 240, 246, 267
nation Ferster, C. B., 109 Learning sets, 150 response-selecti on, 197 pharynx, 297
Fetus, 63 neural processes, 254 Learning-performance distinction, 29
Direct perception, 178 Imprinting, 62, 178 stimulus-selection, 197 Phenotype, 32
Discrepancy, 47, 67, 84, 150 Findley, J. D., 288 Leonard, C., 344 "Neuringer, A., 280
Fixed-action pattern, 62 Incentive stimuli, 62 Levels of analysis, 6, 65, 165 Phonemes, 301
See also Reinforcement
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule, 110 Incompatible responses, in speech pro- Levels and depths of processing, 29
Neuromodulator, 55, 65, 66, 209 phrase-1 structure grammar, 150
experienced learners, 106 duction, 306 Neuron, 7, 55 place learning, 195
Discrimination Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, 110 Lexical decision task, 265 Neuropsychology, 22,70,130,201 212
Flashbulb memories, 215, 235 Individual differences, 266 Lexicon, 300 '< pDlysensory integration, 146
attending, 153, 176 Individual selection, 23. See also Selec- 235,254 poly sensory invariants, 193
Flavell, J. H., 344 tion, reinforcement Liberty, C, 344 limitations of, 23
behavioral processes, 78 Flooding, 123 Locke, J. 29, 64 polysensory regularities, 194, 196
contextual, 140 Infant conditioning, 38—39 Neurotransmitter, 22, 66 polysensory units, 349
Foraging theory, 123 Inferred-process approach, 8, 149, 263 Long-term potentiation, 66, 120 Newton, Isaac, 270, 293
differential procedure, 76 Free will, 30 Luria, A. R., 349 r positron-emission tomography. See
discrepancy, 84 limitations of, 9 Nictitating membrane, 40 BpT-scan
Freud, S., 3, 26, 174 Information processing, 10 NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) recep- Prern^ck, D., 298
edge effects, 84 Function words, 311
human behavior, 85 Inhibition, 122, 175, 242, 264 MacDonald, J, 303 tor, 66, 209 Prepotent responses, 283, 306, 332
Functional fixedness, 282 neural, 186, 191 Maier, N. R. F., 283 Nominal fallacy, 152, 235 Primacy, 227
multiple guidance, 81 Fundamental attribution error, 28
neural processes, 80 Input unit, 58 Margolin, D. L, 300 Nonadjacent dependencies, 315 Priming
Fuzzy boundary, 136 Insight, 270, 288 Matching principle, 111 Nondifferential training, 77. See Dis- awareness, 251
nondifferential procedure, 77
reinforcer-elicited stimuli, 107 Instructional control, 151. See also Con- Matching-to-sample. 140 crimination complex behavior, 248
reminding, 218 &
- Gauss, Carl, 293 textual discrimination Mayr, E., 18 Nonlinear!y separable problems, 208 inhibition, 246
Discriminative stimulus, 78, 119, 121 Generalization Instructions and response variability, McClelland, J.. 249 Nonlinear relations, 8 remembering, 311,331
Divided attention, 176 behavioral processes., 73 281 McGurk, H., 303 Nonsense syllables, 326 temporal effects, 247
cross-modal, 146 Instrumental conditioning, 38, 277. See Means-end analysis, 286 Nottemian, J. M,, 280 Priming procedure, 242
Divided-attention tasks, 166 Mechner. F., 280 Novelty in verbal behavior, 307
Dopamine, 55, 65, 121 gradients of, 71, 88 also Conditioning Private events, 275, 326'
neural processes, 73 Interference, 65 Mediating function, 122 awareness, 347
Dysfunctional behavior, 5. 120, 124, procedure, 72, 77 Memory
234 adaptive networks, 167 Observing responses, 156, 176 Proaetion effects, 225
Generalized identity matching, 144 divided attention, 166 as problem solving, 330 Occasion-setting stimuli, 62 Procedural memory, 268
General-process learning theory, 30 Intermittent reinforcement, 90-92, 119 See also Reminding, Remembering Olds, J., 54 Production system, 263
Echoic responses, 271, 309, 336 Generation effect, 329 and acquired reinforcers, 96 Mendel, G., 20 Olson, F, A.. 344 Prototype, 136
Ecological validity, 22, 53 Genetic engineering, 24 Internal reinforcement, 100, 145, See Mental rotation, 253 Operant, 3.4, 87 Proust, Marcel, 324
Edge effects, 83-85, 107 Genetic programming, 149 also Acquired reinforcement Mental set, 281 Operant conditioning, 38. See also Pryor, K. W., 280
categorical perception, 302 Genotype, 32 Interpretation, 6 Metamemory, 345 Conditioning Pol-suit movements, 207
Einstellung, 282 Gestalt psychology, 277 and analysis, 125 Method of loci, 341 Operant procedure, 38
Elaboration, 340 Gibson, J. J., 149, 179, 184, 206, 210 attending, 164 Methodological behaviorism,, 4 delay of reinforcers, 44, 102 R&binowitz, H. S., 284
Electrode, 54 Glutarnate, 56, 66 and computer simulation, 57 Microbehavioral level, 28 simulation of, 57-60 Radical behaviorism, 7
Elicitation, 33 Gormezano, L, 40, 100 formal, 128 Mill, J. S., 29 Operant-respondent distinction, 34, 65 and physiology, 6
Encoding, 265 Graf, P., 329 organismic, 127 Milner, P., 54 Opiate, 63 Radioactive labeling, 74
Encoding specificity, 235 Grasp reflex, 34 remembering, 325 Minsky, M., 262 Optic chiasm, 183 Ratio schedules, 287
Environmental chaining, 100 Grating, 186, 207, 208 verbal, 126
404
Subject Index
Reacquisition, 92, 120 Schacter, D,, 248 Stepping reflex, 34 Ventral tegmental area (VTA), 54-55,
Reafference, 249, 266, 276 Schedules of reinforcement, 109—114, Stereotypy, 279 Vogel, R., 279 Wernicke's area, 299, 312
66 Von der Malsburg, C., 209 Whisriaw,!, Q., 300, 310
Reaves, C. C, 169 123 Stickleback, 24 Verbal behavior, 85, 162, 296-320
Recency, 227 common types, 110 Stimulus class, 125 Wiesel, T. N., 207
neural processes, 256 Wallace, A., 29 Woodruff, G., 298
Receptive fields, 186 concurrent-chain, 103 discriminative, 129, 131 Verbal bias, 162, 174, 190
Recidivism, 120 matching principle, 111 equivalence, 138 Wambold, J., 345 Wright, A., 227
Verbal frames, 310, 314, 315 Warren, R. M., 305
Recognition of target response, 334 molar accounts, 112 functional, 131, 138 Verbal operants, 300, 308
Recurrent connections, 249 Schemata. 248 Stimulus discrimination, 68, 69, 75. See Washoe (chimpanzee), 297 , Ron, 308
Visual system, 180, 206 Watson, J. B,, 4
Reder, L. M., 338 Schiller, P. H., 289 also Discrimination
Reflexes, 33 Schoenfeld, W. N., 64 Stimulus generalization, 71. See also
Reflexivity, 144 Schroedinger, E., 20 Generalization
Rehearsal, 336 Schwartz, B., 279 Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA), 265
Reinforcement Secondary reinforcement, 45, 96. See Stimulus selection network, 348
See also Neural mechanisms Acquired reinforcement Strategic processing, 266
appetitive-aversive, 114 Second-messenger, 66 Stroop task, 155, 167, 175
by aversive stimuli, 115 Selection, 19, 65 Sucking reflex, 33
discrepancy, 47-49, 84 environment-behavior relations, 212 Superconditioning, 122
human behavior, 45 implications, 25-26, 83 Superstitious behavior, 46
language acquisition, 317-319 in experienced learners, 89 Supervised learning, 67, 209
memory, 328 man's uniqueness, 32 Supplementary stimuli, 272
overview, 59-61 optimality, 69 memory, 331
principle of, 31, 49 perceiving, 178 Symbolic matching, 141
reproduction, 37 purpose, 19 Symmetry, 144
required conditions, 39 reinforcement, 37 Synapse, 43
Reinforcement learning, 67 retention, 20 Synaptic efficacy, ;56, 66
Reinforcing brain stimulation, 54, 65 time-scale, 112 Synesthesia, 349
Reinforcing stimulus, 38, 63 Selection network, 237
Relearning. See Reacquisition Seleetionism, 18, 30, 123 Tacting private events, 345—347
Reliable measure, 27 falsifiability, 263 Tacts, 310
Remembering, 223, 324-351 and purpose, 19, 69 Taste aversion, 53, 65
cued-recall, 230 and retention, 89 Temporal contiguity, 41, 63
relation to reminding, 222 limitations of, 25 Textual responses, 271, 309, 328
serial-recognition, 229 relation to 201 Textual stimuli, 273, 278, 328
Reminding, fll, 223 Selective attending, 157 Texture, 185
context, 220 . Self-awareness, 345-347 Theoretical incoherence, 129, 152
cued-recall, 230 Self-control, 102 Thompson, D. M., 329
and discrimination, 218 Semantic memory, 215 Thorndike, E. L., 30, 38, 277
durability, 216 Semantic threshold, 251, 266 Three-term contingency, 65, 68, 263
relation to remembering, 223 Sensitive period, 194 Thurlow, M., 344
serial-recognition, 226 Sensitization, 35, 65 Topography, 73, 117, 235
short-term memory, 28, 225 Sensory channel, 182, 210 Tourette's syndrome, 154
specificity of, 218 Sensory invariant. See Perceiving Transcortical aphasia, 310
Representation, 264 Serial compound conditioning, 100 Transfer effect, 160
Reproduction, 14-15, 37 Serial processing, 248 Transitivity, 144
Rescorla, R. A., 108 Serial-recognition procedure, 226 Trial-and-error problem solving, 277
Resistance to change, 87 Shadowing, 162 Tulving, E., 248, 329
Respondent, 34, 38, 87 Shaping, 115, 124, 150 Turniere, J., 344
Response class, 117,125,147, 3QO, 329, and artificial selection, 117 Two-factor theory, 122
337 See also Fading Two-string problem. 283
Response interactions, 42, 87, 121, 122 Short-term memory procedures, 28,
Response variability, 277, 280, 281 225,326 Unconditioned response, 42
Resurgence, 284 proaction. 225 diminution of, 67
Retention, 89 Sidman, M.. 139 Unconditioned stimulus, 42
duration, 93 Simmelhag, V. L., 279 Unconscious, 174
Retractor-bulbi muscle, 63 Simultaneous constraints, 265 Underwood. B., 226
Retroaction, 219 Skinner, B. F., 6, 7, 13, 18, 38, 95, 109, Unified reinforcement principle. 49
interference and facilitation, 219 265,313,321,319,345 acquired reinforcers, 96
Retrograde amnesia, 261, 268 Slamecka, N. J., 329 See also Reinforcement
Rooting reflex, 33 Smolensky, P., 249 Units of analvsis in verbal behavior.
Routh, D., 304 SOAR model. 263 307,315
Rule-governed behavior, 131, 215 Spatial-frequency analysis, 185, 207 Universal grammar, 316
Rules in verbal behavior, 312 Species differences, 85, 191 ' Unsupervised learning, 67, 209
Rummelhart, D., 249 Species-specific defense reactions, 124 Upright posture, 85
Russell, B., 9 Spelke,E.; 169
"Split-brain" procedure, 258 Valid measure, 27
Saccadic movements, 207 Spontaneous recovery, 120 Variable-interval (VI) schedule, 110
Sanford E. C., 337 Staddon, J. E. R., 279 Variable-ratio (VR) schedule, 110
Sarah (chimpanzee), 298 State-dependent behavior, 222 Variation. 18, 33, 62

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