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Generation of PWM

 PWM signal can be generated by using a comparator, where modulating signal and
sawtooth signal form the input of the comparator. It is the simplest method for PWM
generation.
 The PWM generation is explained with the help of the Fig5 given below.

Fig5. PWM generation by a comparator

 As shown in the figure, one input of the comparator is fed by the input message or
modulating signal and the other input by a sawtooth signal which operates at carrier
frequency.
 Considering both ±ve sides, the maximum of the input signal should be less than that of
sawtooth signal.
 The comparator will compare the two signals together to generate the PWM signal at its
output as shown in the third waveform of Fig6.
 The rising edges of the PWM signal coincides with the falling edge of the sawtooth
signal.
 When the sawtooth signal is at the minimum value which is less than the minimum of the
input signal, then the positive input of the comparator is at higher potential which gives
the comparator output as positive.
 When the sawtooth signal rises and is at the maximum value, the negative input of the
comparator is at higher potential, which will produce the comparator output to be
negative.
 Thus the input signal magnitude determines the comparator output and its potential,
which then decides the width of the pulse generated at the output.
 In other words we can say that the width of the pulse generated signal is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Fig6. PWM and PPM signal generation
Generation of PPM

 PPM signal can be generated with the help of PWM as shown in Fig7 below.

Fig7. PPM generation from PWM

 The PWM signal generated above is sent to an inverter which reverses the polarity of the
pulses.
 This is then followed by a differentiator which generates +ve spikes for PWM signal
going from High to Low and -ve spikes for Low to High transistion. The spikes generated
are shown in the fourth waveform of Fig8.
 These spikes are then fed to the positive edge triggered pulse generator which generates
fixed width pulses when a +ve spike appears, coinciding with the falling edge of the
PWM signal.
 Thus PPM signal is generated at the output which is shown in the fifth waveform of
Fig8.where pulse position carry the message information.

Demodulation of PWM and PPM

 For PWM demodulation, put a ramp at the +ve edge which will stop at the arrival of –ve
egde.
  The ramp will attain different heights in each cycle since the widths are different and the
heights attained are directly proportional to the pulse width and in turn the amplitude of
the message signal.
 This is then passed through a low pass filter where it will follow the envelop i.e. the
message signal, which produces the demodulated signal at the output.
 For PPM demodulation, ramp is used which starts at the +ve edge of the one pulse and
stops at the +ve edge of the next pulse.
 Thus the height of the generated ramp is determined by the delay between the pulses
which indirectly follows the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 This is then passed through a low pass filter which filters the envelop information as the
demodulated signal.
 The modulation and demodulation waveforms of PWM and PPM signals are shown in
Fig8.

Fig8. Modulation and Demodulation of (a) PWM and (b) PPM

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Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the carrier
signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of modulation
employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence,
i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure
shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process is
called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate
amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses.
This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.
Basic Elements of PCM
The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,
Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section. The
low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram of
PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.
Low Pass Filter
This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal which is
greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message
signal.
Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of message
signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater than twice the
highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance with the sampling
theorem.
Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The sampled
output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.
Encoder
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level by a
binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three sections
(LPF, Sampler, and Quantizer) will act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes
the bandwidth used.
Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one regenerative
repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and also to increase its
strength.
Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal. This
circuit acts as the demodulator.
Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a low-
pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it and samples
it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a reverse pattern to
obtain the original signal.

Companding
 is the process of compressing and then expanding
 with companded system, the higher amplitude analog signals are compressed -
(amplified less than the lower- amplitude signals) prior to transmission and then
expanded ( amplified more than the lower amplitude signals in the receiver).

 Analog Companding
a.  - Law
b. A – Law

µ-LAW COMPANDING

µ-LAW CHARACTERISTIC
A-LAW COMPANDING
In Europe, the ITU-T has established A-law companding to be used to approximate true
logarithmic companding
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